PROJECT REPORT

ON

KNOW ALL ABOUT VARIOUS TECHNIQUES USED IN FORENSIC

ANTHROPOLOGY

{FORENSIC SCIENCE}

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:

Ms. Balwinder Kaur Sachit Sharma
Rayat College of Law, B.A.LL.B (Hons.) IXth Sem
Ropar, PB 18202

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF FIVE YEARS FULL-TIME B.A. L.L.B (Hons.)

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank my guide and my Professor, Ms. Balwinder Kaur without whose

constant support and guidance this project report would have been a distant reality.

This work is an outcome of an unparalleled infrastructural support that I have

received from University Institute of Legal Studies, Panjab University, Chandigarh.

I owe my deepest gratitude to the library staff of the college. It would never have

been possible to complete this project report without an untiring support from my

family, especially my parents. This work bears testimony to the active

encouragement and guidance of a host of friends and well-wishers.

Sachit

Sharma

18202

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.No. NAME OF THE TOPIC PAGE No.

1. INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY 04

MODERN USES
2. 05

3. HISTORY OF FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY 06

4. METHODS OF FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY 06
DETERMINATION OF SEX
5. 07
DETERMINATION OF STATURE
6. 07

7. DETERMINATION OF AGE 08
AGE ESTIMATING OF LIVING INDIVIDUALS
8. 08
DETERMINATION OF ANCESTRY
9. 09
OTHERMARKERS
10. 09
DEVELOPMENT OF QUANTITATIVE METHODS FOR
11. 10
IDENTIFICATION
FORENSIC ENTHROPOLOGY IN INDIA
12. 12
CONCLUSION
13. 13
REFERENCES
14. 14
BIBLIOGRAPHY
15. 15

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 INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY

Forensic anthropology is the application of the anatomical science of anthropology and its various subfields,
including forensic archaeology and forensic taphonomy,[1] in a legal setting. A forensic anthropologist can
assist in the identification of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed, burned, mutilated or
otherwise unrecognizable, as might happen in a plane crash. Forensic anthropologists are also instrumental in
the investigation and documentation of genocide and mass graves. Along with forensic pathologists, forensic
dentists, and homicide investigators, forensic anthropologists commonly testify in court as expert witnesses.
Using physical markers present on a skeleton, a forensic anthropologist can potentially determine a person's
age, sex, stature, and race. In addition to identifying physical characteristics of the individual, forensic
anthropologists can use skeletal abnormalities to potentially determine cause of death, past trauma such as
broken bones or medical procedures, as well as diseases such as bone cancer.

The methods used to identify a person from a skeleton relies on the past contributions of various
anthropologists and the study of human skeletal differences. Through the collection of thousands of specimens
and the analysis of differences within a population, estimations can be made based on physical characteristics.
Through these, a set of remains can potentially be identified. The field of forensic anthropology grew during
the twentieth century into a fully recognized forensic specialty involving trained anthropologists as well as
numerous research institutions gathering data on decomposition and the effects it can have on the skeleton.

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 MODERN USES

Today, forensic anthropology is a well-established discipline within the forensic field. Anthropologists are
called upon to investigate remains and to help identify individuals from bones when other physical
characteristics that could be used to identify a body no longer exist. Forensic anthropologists work in
conjunction with forensic pathologists to identify remains based on their skeletal characteristics. If the victim
is not found for a lengthy period or has been eaten by scavengers, flesh markers used for identification would
be destroyed, making normal identification difficult if not impossible. Forensic anthropologists can provide
physical characteristics of the person to input into missing person databases such as that of the National Crime
Information Center in the US or INTERPOL's yellow notice database.

In addition to these duties, forensic anthropologists often assist in the investigation of war crimes and mass
fatality investigations. Anthropologists have been tasked with helping to identify victims of the 9/11 terrorist
attacks, as well as plane crashes such as the Arrow Air Flight 1285 disaster and the USAir Flight 427 disaster
where the flesh had been vaporized or so badly mangled that normal identification was
impossible. Anthropologists have also helped identify victims of genocide in countries around the world, often
long after the actual event. War crimes anthropologists have helped investigate include the Rwandan
genocide[7] and the Srebrenica Genocide. Organizations such as the Forensic Anthropology Society of Europe,
the British Association for Forensic Anthropology, and the American Society of Forensic Anthropologists
continue to provide guidelines for the improvement of forensic anthropology and the development of standards
within the discipline.

With hundreds missing and bodies burnt beyond recognition by Hamas militants during its October 7 attack of
Israel, Israeli authorities assembled recovery teams that included archaeologists from the Israel Antiquities
Authority. The team used their specialized skills in excavating and identifying fragmentary ancient remains to
sift through ash and rubble for bone fragments overlooked by other forensic teams. Archaeologists
systematically searched rooms, dividing them into grids and carefully extracting bone shards. At one house,
the archaeology team found a bloodstain under ash that they determined was the outline of a body, later
identified through DNA analysis.

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 HISTORY OF FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY

The use of anthropology in the forensic investigation of remains grew out of the recognition of anthropology
as a distinct scientific discipline and the growth of physical anthropology. The field of anthropology began in
the United States and struggled to obtain recognition as a legitimate science during the early years of the
twentieth century. Earnest Hooton pioneered the field of physical anthropology and became the first physical
anthropologist to hold a full-time teaching position in the United States. He was an organizing committee
member of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists along with its founder Aleš Hrdlička.
Hooton's students created some of the first doctoral programs in physical anthropology during the early 20th
century.[12] In addition to physical anthropology, Hooton was a proponent of criminal anthropology.[13] Now
considered a pseudoscience, criminal anthropologists believed that phrenology and physiognomy could link a
person's behavior to specific physical characteristics. The use of criminal anthropology to try to explain certain
criminal behaviors arose out of the eugenics movement, popular at the time.[14] It is because of these ideas that
skeletal differences were measured in earnest eventually leading to the development of anthropometry and the
Bertillon method of skeletal measurement by Alphonse Bertillon. The study of this information helped shape
anthropologists' understanding of the human skeleton and the multiple skeletal differences that can occur.

Another prominent early anthropologist, Thomas Wingate Todd, was primarily responsible for the creation of
the first large collection of human skeletons in 1912. In total, Todd acquired 3,300 human skulls and skeletons,
600 anthropoid skulls and skeletons, and 3,000 mammalian skulls and skeletons. [14] Todd's contributions to the
field of anthropology remain in use in the modern era and include various studies regarding suture closures on
the skull and timing of teeth eruption in the mandible. Todd also developed age estimates based on physical
characteristics of the pubic symphysis. Though the standards have been updated, these estimates are still used
by forensic anthropologists to narrow down an age range of skeletonized remains.[15]These early pioneers
legitimized the field of anthropology, but it was not until the 1940s, with the help of Todd's student, Wilton M.
Krogman, that forensic anthropology gained recognition as a legitimate subdiscipline.

METHODS OF FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY

One of the main tools forensic anthropologists use in the identification of remains is their knowledge
of osteology and the differences that occur within the human skeleton. During an investigation,

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anthropologists are often tasked with helping to determinate an individual's sex, stature, age, and ancestry. To
do this, anthropologists must be aware of how the human skeleton can differ between individuals.

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Determination of sex
Depending on which bones are present, sex can be determined by looking for distinctive sexual dimorphisms.
When available, the pelvis is extremely useful in the determination of sex and when properly examined can
achieve sex determination with a great level of accuracy. [20] The examination of the pubic arch and the location
of the sacrum can help determine sex. However, the pelvis is not always present, so forensic anthropologists
must be aware of other areas on the skeleton that have distinct characteristics between sexes. The skull also
contains multiple markers that can be used to determine sex. Specific markers on the skull include
the temporal line, the eye sockets, the supraorbital ridge,[21] as well as the nuchal lines, and the mastoid process.
[22]
In general, male skulls tend to be larger and thicker than female skulls, and to have more pronounced ridges.
[23]

Forensic anthropologists need to take into account all available markers in the determination of sex due to the
differences that can occur between individuals of the same sex. For example, a female may have a slightly
more narrow than a normal pubic arch. It is for this reason that anthropologists usually classify sex as one of
five possibilities: male, maybe male, indeterminate, maybe female, or female. [24] In addition, forensic
anthropologists are generally unable to make a sex determination unless the individual was an adult at the time
of death. The sexual dimorphisms present in the skeleton begin to occur during puberty and are not fully
pronounced until after sexual maturation.[25]

Consequently, there is currently no reliable method of sex determination of juvenile remains from cranial or
post-cranial skeletal elements since dimorphic traits only become apparent after puberty, and this represents a
fundamental problem in archaeological and forensic investigations. However, teeth may assist in estimating
sex since both sets of teeth are formed well before puberty. Sexual dimorphism has been observed in both
deciduous and permanent dentition, although it is much less in deciduous teeth. [26][27][28] On average, male teeth
are slightly larger than female teeth, with the greatest difference observed in the canine teeth Examination of
internal dental tissues has also shown that male teeth consist of absolutely and proportionately greater
quantities of dentine than females. Such differences in dental tissue proportions could also be useful in sex
determination.

Determination of stature
The estimation of stature by anthropologists is based on a series of formulas that have been developed over
time by the examination of multiple different skeletons from a multitude of different regions and backgrounds.
Stature is given as a range of possible values, in centimeters, and typically computed by measuring the bones
of the leg. The three bones that are used are the femur, the tibia, and the fibula.[34] In addition to the leg bones,
the bones of the arm, humerus, ulna, and radius can be used.[35] The formulas that are used to determine stature

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 rely on various information regarding the individual. Sex, ancestry, and age should be determined before
attempting Sex, ancestry, and age should be determined before attempting to ascertain height, if possible. This
is due to the differences that occur between populations, sexes, and age groups. [36] By knowing all the variables
associated with height, a more accurate estimate can be made. For example, a male formula for stature
estimation using the femur is 2.32 × femur length + 65.53 ± 3.94 cm. A female of the same ancestry would use
the formula, 2.47 × femur length + 54.10 ± 3.72 cm.[37] It is also important to note an individual's approximate
age when determining stature. This is due to the shrinkage of the skeleton that naturally occurs as a person
ages. After age 30, a person loses approximately one centimeter of their height every decade. [34]

Determination of age

The determination of an individual's age by anthropologists depends on whether or not the individual was an
adult or a child. The determination of the age of children, under the age of 21, is usually performed by
examining the teeth.[38] When teeth are not available, children can be aged based on which growth plates are
sealed. The tibia plate seals around age 16 or 17 in girls and around 18 or 19 in boys. The clavicle is the last
bone to complete growth and the plate is sealed around age 25. [39] In addition, if a complete skeleton is
available anthropologists can count the number of bones. While adults have 206 bones, the bones of a child
have not yet fused resulting in a much higher number.

The aging of adult skeletons is not as straightforward as aging a child's skeleton as the skeleton changes little
once adulthood is reached.[40] One possible way to estimate the age of an adult skeleton is to look at bone
osteons under a microscope. New osteons are constantly formed by bone marrow even after the bones stop
growing. Younger adults have fewer and larger osteons while older adults have smaller and more osteon
fragments.[39] Another potential method for determining the age of an adult skeleton is to look for arthritis
indicators on the bones. Arthritis will cause noticeable rounding of the bones. [41] The degree of rounding from
arthritis coupled with the size and number of osteons can help an anthropologist narrow down a potential age
range for the individual.

Age estimation of living individuals

Age estimation of living individuals is carried out by estimating the biological age when the chronological age
of the individual is unknown or uncertain because of the lack of valid identity documents. [42] It is used to
confirm if an individual has reached a specific age threshold in cases of criminal liability, asylum seekers and
unaccompanied children, human trafficking, adoption, and competitive sports. [43] Guidelines by the Study
Group on Forensic Age Diagnostics (Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Forensische Altersdiagnostik, AGFAD), propose
that a three-step procedure should be followed for the age estimation: the first step is a physical examination;
the second step include the assessment of the hand/wrist development using plain radiographs; the third step is
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a dental assessment.[44] One of the most used methodologies for the estimation of age from the development
of the hand and wrist is the Greulich and Pyle Atlas, [45] whilst to assess dental development the most
common method used so far is the 8-teeth technique developed by Demirjian et al..[46] Where the
estimated age of the individual might be above 18 years of age, it is possible to use the
development of the medial end of the clavicle. Traditionally, those undertaking age estimation in
the living, adopt imaging techniques such as plain radiographies and CT scans to carry out the age
estimation, however, lately, due to ethical issues surrounding the use of ionising medical imaging
modalities for non-medical purposes (e.g., forensic purposes), [48]magnetic resonance imaging, a
radiation free medical imaging modality, is being investigated to develop new methodologies to
estimate the age of living individuals.

Determination of ancestry

The estimation of individuals' ancestry is typically grouped into three groups. However, the use of these
classifications is becoming much harder as the rate of interancestrial marriages increases. [50] The maxilla can
be used to help anthropologists estimate an individual's ancestry due to the three basic shapes: hyperbolic,
parabolic, and rounded.[51] In addition to the maxilla, the zygomatic arch and the nasal opening have been used
to narrow down possible ancestry.[52]

By measuring distances between landmarks on the skull as well as the size and shape of specific bones,
anthropologists can use a series of equations to estimate ancestry. A program called FORDISC has been
created that will calculate the most likely ancestry using complex mathematical formulas. [53] This program is
continually updated with new information from known individuals to maintain a database of current
populations and their respective measurements. A 2009 study found that even in favourable circumstances,
FORDISC 3.0 classifications have only a 1% confidence level. [54] Research presented at the 2012 Annual
Meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists concluded that ForDisc ancestry
determination was not always consistent, and that the program should be used with caution. [55] Determination
of ancestry is incredibly controversial but often needed for police investigations to narrow down subject pool.

Other markers

Anthropologists are also able to see other markers present on the bones. Past fractures will be evident by the
presence of bone remodeling but only for a certain amount of time. After around seven years, bone
remodelling should make the presence of a fracture impossible to see. The examination of any fractures on the
bones can potentially help determine the type of trauma they may have experienced. Cause of death is not
determined by the forensic anthropologist, as they are not qualified to do so. However, they are able to
determine the type of trauma experienced such as gunshot wound, blunt force, sharp force, or a mixture

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thereof. It is also possible to determine if a fracture occurred ante-mortem (before death), peri-mortem (at the
time of death), or post-mortem (after death). Ante-mortem fractures will show signs of healing (depending on
how long before death the fracture occurred) while peri- and post-mortem fractures will not. Peri-mortem
fractures can incorporate quite a large range of time, as ante-mortem trauma that is unrelated directly to death
may not have had time to begin the healing process. Peri-mortem fractures will usually appear clean with
rounded margins and equal discolouration after death, while post-mortem breaks will appear brittle. [56] Post-
mortem breaks will often be a different colour to the surrounding bone i.e. whiter as they have been exposed to
taphonomic processes for a different amount of time. However, depending on how long there is between a
post-mortem break and removal this may not be obvious i.e. through re-interment by a killer. Diseases such as
bone cancer might be present in bone marrow samples and can help narrow down the list of possible
identifications.

DEVELOPMENT OF QUANTITATIVE METHODS FOR IDENTIFICATION

There has been a surge in publications regarding the validation of all aspects of forensic anthropological
analysis in the last ten years, particularly since the publication of the NAS report. For many of the analyses
conducted by forensic anthropologists, including sex and age estimation, this involves the statistical validation
of existing anthropological methods like pubic symphysis or sternal rib end aging. On the other hand,
identification of decedents via radiograph comparison has been historically subjective. The discriminatory
value of subjective comparison of skeletal radiographs is valuable and these methods are likely to persist as an
identification tool for use by the forensic anthropologist. This is true in part because the anthropologist cannot
validate radiograph identification methods for every bone in the body, nor can we anticipate what bone(s) may
be available for comparison in a given case. However, the importance of the development of validated
identification methods is well recognized. “Because forensic anthropologists are trained first and foremost as
physical anthropologists, they emphasize estimation problems at the expense of evidentiary problems”(42).
Steadman and colleagues outline the application of Bayesian statistics, in particular likelihood ratios, in the
validation of anthropological methods of identification. They explain the conceptual and practical differences
between appropriate reference samples and the population at large. The authors identify several databases that
can be used as references for population at large estimates, as well as novel data that can be used to calculate
the frequency of specific identifiers within the population at large.

The primary problem with historical usage of radiograph comparison is the real or perceived lack of
repeatability of the comparisons. Repeatability is dependent on the objectivity of the methodology employed,
and objectivity is difficult to establish when using methods dependent on the investigator's individual
assessment of subjective characteristics, such as a particular shape, level of symmetry, or side dominance. For
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 example, the features of the frontal sinuses evaluated in the publications by both Yoshino et al. (29) and
Reichs and Dorion (30) are arbitrary. There is a need for more easily reproducible character evaluations. Some
authors have tried to increase the objectivity of radiographic methods by various means. As mentioned above,
Kirk et al. attempted to add quantitative robusticity to the radiographic analysis of frontal sinuses by recording
the maximum width and length of the sinuses in a sample of 39 crania, in addition to the more subjective
variables used in other investigations (40). Reipert et al. completed an investigation that aimed to “improve the
objectivity of X-ray comparison for the identification of unknown individuals” by using a computer program
named FoXSIS to reduce subjectivity in the analysis of the frontal sinuses (43). Computed tomography data
were collected for 30 skulls, and were converted to virtual X-ray representations of the skulls. According to the
authors, the primary advantage of the program was that its use of digital measurements of the features of the
skull allowed for a quantification of the “probability of identity” without reliance on the more subjective, and
less repeatable measures of identity such as side dominance, shape, and symmetry levels.

There is also a problem with techniques that are based on the assumption that it is statistically improbable for
two individuals to have the same or similar codes just because there are a large number of possible
combinations. This is problematic (at least with the techniques outlined above) because no effort is made to
weigh the various characters relative to one another. For example, it is much more likely for an individual to
have a single or very few septations of the frontal sinus than for them to have six or seven, thereby increasing
dramatically the statistical probability that two individuals may indeed have the same code for that particular
trait. This is a problem with many of the characteristics considered by both Reichs ( 31) and Yoshino et al.
(29). Christensen published the most objective and statistically robust analysis of the frontal sinuses to date
(32). She used elliptical Fourier analysis (EFA), a geometric morphometric technique that imposes a set of
coordinate data points to a closed curve, to quantify the superior border of the frontal sinuses. The coordinate
data were then used to quantify the outlines by generating a set of coefficients that represent a numerical
reproduction of the curve. She traced the superior border of the frontal sinuses of 808 individuals and closed
the curve inferiorly by connecting the inferior-most extensions of the left and right sides of the curve with a
straight horizontal line. The Euclidean distances between the EFA-generated outlines were compared as a
means to test the accuracy with which they could be used to associate the correct images. The Euclidean
distances between repeat images from the same individual were significantly smaller than the distances
between individuals. She used typicality statistics to evaluate the statistical strength of the associations with
good results. The probability of making an incorrect association between two outlines using her method is very
small, and she concludes that “there is a quantifiable and significant difference between the shapes of
individual frontal sinus outlines”.

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 Wiersema developed a method for comparison of ante- and postmortem axial CT images of the petrous
portion of the temporal bone (44). The data used in the study were collected from repeat axial head CT images
of 115 individuals, and the Euclidean distance comparisons were made between images of the same individual
and images from different individuals. Two-dimensional coordinate data from 36 landmarks on each of the CT
images were calculated and the distances between each of the coordinate points were captured to generate the
data used in the statistical analyses. Measurement subsets were developed based on two separate models, the
first of which used anatomical criteria identified by the study author and the second used principal components
factor analysis to identify the subset with the most statistical significance

FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY IN INDIA

The scope of forensic anthropology varies from the examination of human skeletal remains to the
identification of living or deceased persons. In the last few decades, the discipline has made enormous
progress in many contemporary areas including facial reconstruction, gait pattern analysis, photographic
superimposition etc. Despite the multi-faceted relevance of forensic anthropology, its status and development
in India is not recognised as a specialty of significance.

In India, medico-legal cases pertaining to forensic anthropology are mostly examined by the doctors of the
Forensic Medicine department or the Forensic Science laboratory where such cases are referred. However,
over the last few years, with growing awareness of the role and expertise of forensic anthropologist a need is
felt to employ their services. India being a multiracial country, the need is greater as anthropologists have the
training, skill and familiarity of subtle racial variation in human skeleton which a medical man lacks.
Moreover unlike in the past when identification from skeletal parts was based on examination of
morphological traits, with time this mode of assessment has given way to more precise and definite
anthropometric measurements which when processed through modern statistical techniques (Discriminant
function analysis) make identification more objective. An anthropologist, through years of training in
anthropometry has an advantage over a medical person (Purkait, 2006).

A limited number of academic institutions in India teach forensic anthropology as a part of the anthropology
degree and forensic science programs. However, with the increasing popularity and practical utility of the
discipline, forensic anthropology has steadily recognised as a full-fledged discipline, separate from the parent
subjects of anthropology and forensic science.

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 CONCLUSION

The forensic sciences have undergone a considerable transformation in recent decades toward a more robust
network of services that are based on validated methods and accredited laboratories. Anthropological methods
have evolved concomitantly from the anecdotal to the statistically validated, accurate, and repeatable methods
that are being developed today. The need for more subjective anthropological evaluation of radiographs will
continue to have a place in forensic anthropology for identification, but validation of these methods is as
important as it is for other anthropological methods (sex, age and ancestry). Forensic anthropology is a sub-
field of physical anthropology that uses the knowledge of human skeletal variation to analyse the medico-
legally significant cases. Although the practice of forensic anthropology began in the United States in the early
1800 with the pioneering works of Thomas Dwight and others but it developed as a separate field in the mid-
1900. A forensic anthropologist’s functions ranges from determining the demographic characteristics (sex, age,
stature and ethnicity) to the positive identification of a person. Estimation of time since death, determining the
cause of death and recovering the buried or surface remains are another major provinces of a forensic
anthropologist. Several methods and techniques are used by forensic anthropologists to collect and analyse the
human skeletal data. Significant data gathering methods include anthroposcopy, osteometry, histoscopy and
chemical methods whereas decision tables, range charts, indexes, discriminant functions and regression
equations are used to analyse the collected data. Although with the development of technologies the discipline
has made enormous progress in many contemporary areas but despite its practical utility the
status and development of forensic anthropology in India is still in infancy stage.

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 REFERENCES

1).Krogman W.M. A guide to the identification of human skeletal material. FBI Law Enforc Bullet. 1939;
8(8): 3–31. [

2).Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals. U.S. 1993. p. 579.

3).National Research Council. Strengthening forensic science in the United States: a path forward.
Washington: National Academies Press; 2009. 352 p.

4).Christensen A.M. The impact of Daubert: implications for testimony and research in forensic anthropology
(and the use of frontal sinuses in personal identification). J Forensic Sci. 2004. May; 49(3): 427–30. PMID:
15171154. 10.1520/jfs2003185.

5).Christensen A.M., Crowder C.M. Evidentiary standards for forensic anthropology. J Forensic Sci. 2009.
Nov; 54(6): 1211–6. PMID: 19804520. 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2009.01176.x.

6).Koot M.G., Sauer N.J., Fenton T.W. Radiographic human identification using bones of the hand: a
validation study. J Forensic Sci. 2005. Mar; 50(2): 263–8. PMID: 15813535. 10.1520/jfs2004229

7).Christensen A.M., Crowder C.M., Ousley S.D., Houck M.M. Error and its meaning in forensic science. J
Forensic Sci. 2014. Jan; 59(1): 123–6. PMID: 24111751. 10.1111/1556-4029.12275

8).Niespodziewanski E., Stephan C.N., Guyomarc'h P., Fenton T.W. Human identification via lateral patella
radiographs: a validation study. J Forensic Sci. 2016. Jan; 61(1): 134–40. PMID: 26234529. 10.1111/1556-
4029.12898.

9).Derrick S.M., Raxter M.H., Hipp J.A. et al. Development of a computer-assisted forensic radiographic
identification method using the lateral cervical and lumbar spine. J Forensic Sci. 2015. Jan; 60(1): 5–12.
PMID: 24961154. 10.1111/1556-4029.12531.

10).Ross A.H., Lanfear A.K., Maxwell A.B. Establishing standards for side-by-side radiographic comparisons.
Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 2016. Jun; 37(2): 86–94. PMID: 26999427. 10.1097/paf.0000000000000223.

11).Stephan C.N., Winburn A.P., Christensen A.F., Tyrrell A.J. Skeletal identification by radiographic
comparison: blind tests of a morphoscopic method using antemortem chest radiographs. J Forensic Sci.
2011. Mar; 56(2): 320–32. PMID: 21306373. 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2010.01673.x.

12).Crowder C.M., Wiersema J.M., Adams B.J. et al. The utility of forensic anthropology in the medical
examiner's office. Acad Forensic Pathol. 2016. Sep; 6(3): 349–60.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Websites Referred:

 Know all about the various techniques used in forensic anthropology, available at:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_anthropology#cite_note-33 Retrieved on October 20, 2024.
 Part VX:, available at: https://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/77020/1/Unit-8.pdf
Retrieved on October 20, 2024..
 Evolution of Forensic Anthropological Methods of Identification available at:
https://ili.ac.in/pdf/nsb.pdf. Retrieved on October 20, 2024..
 All About Article 324 of the Constitution of India, available at: https://blog.ipleaders.in/all-about-
article-324-of-the-indian-constitution/. Retrieved on October 20, 2024..

2. Books Referred:

 Modi's Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology, K. Mathiharan and Amrit K Patnaik,

LexisNexis, Buttersworth, 2010
 Textbook of Modis Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology, K. Kannan and K.
Mathiharan, Buttersworths India, 2012

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