MIDTERM CEP 120 FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

LESSON 1: MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL DISTANCES

Leveling and its Different Leveling Operations

Leveling
- Leveling is the process of directly or indirectly measuring vertical distances to determine the
elevation of points or their differences in elevation.

Definition of Terms:
Level Surface
– it is curved surface which is at any point perpendicular to the direction of gravity or the plumb
line.
Level Line
– is a curved line in a level surface all points of which are normal to the direction of gravity and
equidistant from the center of the earth.
Horizontal Surface
– it is a plane that is tangent to a level surface at a particular point. It is also perpendicular to the
plumb line at the same point.
Horizontal Line
– a straight line in a horizontal plane which is tangent to a level line at one point. This line is
perpendicular to the direction of gravity at the point of tangency.
Vertical Line
– at any point is a line parallel to the direction of gravity.
Mean Sea Level
– is an imaginary surface of the sea which is midway between high and low tides. It is taken as
the reference surface to which most ground elevations are referred.
Datum
– is any convenient level surface coincident or parallel with mean sea level to which elevations
of a particular area are referred.
Elevation
– the vertical distance above or below mean sea level or any other selected datum.
Difference in Elevation
– the vertical distance between the two level surfaces in which the points lie.

Leveling Methods
- There are various methods which could be employed to determine the elevation of points and
their differences in elevation.
- This method may be undertaken either directly or indirectly in field.
1. Direct or Spirit Leveling
– it is commonly employed method of determining the elevation of points some distance apart by
a series of set ups of a leveling instrument along a selected route.
2. Differential Leveling, Double
– rodded Leveling, and Three-wire Leveling are forms of direct leveling.
- In Direct Leveling vertical distances are measured above or below a level line and these values
are used to compute the elevation of point or their differences in elevation.
- Being the most precise method of leveling, it is used when a high degree of accuracy is
required.
3. Reciprocal Leveling
– the process of accurately determining the difference in elevation between two intervisible
points located at a considerable distance apart and between which points leveling could not be
performed in the usual manner.
- This method is commonly employed when leveling across a wide river, a deep ravine or across
canyons and gullies where it would be difficult or impossible to maintain a foresight and a
backsight distance of nearly equal lengths.
4. Profile Leveling
– this method of leveling is used to determine differences in elevation between points at
designated short measured intervals along an established line to provide data from which a
vertical section of the ground surface can be plotted.
5. Trigonometric Leveling
– this method of leveling is employed in determining by trigonometric computations the
difference in elevation between two points from measurements of its horizontal or slope distance
and the vertical angle between the points.
6. Stadia Leveling
– it is a combine features of direct leveling with those of trigonometric leveling. This method is
in fact a form of trigonometric leveling.
- It can provide reasonable accuracy for preliminary surveys, mapping, and rough leveling where
quick measurements are needed.
- In stadia leveling, differences in elevation between points are computed from observed vertical
angles and the three intercepts on a rod held at each point backsighted and foresighted.
7. Barometric Leveling
– it involves the determination of differences in elevation between points by measuring the
variation in atmospheric pressure at each point by means of barometer.
- This leveling method depends on the basic principle that differences in elevation are
proportional to the differences in atmospheric pressure.
8. Cross-Section leveling
– in highway or railroad constructions it is often necessary to obtain a representation of the
ground surface on either side of the centerline.
- Short profiles at right angles to the line of work are usually plotted at regular intervals for this
purpose.
9. Borrow-Pit Leveling
– is a method of determining the relative elevations of points in borrow pit excavations for the
purpose of calculating volumes of earthwork.

Type of level instrument and its uses | Leveling rods and its proper uses and care
Types of Level
1. Dumpy Level
– is the most widely used direct leveling instrument.
- It has a long telescope which is rigidly attached to the level bar.
- The dumpy level is simple in construction.
- Its main parts are all made in one casting which is fastened rigidly together.
2. Wye Level
- it is very identical to dumpy level.
- The only distinct difference between the two is in the manner by which their telescopes are
attached to the supporting level bar.
- The wye level has a detachable telescope which rests in supports called wyes.
3. Builder’s Level
– this instrument is used primarily in the different phases of building construction where a high
degree of precision is not primary requisite.
- It is often called a construction level or an architect’s level
4. Automatic Level
- – this type of level has become popular for conventional leveling work because of the ease and
speed of their operation.
- It does not use a level vial and its ability to level itself depends upon the action of a complex
pendulum-and-prism device.
5. Tilting Level
– this type of leveling instrument can be tilted or rotated about its horizontal axis.
- A bull’s – eye level is employed for its quick and approximate leveling.
- The tilting knob is used to rotate the telescope into a correct horizontal position.
6. Geodetic Level
- it is basically another type of tilting level.
- It is employed in first-order leveling work where extremes precision is an important
requirement.
7. Transit as a Level
– the engineer’s transit has always been referred to as the “universal surveying instrument”
because of its variety of uses.
- It can provide results which are fairly precise although not as good as those obtained with
conventional type.
8. Laser Level
– a laser system is a separate unit equipped with a portable power supply and may be a helium-
neon laser or gas laser.
- They are usually mounted or attached to conventional surveying instruments such as levels,
transits and theodolites.
9. Hand Level
– is a hand held instrument used on surveys involving short sights and where a low order of
accuracy us sufficient.

Leveling Rods
- A Leveling Rod is a graduated rod which is used for measuring the vertical distance between
the line of sight through a leveling instrument and the point whose elevation is either required or
known.
- Rods are made of wood, fiber-glass, or metal and have graduations in meters and decimals
which start from zero at the bottom and extending upward to length of 3 or 4 meters.
- Leveling rods may be either of the following:
1. Self-Reading Rod
– this is the most commonly used type of leveling rod.
- It can be read directly by the instrument man through the telescope by noting the
apparent intersection of the horizontal hair on the rod.
2. Target Rod
– this type of rod has a sliding target which is set and read by a rod man at the position
selected by instrument man.

Other Types of Rod

1. Rods Named After Cities or State
- The Philadelphia Rod is a combination of self-reading and target rod and is commonly used
type of rod. It is made of two sections in which the rear sections slides over the front section.
This type of rod can be read accurately with a leveling instrument at a distance up to 90 meters.
For much longer distances a target should be used.
- The Chicago Rod comes in three sliding sections and usually extends to either three or four
meters. It is graduated similar to the Philadelphia Rod except that the figures on the face of the
rods are wider and thus more suitable for longer distances.
2. Rod Ribbon
– this is an improvised type of rod used in leveling work.
- The graduations on this rod are marked either on canvass or metal strips which are attached to a
long piece of selected lumber by staples.
- Rod ribbons are quite handy as these can be easily removed from the wood to which is attached,
rolled and put into one’s pocket after it is used.
3. Precise Rod
– it is a form of rod ribbon which uses a graduated invar strip permanently fastened to a four-
meter long wooden or metal frame.
- It is equipped with a rod level to allow the rod man to hold the rod vertically when used.
- For precise leveling work a thermometer is attached to it for purpose of reading the air
temperature.
4. Geodetic Rod
– this rod is similar to a precise rod except that a nilvar metal strip is used instead of invar.
- Nilvar is an alloy of metal with a very low coefficient of linear expansion.
5. Tape Rod
– this seldomly used rod is also known as the automatic rod.
- It is used advantageously when numerous elevations are to be determined from a single set-up
of the leveling instrument.
- This type of rod is useful in profile leveling, in taking cross sections, and for the different
phases involved in building construction and layout.

Rod Level
- The Rod Level is a device used for fast and correct plumbing of a leveling rod.
- It is L-shape in design and consists of a small circular spirit level fastened to the rod or to a
small bracket held against the side of the rod.

Targets
- A Target is a small device attached to the rod when extremely long sights make direct reading
of the rod difficult or impossible.
- Targets are made of metal and may be circular, elliptical, or rectangular in shape.
- Horizontal and vertical lines are formed by the junction of alternating red and white quadrants
painted on its face.
- It usually has a rectangular opening in the front to expose apportion of the rod in order that
readings can be made.

Telescopes
- The Telescope of a surveying instrument is a metal tube containing a system of lenses which
are used to fix the direction of the line of sight and in magnifying the apparent size of objects in
its field of view.
- A Dutchman, Jan Lippershey, invented the first telescope in 1608.
- The great mathematician Johannes Kepler was the one who suggested how the telescope could
be employed for use in surveying instruments.
- This led to the development of the Keplerian or Astronomical Telescope which consists of a
tube with variable length which has an objective lens, cross wires, and an eyepiece.
1. Objective Lens
– it is compound lens composed of crown and flint glass mounted in the objective end of the
telescope and has its optical axis concentric with the tube axis.
- The function of the objective lens is to allow light rays to enter the telescope and form an image
of the object sighted within its field of view.
2. Eyepiece
– is a form of microscope containing either two or four lenses and is used to enlarge altogether
the image and the cross hairs.
- It allows the instrumentman to sight and read accurately the graduations on a leveling rod.
3. Cross Hairs
– consists of a pair of lines which are perpendicular to each other and are used to define the
instrument’s line of sight.
- They are mounted on a reticle or cross hair ring near the eyepiece of the telescope and located
at the principal focus of the objective optical system.

4. Magnification
– of a telescope is the ratio of the apparent size of an object viewed through a telescope to its size
as seen by the unaided eye from the same distance.
- It may also be taken as the amount of by which an object is increased in apparent size.
- Magnification is expressed in terms of diameters.
- For most levels, the magnification may vary from 25 to 40 diameters.
5. Level Vial and coincidence bubble
– is a sealed graduated glass tube containing some amount of liquid and a small air bubble.
- It is used to determine the direction of gravity.
- The type of liquid must have a low viscosity and freezing point.

6. Tripod
– this serve as a base to prevent movement of the instrument after it is set up.
- A tripod consists of three wooden or aluminum legs which are securely fastened to the tripod
head by means of a hinged joint.
- The legs are spread wide enough to provide a stable platform for the instrument.
Measurements of different elevation | Arms and Hand signals
Setting Up the Level
- The leveling instrument may be set up at any suitable or desired location.
- When starting a leveling operation the instrument man should first consider where he intends to
position the instrument.
- Solid ground should be selected when setting up the instrument.
- Muddy and wet areas should be avoided.
- When setting up the instrument on hillsides or along a slope, one of its legs should extend
uphill and two downhill.
- It is advisable for the instrument man to carry along a hand level to determine the approximate
height at which the instrument should be set up in order that points to be sighted will fall within
the established line of sight.

Leveling The Instrument

- Most conventional levels are designed with four leveling screws.
- The screws are used to center the bubble in a level tube which is attached to the telescope of the
instrument.
1. Instruments with Four Leveling Screws
– The bubble is centered approximately over one pair of opposite leveling screws.
- The telescope is next turned 90 degrees and positioned over the two other opposite leveling
screws. The bubble is again centered approximately.
- This procedure is repeated about three or more times with increasing care until the bubble
finally remains centered in any direction the telescope is pointed.
- The thumb and index finger of each hand are used to turn the screws.
- Screws are turned always in opposite directions; that is, the thumbs should move either away
from each other or toward each other.
2. Instruments with Three Leveling Screws
– the telescope is turned until the bubble tube is parallel to the line through any two of the screws.
- The bubble is then centered on the level vial by turning these two screws in opposite directions.
- As usual, the thumb and index finger of each hand are used to turn the screws.
- The telescope is next rotated about the vertical axis of the instrument so that the bubble tube is
brought perpendicular to a line through the screws turned earlier.
- Again, the bubble is brought to center by means of the third screw alone.

Holding the Leveling Rod

- The leveling rod is held on a point by a rod man when a sight is to be taken on it.
- To obtain the correct distance from the line of sight to the point on which the rod is placed, it is
extremely important that the rod be held plumb when the reading is made.
- The instrument man checks the rod by observing through the telescope and noting if it is held
parallel to the vertical cross hair.
- The rod man either stands beside the rod or behind it.
- He should face the instrument man and see to it that the rod is held nearly at the right angles to
the line of sight.
- The finger must not cover the face of the rod.
- The rod man should see to it that the graduations are always clearly visible and not obstructed.

Taking a Rod Reading

- Before readings are taken on a rod, it is important to first examine how the graduations are
indicated on it.
- The metric rod in Figure 14-4 is graduated in centimeters and numerals are indicated for every
full meter and decimeter mark.
- The single dot shown below each numeral indicates that readings taken on it are in 1-m range.
- Each blackened graduation and each space between graduation is one centimeter (0.01 m) high.
- The full meter marks are identified on the rod by large numerals which are usually painted in
red.
- The decimeter marks are identified by smaller black-painted numerals.
- Once the instrument is set up and leveled, the following steps are performed in taking a rod
reading:
1. Position the Rod
2. Focus On the Rod
3. Read the Rod

Determining Difference in Elevation

- This figure illustrates a typical set up for determining difference in elevation between two
points, A and B, using the engineer’s level and leveling rod.
- The sequence of steps involved are as follows:
1. The instrument is set up and leveled at a point about halfway between A and B.
2. Sight on the rod held vertically at point A and record the rod reading.
3. Rotate the telescope carefully about the vertical axis and sight on a rod held vertically
at B. Record the rod reading at B. To avoid instrumental errors only one rod should be
using during the measurement.
4. The difference in elevation between points A and B is determined by noting the
difference in their respective rod reading.

Lengths of Sight
- It is always best to take sights at moderate lengths to attain speed and accuracy in leveling work.
- However, very short or extremely long sights should be avoided.
- The most suitable sight lengths will depend upon the required degree of precision, the surface
of the terrain, the type of instrument used, and upon the distance at which the rod remains
readable to the instrument man.

Waving the Rod

 - By aligning the rod with the vertical cross hair, the instrument man can determine if a rod is
held in a vertical plane passing through the instrument.
- This can only be accomplished by waving the rod.
- The procedure is used to determine whether the rod is plumb when a reading is taken on it.
- It is accomplished by slowly waving or tilting the top of the rod through an arc, first toward the
instrument and then away from the it.
- As the rod is waved, the instrument man takes note of the rod readings which will alternately
increase and decrease.
- The minimum reading observed in considered as the correct rod reading at the particular point
sighted.
- When the long rod is used it is always advisable to wave the rod.
- If the target rod is used, it must be raised or lowered until there is found just one position when
the target rises as high as the line of sight while the rod is being waved.

Arms and Hand Signals

1. Move Right (Left) 6. Pick up the Instruments 12. Wave the Rod
2. Give me a Backsight 7. Lower or Raise the Rod 13. Face the Rod
3. All Right 8. Come in 14. Reverse the Rod
4. Give me a line or This is a 9. Plumb the Rod 15. Move Forward
Point 10. Establish a Turning Point 16. Use the Long Rod
5. Move Back 11. This is a Turning Point
Sources of errors in leveling | Common mistakes in leveling | Adjustments of the dumpy
level

Sources of Errors in Leveling

The principal sources of error are:
1. Instrumental Error
a. Instrument Out of Adjustment
b. Rod Not Standard Length
c. Defective Tripod
2. Personal Error
a. Bubble Not Centered
b. Parallax
c. Faulty Rod Readings
d. Rod Not Held Plumb
e. Incorrect Setting of Target
f. Unequal Backsight and Foresight Distances
3. Natural Error
a. Curvature of the Earth
b. Atmospheric Refraction
c. Temperature Variations
d. Wind
e. Settlement of the Instrument
f. Faulty Turning Points

Common Mistakes in Leveling

The following are some of the most commonly made mistakes in leveling work:
Misreading the Rod
Incorrect Recording
Erroneous Computations
Rod Not Fully Extended
Moving Turning Points