ROYALE CONCORDE INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

YEAR 2023 - 2024
Topic: To study various factors on which the internal
resistance/EMF of a cell depends.

NAME: Chanakya Brahmaa K

CLASS: XII

ROLL NO:

SUBJECT: PHYSICS
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Chanakya Brahmaa K has
satisfactorily completed the project in Physics as
prescribed by the CBSE AISSCE course in the laboratory
of Royale Concorde International School in the
academic year 2023 – 2024.

Signature of Signature of
External Examiner External
Examiner

Date:
Name of the Candidate:
Roll Number:

SCHOOL SEAL:
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my sincere gratitude to those who have

helped and supported me throughout the project.

I am obliged to our Principal Mrs. _____________, for

providing the best of facilities and environment to bring
out our innovation and spirit of inquiry through this
venture.

I am deeply indebted to Mrs. _____________, our physics

teacher without whose constructive guidance, this project
would not have been a success. Her valuable advice and
suggestions for the corrections, modifications and
improvement helped us in making this project a success.

I extend my deepest thanks to Mrs. Vidhya and Mrs. Shalini

for her constant support and for providing us with
necessary lab equipment.

I would also like to thank my family and friends for their

constant support.
❖ Contents
➢ Introduction
■ Internal Resistance/EMF
➢ Practical Analysis
■ Objective
■ Apparatus
■ Theory
■ Circuit Diagram
■ Procedure
■ Result and Interference
■ Precautions
■ Sources of error
■ Leclanche Cell
➢ Bibliography
 INTRODUCTION

Batteries provided the main source of electricity before the

development of electric generators and electrical grids around
the end of the 19th century. Successive improvements in
battery technology facilitated major electrical advances, from
early scientific studies to the rise of telegraphs and
telephones, eventually leading to portable computers, mobile
phones, electric cars, and many other electrical devices .
There is a great need for batteries in our daily use of electronic
appliances and the use is increasing every day. Thus, the
batteries need to be made more powerful so that their
potential can be increased greatly.
This project report is purely based on practical experiment and
information for the factors affecting the internal resistance of a
cell.
When the internal resistance of the cell is decreased we can
increase the potential difference across it, and hence make it
more reliable.
 INTERNAL RESISTANCE

Internal resistance is defined as the resistance offered by the

electrolytes of the cell to the flow of ions.
SI unit: Ohm (Ω).

For a cell of e.m.f. (E) and internal resistance (r) , connected to

an external resistance (R) such that (I) is the current flowing
through the circuit.

E = V + Ir
INTERNAL RESISTANCE, r = (E – V)/I
 Practical Analysis
● OBJECTIVE :- To study the various factors on which
the internal resistance of the cell depends.

● APPARATUS :- A potentiometer, a battery(or

battery eliminator) , two one way keys , a
rheostat , a galvanometer , a resistance box , an
ammeter , a cell (Leclanche cell) , a jockey , a set
square , connecting wires and sand papers.

❖THEORY :- The internal resistance of a cell is the

resistance offered by its electrolyte to the flow of
ions. The internal resistance of a cell
➔ Is directly proportional to the distance
between the electrodes.
➔Is inversely proportional to the surface area of
the electrode in electrolyte.
➔Decreases with increase in temperature of
electrolyte.
➔Is inversely proportional to the concentration
of electrolyte.
THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL IS GIVEN BY :-
R = (E – V)/I

Circuit Diagram:

PROCEDURE :-
1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand
paper to make a tight connection according to the
circuit diagram .
2. Tighten the plugs of the resistance box.
3. Check the e.m.f. of the battery and of the cell and
make sure that e.m.f. of the battery is more than that
of the cell , otherwise null or balance point will not be
obtained.
4. Keep both the electrodes at a distance of 16cm.
5. Take maximum current from the battery , making
rheostat resistance small.
6. Without inserting a plug in key K2 , adjust the
rheostat so that a null point is obtained on the last wire
of the potentiometer.
7. Determine the position of the null point accurately
using a set square and measure the balancing length
(l1) , between the null point and the end P.
8. Next, introduce plugs in both keys K1 and K2.At the
same time , take out a small resistance (1 – 5 W) from
the shunt resistance box connected in parallel with the
cell.
9. Slide the jockey along a potentiometer wire and
obtain the null point.
10. Measure the balancing length (l2) from end P.
Record these observations.
11. Now keep the electrodes 12 cm apart.
12. Then remove the plugs of keys K1 andK2.Wait for
some time and repeat steps 7 to 10.
13. Next, keep the electrodes 9 cm apart to obtain
another set of observations.
14. Keeping all other factors constant , increase the
area of the electrodes in the electrolyte by dipping
them into the electrolyte at different depths for each
observation.
15. Obtain three such observations by repeating steps
7 to 10.Record these readings.
16. Keeping all other factors constant , decrease the
concentration of electrolyte by adding distilled water
for different observations.
17. Obtain three such observations by repeating steps
7 to 10.Record these readings.

OBSERVATION:
Sl.No Ammeter with shunt R without shunt Shunt Internal
Reading (I1) R Resistance R resistance r
(A) (I2) (ohm) (ohm) (I1/I2-
1)
660.5 35.5 1 0.94
1. 0.3
660.5 77.2 2 1.77
2. 0.3
660.5 108.3 3 2.51
3. 0.3
Results and Inferences:
● The electromotive force of the cell is constant and is
equal to E = 0.98 volt.
● The internal resistance of a cell is directly
proportional to the separation between the
electrodes.
● The internal resistance of a cell is directly
proportional to the separation between the
electrodes.
● The internal resistance of a cell is inversely
proportional to the area of the electrodes dipped
in electrolyte.
● The internal resistance of a cell is inversely
proportional to the temperature of electrolytes.
● The internal resistance of a cell is inversely
proportional to the concentration of the
electrolyte.

Precautions:
● The connections should be neat , clean and tight.
● The plugs should be introduced in the keys only
when the observations are to be taken.
 ● The positive polls of the battery E and cells E1 and
E2 should all be connected to the terminal at the
zeros of the wires.
● The jockey key should not be rubbed along the
wire. It should touch the wire gently.
● The ammeter reading should remain constant for a
particular set of observations.
● If necessary , adjust the rheostat for this purpose.

Sources of Error:
● The auxiliary battery may not be fully charged.
● The potentiometer wire may not be of uniform
cross section and material density throughout its
length.
● End resistance may not be zero.
● The instrument screws may be loose.
● Thick connecting wires may not be available.
● Rheostat may have high resistance.
Leclanche Cell:
The Leclanche cell is a battery invented and patented
by Georges Leclanche in 1866. The battery contained
an electrolyte (conducting solution) of ammonium
chloride, a cathode (positive terminal) of carbon, a
depolarizer of manganese dioxide and an anode
(negative terminal) of zinc. The Leclanche battery (or
wet cell as it was referred to) was the forerunner of the
modern zinc-carbon battery (a dry cell). The addition of
zinc chloride to the electrolyte paste raised the emf 1.5
volts. Later developments dispensed with the
ammonium chloride completely, giving a cell that could
endure more sustained discharge without its internal
resistance rising as quickly (the zinc chloride cell)

History of Leclanche Cell

In 1866, Georges Leclanche invented a battery that
consisted of a zinc anode and a manganese dioxide
cathode wrapped in a porous material, dipped in a jar
of ammonium chloride solution. The manganese
dioxide cathode had a little carbon mixed into
it as well, which improved conductivity and
absorption. It provided a voltage of 1.4 V.
This cell achieved very quick success in
telegraphy, signaling and electric bells.
The dry cell form was used to power early telephones.
The Leclanche cell could not provide a sustained
current for very long. This was because certain
chemical reactions in the cell increased internal
resistance and thus lowered the voltage. These
reactions reversed themselves when the battery was
left idle, so it was only good for intermittent use.

Construction:
The original form of the cell used a porous pot. This
gave it a relatively high internal resistance and various
modifications were made to reduce it. In Leclanche’s
original cell, the depolarizer (which consisted of
crushed MnO2) was packed into a pot and a carbon
rod was inserted to act as cathode. The anode, which
was a zinc rod, was then immersed along with the pot
in a solution of ammonium chloride. The liquid solution
acted as the electrolyte, permeating through the
porous pot to make contact with the cathode.
However, this results in an internal resistance of
several ohms when a porous pot is used.
Advantages:
● Leclanche cells use inexpensive materials and have
low costs.
● They are available in a wide range of sizes
including AAA, AA, C, D and 9V.
● They are suitable for a wide range of consumer
applications.
● They are interchangeable with alkaline batteries.
Bibliography:

WEBSITES:
● www.wikipedia.org
● www.wikibooks.org
● www.hyperphysics.com
● www.batteryuniversity.com
● www.physics.stackexchange.com
● https://byjus.com/
● https://www.slideshare.net/

BOOKS:
● 12th class NCERT physics textbook
● Lab manual
● Aakash modules