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Module_I_Set_Theory_and_Matrices

Uploaded by

Shazia Eqbal
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Module I: Set Theory and Matrices

1. Sets
Definition: A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects, called elements or members
of the set.

Example: A = {1, 2, 3} is a set of numbers.

Notation: Sets are usually denoted by capital letters (e.g., A, B, C).

Types of Sets:
1. Empty Set (∅): A set with no elements. Example: B = {prime numbers less than 2}.

2. Finite and Infinite Sets: A finite set has a countable number of elements. Infinite sets have
unlimited elements (e.g., N, the set of natural numbers).

3. Subset: A ⊆ B means every element of A is also in B.

4. Power Set: The set of all subsets of A, denoted P(A). Example: If A = {1, 2}, then P(A) = {∅,
{1}, {2}, {1, 2}}.

2. Basic Operations on Sets


1. Union (A ∪ B): The set of elements in A or B (or both). Example: If A = {1, 2} and B = {2,
3}, then A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3}.

2. Intersection (A ∩ B): The set of elements common to both A and B. Example: A ∩ B = {2}.

3. Difference (A - B): The set of elements in A but not in B. Example: A - B = {1}.

4. Complement (Aᶜ): The set of all elements not in A (relative to a universal set).

3. Venn Diagrams
A diagrammatic representation of sets using circles.

Example:

- A ∪ B: Combine two circles.

- A ∩ B: Shade the overlapping region.

4. Cartesian Product of Two Sets


Definition: A × B = {(a, b): a ∈ A, b ∈ B}.

Example: If A = {1, 2} and B = {x, y}, then:

A × B = {(1, x), (1, y), (2, x), (2, y)}.


5. De Morgan’s Laws
1. (A ∪ B)ᶜ = Aᶜ ∩ Bᶜ

2. (A ∩ B)ᶜ = Aᶜ ∪ Bᶜ

Example: If U = {1, 2, 3, 4}, A = {1, 2}, and B = {2, 3}:

(A ∪ B)ᶜ = {4} = Aᶜ ∩ Bᶜ.

Matrices

1. Definition of a Matrix
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and columns.

Notation: A = [[a11, a12], [a21, a22]].

2. Types of Matrices
1. Square Matrix: Rows = Columns. Example: [[1, 2], [3, 4]].

2. Diagonal Matrix: Non-diagonal elements are zero.

3. Symmetric Matrix: A = Aᵀ. Example: [[1, 2], [2, 3]].

4. Singular Matrix: Determinant = 0.

5. Identity Matrix: Diagonal elements = 1, others = 0.

3. Operations on Matrices
1. Addition: A + B = [aij + bij].

2. Multiplication: (AB)ij = Σaikbkj.

4. Rank of a Matrix
The rank of a matrix is the maximum number of linearly independent rows or columns.

Examples and Problem Sums

Set Theory Problems:


1. Union and Intersection: A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {2, 3, 4}.

Find A ∪ B, A ∩ B, A - B. Solution: A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4}, A ∩ B = {2, 3}, A - B = {1}.

2. De Morgan’s Law: U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, A = {1, 2}, B = {3, 4}.

Verify (A ∪ B)ᶜ = Aᶜ ∩ Bᶜ. Solution: (A ∪ B)ᶜ = {5}, Aᶜ ∩ Bᶜ = {5}.


Matrix Problems:
1. Rank of a Matrix: A = [[1, 2, 3], [2, 4, 6], [1, 1, 1]]. Find the rank of A.

Solution: Perform row reduction; rank = 2.

2. Matrix Multiplication: A = [[1, 2], [3, 4]], B = [[2, 0], [1, 2]]. Compute AB.

Solution: AB = [[4, 4], [10, 8]].

3. Eigenvalues: A = [[6, 2], [2, 3]]. Find eigenvalues of A.

Solution: Solve det(A - λI) = 0: λ₁ = 7, λ₂ = 2.

3. Functions and Their Properties

Definition: A function maps every element of (domain) to a single element in (codomain).

Example: , where .

Types of Functions:

1. Polynomial Functions: .

Example: (degree = 2).

2. Rational Functions: , where and are polynomials.


3. Exponential Functions: , where and .

Example: .

4. Logarithmic Functions: , the inverse of .

Example: .

5. Trigonometric Functions: Sine (), Cosine (), Tangent (), etc.

6. Graphs of Common Functions

1. Linear Functions: .

Example: . The graph is a straight line.


2. Quadratic Functions: .

Example: . The graph is a parabola.

3. Rational Functions: . The graph is a hyperbola.

4. Trigonometric Functions: Graphs of show periodic behavior.

5. Step Functions: Constant within intervals, jumps at certain points.

Example: (greatest integer function).

6. Modulus Function: .

Graph: A “V”-shaped curve.


7. Matrices: Advanced Topics

Determinant of a Matrix

Definition: A scalar value calculated from a square matrix.

For a matrix: , .

Inverse of a Matrix

For a matrix : , if .

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

, where is an eigenvalue and is an eigenvector.

Steps to Calculate:

1. Solve for .
2. Substitute into to find .

Examples and Problem Sums

Set Theory Problems

1. Union and Intersection:

Find .

Solution: .

2. De Morgan’s Law:

.
Verify .

Solution: .

Matrix Problems

1. Rank of a Matrix:

Find the rank of .

Solution: Perform row reduction; rank = 2.

2. Matrix Multiplication:

Compute .
Solution: .

3. Eigenvalues:

Find eigenvalues of .

Solution: Solve : .

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