weed

Weed Management in Horticultural Crops
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7. Weed Management in Horticultural Crops (HPH 205) 2 (1+1)
Weeds: Introduction, harmful and beneficial effects, classification, propagation and
dissemination; Weed biology and ecology, crop weed association, crop weed competition
and allelopathy. Concepts of weed prevention, control and eradication; Methods of weed
control: physical, cultural, chemical and biological methods. Integrated weed
management; Herbicides: advantages and limitation of herbicide usage in India, Herbicide
classification, formulations, methods of application; Introduction to Adjuvants and their
use in herbicides; Introduction to selectivity of herbicides; Compatibility of herbicides
with other agro chemicals; Weed management in major field and horticultural crops, shift
of weed flora in cropping systems, aquatic and problematic weeds and their control.
Practical: Identification of weeds; Survey of weeds in crop fields and other habitats;
Preparation of herbarium of weeds; Calculations on weed control efficiency and weed
index; Herbicide label information; Computation of herbicide doses; Study of herbicide
application, equipment and calibration; Demonstration of methods of herbicide application;
Preparation of list of commonly available herbicides; Study of phytotoxicity symptoms of
herbicides in different crops; Biology of nut sedge, bermuda grass, parthenium and
celosia; Economics of weed control practices; Tours and visits of problem areas.
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LECTURE I
Aim: To know weed definitions and their characteristics

WEED
Definitions:
Weed is a plant that originated under a natural environment and in response to imposed
and natural environments, evolved and continues to do so as an interfering associate with our
desired plant and activities.
Weed is a plant growing out of place and time. They are unwanted not useful, persistent
and prolific, effectively competing with the beneficial and desirable crop plants for space,
nutrients, sunlight and water, interfere with agricultural operations and thereby reducing the yield
and quality of produce.
Weeds are unwanted and undeserved plants that interfere with the utilization of the land
and water resources and thus adversely affect crop production and human welfare. Thus a plant
out of its place or a plant growing where it is not desired at that time is a weed. This
definition was given by Buchholtz in 1967.e.g. Bajra is a weed in pulse; Pulse is a weed in Bajra,
Tomato is a weed in Brinjal field.
Weeds are all types of undesirable plants i.e. sedges, grasses, broad leaved weeds,
aquatic plants, trees and parasitic flowering plants (Striga, Orobanche) affecting crop area and
non- crop area (industrial side, road side, railway line, water tank, irrigation channel etc.).
Weeds are unwanted, pernicious and harmful plants which interfere with agricultural
operations, increase labour, add to the cost of cultivation and reduce yield of crops. Weed has no
species, but name was suggested as a useless and harmful plant that persistently grows
where it is quite unwanted.
Weed is defined as the unwanted, undesirable plant, growing out of their proper place,
which interfere with the utilization of natural resources, prolific, persistent, competitive, harmful
and even poisonous in nature and can grow in adverse climatic conditions. (Jethro Tull: father of
weed Science)
Weediness: Weediness is defined as the state or condition of a field, flower bed, lawn
and so forth in which there is an abundance of weeds.
Weeds are plants that are unwanted in a given situation and may be harmful, dangerous
or economically detrimental. Weeds are a serious threat to primary production and biodiversity.
They reduce farm and forest productivity, displace native species and contribute significantly to
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land and water degradation. The costs of weeds to the natural environment are also high, with
weed invasion being ranked second only to habitat loss in causing biodiversity decline.
Despite considerable government and private sector investment, weed invasion still
represents a major threat to both the productive capacity of land and water and the integrity of
our natural ecosystems. An efficient weed control programme can only be developed after the
weed has been properly identified. Weeds can be managed using many different methods. The
most effective management of weeds is usually achieved through collaboration and co-operation
in partnerships between the community, land owners, agriculture, industry and the various levels
of government, using a combination of methods in conjunction with a thorough follow-up
campaign.
Weed management is an important component of plant protection improving the
production potential of crops. It includes management of the weeds in a way that the crop
sustains its production potential without being harmed by the weeds. Weed management is done
through the mechanical, cultural and chemical means. Use of biological control methods in field
crops is being considered, but still not much in use. Use of herbicides is an important method in
the modern concept of weed-management technology. New hand-tools and implements have also
been designed to assist in weed-management programme.
Characteristics of weeds:
 Weeds have rapid seedling growth and ability to reproduce when young e.g. Redroot
Pigweed can flower and reproduce when it is less than eight inches tall.
 Weeds have quick maturation period or take only a short time in the vegetative phase e.g.
Canada thistle can produce mature seeds in two weeks after flowering and Russian thistle
seeds can germinate very quickly between 280 -110 0 F in late spring.
 Weeds may have dual mode of reproduction. Most weeds are angiosperms & reproduce by
seeds and vegetatively too.
 Weeds have environmental plasticity. Many weeds are capable of tolerating and growing
under a wide range of climatic and edaphic conditions.
 . Weeds are often self-compatible but self-pollination is not obligatory.
 If a weed is cross pollinated, this is accomplished by non- specified flower visitors or by

wind.
 Weeds resist detrimental environmental factors. Most crop seed rot, if they do not germinate
shortly after planting whereas, and weed seeds resist decay for long periods in soil and
remain dormant for longer duration.

 Weed seeds exhibit several kinds of dormancy and escape the rigors of environment and
germinate when conditions are more favourable for their survival. Many weeds have no
special environment requirements for germination.
 Weeds often produce seeds of same size and shape as the crop seeds, making physical
separation difficult and facilitating spread by men.
 Some annual weeds produce more than one seed flush per year and seed is produced as long
as growing conditions permit.
 Each weed plant is capable of producing large number of seeds per plant and seed is
produced over a wide range of environmental conditions.
 Many weeds have specially adapted long and short range seed dispersal mechanisms.
 Roots of some weeds are able to penetrate and emerge from deep in the soil, while most
roots are in the upper foot of the soil Canada thistle roots routinely penetrate 3-6 feet and
field bindweed roots upto 10 feet deep. Roots and rhizomes are capable of growing many feet
per year.
 Roots and other vegetative parts of perennial weeds are vigorous with large food reserves,
enabling them to withstand environmental stress.
 Perennials have bitterness in the lower stem nodes or in rhizomes and roots and, if severed
vegetative organs will quickly regenerate in to whole plant.
 Many weeds have adaptation mechanism that repels grazing, such as spines, odd taste or
odour.
 Weeds have great competitive ability for nutrients, light and water and can compete by
special means (e.g. Rosette formation, climbing growth and allelopathy)
 Weeds are ubiquitous (present everywhere). They exist everywhere, where we practice
agriculture.
 Weeds resist control, including herbicides.

1 Organic Farming (2+1)
Lecture No.2
RELEVANCE OF ORGANIC FARMING
CONTENTS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 CONSEQUENCES OF THE USE OF HIGH YIELDING VARIETIES (HYV)
2.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIGENOUS VARIETIES
2.4 ILL EFFECTS OF GREEN REVOLUTION
2.1 Introduction
25% of the India’s population can’t get three square meal a day
Green revolution (GR) was only concentrated in areas having fertile soil and adequate
water supply. This 30% of the GR area contributed 60% of the food production while,
70% of the area contributed only 40%.
In intensive farming systems, organic agriculture (OA) decreases yield. In the GR
areas (irrigated land and well endowed water regions), conversion to organic usually
leads to almost identical yields. In traditional rainfed areas (with low external inputs)
OA has shown the potential to increase the yields. Under restricted water availability
or rainfed condition, difference in crop yield between organic and conventional
production narrow down to between 10 to 15%.
In earlier period, farmers used to choose crops depending on the climate and soil
conditions. Alexander Walker (at Baroda) (1829) –Green fodder was being grown
throughout the year; intercropping, crop rotation, fallowing, composting and maturing
were practiced.
Technical team constituted by the ministry of Agriculture made the following
observations.
i) The country at present is not in a position to completely eliminate the use of
chemicals especially the fertilizer.
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ii) Fertilizers can gradually be reduced

iii) Control on commercial sale of organic manures
iv) IPM is the solution.
The task force on Organic Farming (OF) set up the Union Ministry of Agriculture
during 2001 brought out the status of OF in the country. In its report it is stated
“Organic farming is being practiced by thousands of farmers in the country in an
unorganized way”.
2.2 Consequences of the use of High Yielding Varieties (HYV)
More fertilizer,
more cost, more Food &
barrowing: Fodder less
distress farmers nutritive & Encourages mono
chemically cropping-reduced
contamina nutritional security
Leave soil
unproductive
in the long
Goal profit
Salinity, HYV not the
alkalinity & welfare
eutrophication
Precursor of
Succulent-pests chemical
Reduced & diseases: uses agriculture
biodiversity 1/3 of the applied
& pollution fertilizer
2.3 Characteristics of indigenous varieties
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Seeds: No chemical fert.&

locally Acclimatize
pesticides: no harm to
secured/exch d: no total
biodiversity, pollution
anged/stored failure free, tolerant pests &
diseases
Suited for
mixed
Indigenous
cropping varieties Drought
tolerant
Low inputs,
Nutritious, not Do not exhaust
less cost, no
contaminated: fertility: Sustain
barrowing on OM
Serve local food
& fodder
2.4 Ill effects of Green Revolution

Chemical companies that developed highly toxic life damaging chemicals for the
purpose of warfare, decided to turn their attention on the chemical control of insects,
diseases and unwanted plants.
Reduction in natural fertility of soil
Destruction of soil structure, aeration and water holding capacity of soil.
Susceptibility of soil to water and wind erosion: In US 15 t/ha topsoil is lost; in
India it is even more.
Silting of reservoir
Diminishing return on inputs
Indiscriminate killing of useful insects, microorganisms and predators that
naturally check excess crop damage by insect pests.
Breeding more virulent and resistant species of pests.
Reducing genetic diversity of plant species.
Pollution with toxic chemicals. (In Europe 25% of the people drinking water with
nitrate above safe limit: 25 mg/lit).
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Endangering the health of the farmers and workers who produce them (workers
handling pesticide for more than 20 years have increased the risk of developing
certain type of cancers.
Poisoning the food with highly toxic pesticide residues.
Cash crops replacing nutritious food crops.
Chemical changing the natural taste of the food.
High inputs increasing the agricultural expenses
Increasing the farmers work burden and tension.
Depleting the fossil fuel resources.
Increasing the irrigation needs of the land.
Depleting the ground water reserves.
Lowering the drought tolerance of crops.
Appearance of problematic weeds.
Heightening the socio-economic disparities and land holding concentration.
High input subsidies leading to inflationary spirals.
Increasing the political and bureaucratic corruption.
Destroying the local culture.
Thronging financial institution into disarray.
Agricultural and economic problems sparking off social and political turmoil
resulting in violence.
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Effects of excess use of endosulfan on health in Kasaragod
Thus, the need arose for an alternative to conventional agriculture, to save the soil
from degradation, to increase the fertility and productivity, to avoid synthetic pesticides,
to prevent pollution and increase biodiversity, to reduce the dependence on costly
external inputs and to reverse the trend of barrowing, to make the farmers to rely more on
local natural resources to inculcate self reliance and self respect.
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LECTURE III
Aim: To discuss about different classifications of weeds.
CLASSIFICATION OF WEEDS
Out of 2,50,000 plant species, weeds constitute about 250 species, which are prominent
in agricultural and non-agricultural system. Under world conditions about 30000 species are
grouped as weeds which are classified as follows:
I. Based on life span

Based on life span (Ontogeny), weeds are classified as Annual weeds, Biennial weeds and
Perennial weeds.
a. Annual Weeds
Weeds that live only for a season or a year and complete their life cycle in that season or
year are called as annual weeds.
These are small herbs with shallow roots and weak stems. Produces seeds in profusion
and the mode of propagation is commonly through seeds. After seeding, the annuals die away
and the seeds germinate and start the next generation in the next season or year following.
Most common field weeds are annuals. The examples are:
a. Monsoon annuals
Commelina benghalensis, Boerhavia erecta
b. Winter annuals
Chenopodium album
b. Biennials
They complete the vegetative growth in the first season, flower and set seeds in the
succeeding season and then dies. These are found mainly in non-cropped areas.

e.g. Alternanthera echinata, Daucus carota
c. Perennials
Perennials live for more than two years and may live almost indefinitely. They adapt to
withstand adverse environmental conditions. They propagate not only through seeds but also
by underground stems, roots, rhizomes, tubers etc. and hence they are further classified into
i. Simple perennials: Plants propagated only by seeds e.g. Sonchus arvensis
ii. Bulbous perennials: Plants which possess a modified stem with scales and reproduce
mainly from bulbs and seeds e.g. Allium sp.
iii. Corm perennials: Plants that possess a modified shoot and fleshy stem and reproduce
through corm and seeds e.g. Timothy (Phleum pratense)
iv. Creeping perennials: They reproduce through seeds as well as with one of the followings:
a. Rhizome: Plants having underground stem – Sorghum halepense
b. Stolon: Plants having horizontal creeping stem above the ground – Cynodon dactylon
c. Roots: Plants having enlarged root system with numerous buds – Convolvulus arvensis
d. Tubers: Plants having modified rhizomes adapted for storage of food – Cyperus rotundus
II. Based on ecological affinities
a. Wetland weeds
They are tender annuals with semi-aquatic habit. They can thrive well under waterlogged
and in partially dry conditions. Propagation is chiefly by seed e.g. Ammania baccifera, Eclipta
alba
b. Garden land weeds (Irrigated lands)

These weeds neither require large quantities of water like wetland weeds nor can they
successfully withstand extreme drought as dryland weeds e.g. Trianthema portulacastrum,
Digera arvensis
c. Dry lands weeds
These are usually hardy plants with deep root system. They are adapted to withstand
drought on account of mucilaginous nature of the stem and hairiness e.g. Tribulus terrestris,
Argemone mexicana.
III. Based on soil type (Edaphic)

(a) Weeds of black cotton soil: These are often closely allied to those that grow in dry condition
e.g. Aristolochia bracteata
(b) Weeds of red soils: They are like the weeds of garden lands consisting of various classes of
plants e.g. Commelina benghalensis
(c) Weeds of light, sandy or loamy soils: Weeds those occur in soils having good drainage e.g.
Leucas aspera
(d) Weeds of laterite soils: e.g. Lantana camara, Spergula arvensis
IV. Based on place of occurrence

(a) Weeds of crop lands: The majority of weeds infests the cultivated lands and cause
hindrance to the farmers for successful crop production e.g. Phalaris minor in wheat
(b) Weeds of pasture lands: Weeds found in pasture / grazing grounds e.g. Indigofera
enneaphylla
(c) Weeds of waste lands: Corners of fields, margins of channels etc., where weeds grow in
profusion e.g. Gynandropsis pentaphylla, Calotropis gigantean etc.
(d) Weeds of playgrounds, road-sides: They are usually hardy, prostrate perennials, capable of
withstanding any amount of trampling.e.g. Alternanthera echinata, Tribulus terestris
V. Based on Origin
(a) Indigenous weeds: All the native weeds of the country come under this group and most of
the weeds are indigenous.e.g. Acalypha indica, Abutilon indicum
(b) Introduced or Exotic weeds: These are the weeds introduced from other countries. These
weeds are normally troublesome and control becomes difficult.e.g. Parthenium
hysterophorus, Phalaris minor, Acanthospermum hispidum
VI. Based on cotyledon number
Based on number of cotyledons they can be classified as dicots and
monocots.
(a) Monocots e.g. Panicum flavidum, Echinochloa colona
(b) Dicots e.g. Crotalaria verucosa, Indigofera viscosa
VII. Based on soil pH
Based on pH of the soil the weeds can be classified into three categories.
(a) Acidophile – Acid soil weedse.g. Rumex acetosella
(b) Basophile – Saline & alkaline soil weeds e.g. Taraxacum sp.
(c) Neutrophile – Weeds of neutral soils e.g. Acalypha indica

VIII. Based on morphology
Based on the morphology of the plant, the weeds are also classified in to three
categories. This is the most widely used classification by the weed scientists.
(a) Grasses: All the weeds which come under the family Poaceae are called as grasses which
are characteristically having long narrow spiny leaves. The examples are Echinocloa
colonum, Cynodon dactylon.
(b) Sedges: The weeds belonging to the family Cyperaceae come under this group. The leaves
are mostly from the base having modified stem with or without tubers. The examples are
Cyperus rotundus, Fimbrystylis miliaceae.
(c) Broad leaved weeds: This is the major group of weeds . All dicotyledon weeds are broad
leaved weeds. The examples are Flavaria australacica, Digera arvensis, Tridax procumbens
IX. Based on nature of stem
Based on development of bark tissues on their stems and branches, weeds are classified
as woody, semi-woody and herbaceous species.
(a) Woody weeds: Weeds include shrubs and under shrubs and are collectively called brush
weeds e.g. Lantana camera, Prosopis juliflora
(b) Semi-woody weeds: e.g.Croton sparsiflorus
(c) Herbaceous weeds: Weeds have green, succulent stems and are of most common
occurrence around us e.g. Amaranthus viridis
X. Based on specificity
Besides the various classes of weeds, a few others deserve special attention due to their
specificity. They are: a). Poisonous weeds, b). Parasitic weeds and c). Aquatic weeds.
a. Poisonous weeds
The poisonous weeds cause ailment to livestock resulting in death and cause great loss. These
weeds are harvested along with fodder or grass and fed to cattle or while grazing the cattle
consume these poisonous plants e.g. Datura fastuosa, D. stramonium and D. metel are poisonous
to animals and human beings. The berries of Withania somnifera and seeds of Abrus precatorius
are poisonous.
b. Parasitic weeds
The parasite weeds are either total or partial which means, the weeds that depend
completely on the host plant are termed as total parasites while the weeds that partially depend
on host plant for minerals and capable of preparing its food from the green leaves are called as
partial parasites. Those parasites which attack roots are termed as root parasites and those which
attack shoot of other plants are called as stem parasites. The typical examples are;
 Total root parasite – Orabanche cernua on Tobacco
 Partial root parasite - Striga lutea on sugarcane and sorghum
 Total stem parasite - Cuscuta chinensis on lucerne and onion
 Partial stem parasite - Cassytha filiformis on orange trees and Loranthus longiflorus on
mango and other trees.

c. Aquatic weeds:
Unwanted plants, which grow in water and complete at least a part of their life cycle in water
are called as aquatic weeds. They are further grouped into four categories as submersed,
emersed, marginal and floating weeds.
 Submersed weeds: These weeds are mostly vascular plants that produce all or most of
their vegetative growth beneath the water surface, having true roots, stems and leave e.g.
Utricularia stellaris, Ceratophyllum demersum.
 Immersed weeds: These plants are rooted in the bottom mud, with aerial stems and
leaves at or above the water surface. The leaves are broad in many plants and sometimes
like grasses. These leaves do not rise and fall with water level as in the case of floating
weeds e.g. Nelumbium speciosum, Jussieua repens.
 Marginal weeds: Most of these plants are immersed weeds that can grow in moist
shoreline areas with a depth of 60 to 90 cm water. These weeds vary in size, shape and
habitat. The important genera that comes under this group are; Typha, Polygonum,
Cephalanthus, Scirpus, etc.
 Floating weeds: These weeds have leaves that float on the water surface either singly or
in cluster. Some weeds are free floating and some rooted at the mud bottom and the
leaves rise and fall as the water level increases or decreases. e.g. Eichhornia crassipes,
Pistia stratiotes, Salvinia sp., Nymphaea pubescens.

Lecture No.3 & 4
CONCEPT OF ORGANIC FARMING
CONTENTS
3.1 OFTEN DEBATED ISSUES
3.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF OF FOR INDIAN FARMER
3.3 SIZE OF ORGANIC FOOD MARKET/AREA UNDER OF
3.4 STATUS OF OF IN INDIA
3.1 Often debated issues

1. Can OF produce enough food for every body?
2. Is it possible to meet nutrient requirement of crops entirely from
organic sources.
3. Are there any significant benefits of OF
4. Is the food produced by OF is superior in quality
5. Is OF economically feasible
6. Is it possible to manage pests and diseases in OF
3.2 Significance of OF for Indian farmer

Varied agro climatic regions and diversified cropping situations, all crops are
grown
Potential for on-farm input management viz., crop residues, organic manures,
green manures, biopesticides etc.., which are store house of nutrients.
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700 mt of rural and urban biomass, 2000 mt of animal and human

excreta (800 mt of animal dung annually), 600 to 700 mt of
agricultural waste is available in India annually.
Even if 2/3 of the dung is used for biogas generation, it is expected
to yield about 440 mt of manure/year, which is equivalent to 2.0 mt
N, 2.75 mt P2O5 and 1.8 mt K2O/year.
Small holdings: prevailing farming systems which combine agriculture,
livestock, horticulture, forestry, poultry, fisheries etc.,
Indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) and skills, and availability of trained
manpower.
Scientific thinking, approach and Govt. policy support towards OF is increasing
Greater domestic market for organic foods.
3.3 Size of Organic Food Market/area under OF
18 mha in N-E India –default OF
Roots of OF in English speaking word can be found in India.
Albert Woward(1873-19470-a agricultural scientist
Robert Mc Carrison (1878-1960)
In Pusa, New Delhi, Howard worked on plant breeding and plant protection.
At the agricultural research at Indore, he developed an aerobic composting
techniques known as “Indore process”.
Until 2001 there were only 304 organic farms in India. According to IFOAM-
survey in 2005, India has about 76, 326 ha area under OF managed by 5147
certified organic farms which is only 0.05% of total agricultural land.
Demand for organic products from India: Basmati rice, Spices, Tea, Coffee, Mango,
Pineapple, Banana, Vanilla, and Cashew nuts, Protein grains.
Export of organic products from India to other countries:
Europe: Netherlands, UK, Germany, Belgium, Sweden, Switzerland, France, Italy
and Spain.
Americas: USA and Canada
Middle East: Saudi Arabia and UAE
Asia: Japan and Singapore
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Africa: South Africa

Australia: Australia
World
There were only few organic farmers in 1980. Now in 2006, as many as 6,23,000
organic farms with some 31.5 mha area managed organically, it is practiced in
about >130 countries.
Market for organic products is growing not only in Europe and North America but
also in many other countries.
Growing health and environmental concern creating huge domestic and export
market.
International market for organic food products
19.73 billion US $ during 2000
26.00 billion US $ during 2002 (Indian share is 20 million US $)
Demand for organic food is steadily increasing both in developed and developing
countries with annual growth rate of 20-25%.
Australia, Argentina, Italy, Canada and USA are the countries having largest area
under OF
Some of the countries like Sweden, Australia,Switzerland, Finland and Italy have
substantial area (10%) under OF.
Leading organic food consumers: Swiss, Denmark, Sweden, Australia, In Asia,
Japan is the major consumer. Malaysia, Taiwan, Singapore and to some extent
Korea.
IFOAM (International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement) in 1972. Its
first conference was held at Switzerland.
Market
Current market: 23-25 billion US $
Annual growth rate: 15-20%
USA: 11-13 billion US $
Japan: 350-450 million US $
Europe: 10-11 billion US $
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3.4 Status of OF in India

The task force of GOI under the chairmanship of Shri Kunwarji Bhai suggested
need for alternative to modern conventional agriculture.
Ministry of Commerce, GOI, has launched national programme for organic
production in March, 2000
National Standards for organic products (NSOP) have been standardized during
May, 2001 and all the products sold under the logo “India Organic”
Natioanal Accreditation Policy Programme (NAPP) has been formulated with the
accreditation regulations announced in May, 2001.
This made it mandatory that all certification bodies engaged in inspection and
certification of organic crops and products should be accredited by an accreditation
agency.
Accreditation agencies: APEDA, Coffee Board, Tea Board, Spice Board etc.,
Certification and inspection agencies: Institute of Marketology (IMO), SKAL India,
INDOCERT, ECOCERT International, SGS India Pvt. Ltd, APOF Bangalore etc.,
National Institute of Organic Farming (NIOF) established at Ghaziabad. The
purpose of this institute is to formulate rules, regulations and certification of organic
farm products in conformity with International standards.
Govt of Karnataka also formulated policy on OF during Feb, 2004.
The organic food production costs are higher in the developed countries as organic
farming is labour intensive and labour is costly in these countries. However, in
country like India, where labouris abundant and is cheap. OF is seen as a good cost
effective solution to the increasing costs involved in chemical farming. Currently
most of the organic farmers in India are still in the transition phase and hence, their
costs are high. As these farmers continue with OF, the production costs are
expected to reduce, making India as one of the most important producers of organic
food.
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Lecture 4 CONCEPT OF ORGANIC FARMING
contents
4.1 Export of organic food from India (2002)
4.2 Concept of Organic Farming
4.3 Ethics of OF:
4.4 Objectives of OF (as per IFOAM)
4.5 Characteristics of OF
4.1 Export of organic food from India (2002)

Organic food items Sales (Tones)
Tea 3000
Coffee 550
Spices 700
Rice 2500
Wheat 1150
Pulses 300
Oil seed 100
Fruits and Vegetables 1800
Cashew nut 375
Cotton 1200
Herbal products 250
Total 11,925
Exports
No. of products exported: 18 items
Total quantity of exports: 63452 mt
Total agril. exports: Rs. 27720 crore
Organic exports: 0.32%
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4.2 Concept of Organic Farming

Modern agriculture largely depends on the use of fossil fuels based inputs such as
chemical fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and labour saving but energy intensive farm
machinery while, application of such high input technologies has undoubtedly
increased production and labour efficiency, there is a growing concern about the
adverse effects on soil productivity and environmental quality.
The generally accepted organic rules prohibit the use of synthetic fertilizers,
pesticides, growth regulators, livestock feed additives and stress on long term soil
management. Use local resources for nutrient supply and control of pests and diseases
restricting external inputs to the bare minimum.
It is soil-building mechanisms to keep soil alive. Keeping soil alive is the primary
concern of organic farming. In OF, soil and not the crop are fed. It is conversion of soil
from non-living to living.
Plants can absorb nutrients only in the form of minerals irrespective of the source of
manure. OF seeks to avoid direct use of readily soluble chemicals Eg-Muriate of potash
is a natural rock and is not permitted because it is readily soluble. On the other hand,
basic slag which is a product of iron ore is insoluble in water and hence, it is allowed.
4.3 Ethics of OF: Chemicalisation, excess irrigation, depletion of soil moisture,

depletion of organic carbon and organic matter content in soil, burning/wasting of
biomass, soil erosion or allowing the soil to dry etc., are all against the ethics of OF.
OF is not a goal to be attained. It is an ongoing process. It is a journey rather than a
destination.
According Lampkin (1990): Organic agriculture is a production system, which
avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic compounded fertilizers, pesticides,
growth regulators and livestock feed additives. To the maximum extent feasible,
organic farming system relies on crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures,
legumes, green manures, off-farm organic wastes and aspects of biological pest control
to maintain soil productivity and tilth, to supply plant nutrients and to control insects,
weeds and other pests.
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According to IFOAM: The role of organic agriculture whether in farming,

processing, distribution or consumption is to sustain and enhance the health of
ecosystem and organisms from the smallest of the soil to human beings.
The primary goal of OA is to optimize the health and production of inter dependent
communities of soil life, plant, animals and people.
According to Codex Alimentarius (Food code) Commission (CAC), OA is a holistic
food production management system, which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem
health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity.
OA is often termed as knowledge based rather than input based.
India needs nutritional security besides food security.
India stands 124th in the developmental index because of poor nutrition.
Organic foods and vegetables contain 40% antioxidants and beneficial
compounds and 90 % more of these compounds are in organic milk. Organic
foods are more nutritious than other foods.
Albert Howard sited several examples of good nutritive values of organic
food in his book”An Agricultural Testament”
OA is farming system devoid of chemical inputs, in which the biological potential
of the soil and underground water resources are conserved and protected from the
natural and human induced degradation or depletion by adapting suitable cropping
models including agro forestry and methods of organic replenishment; besides
natural and biological means are used for pest and disease management by which
the soil life and beneficial interactions are stimulated and sustained.
OF is a matter of giving back to nature what we tale from it (Fantilanan,
1990). It is safe, inexpensive, profitable and sensible. OF does not totally excludes
the elements of modern agriculture.
Different terms by diff people: i) Ecofriendly farming (farming in relation to
ecosystem) ii) Biological farming (farming in relation to biological diversity), iii)
Biodyanamic farming (biologically dynamic and ecologically sound and
sustainable), iv) Macrobiotic agriculture (agriculture in relation to macro fauna), v)
Natural farming etc., (based on natural farming which alone are sustainable).
OA has three principles, It must be
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a) Ecologically sound, b) Economically feasible and c)

Socially acceptable.
th
Till 20 century OF was not alternative, it was a way of life. Till today in many of
the poor nations, OF is a way of life as much as it is a method of farming.
OF is not a philosophy but a means of achieving sustainability in agriculture.
4.4 Objectives of OF (as per IFOAM)

To produce food of high nutritional quality in sufficient quantity
To work with natural system rather than seeking to dominate them.
To encourage and enhance biological cycles within farming system-involving
microorganisms, soil flora and fauna, plants and animals.
To maintain and increase long term fertility of soil
To use, as far as possible, the renewable resources. To work as much as possible,
within a closed system, wit regard to organic matter and nutrient elements
To give all livestocks, conditions of life that allow them to perform all aspects of
their innate behavior
To avoid all forms of pollution that may result from agricultural techniques
To maintain the genetic diversity of agricultural system and its surroundings,
including the plants and wild life habitats
To allow agricultural producers an adequate returns and satisfaction from their work
including safe drinking water
4.5 Characteristics of OF
Maximum but sustainable use of resources
Minimal use of purchased inputs, only as complementary to local resources
Ensuring the basic biological functions of soil-water-nutrients-human
continuum
Maintaining the diversity of plant and animal species as a basis for ecological
balance and economic stability
Creating an alternative overall landscape which give satisfaction to the local
people
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Increasing crop and animal diversity in the form of polycultures, agroforestry

systems, integrated crop-livestock systems etc.., to minimize the risk

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LECTURE IV
Aim: To study different methods of propagation and dissemination of weeds

PROPAGATION OF WEED SEEDS
PROPAGATION
Propagation is the process of multiplying or increasing the number of plants of the same
species and at the same time perpetuating their desirable characteristics. There are two general
methods of plant propagation: sexual and asexual propagation.
Reproduction by seed
Reproduction by seed is called sexual reproduction. It requires pollination and
fertilization of an egg which results in seed that is capable of producing a new plant. Seed
production varies greatly among and within weed species in part due to environmental variability
between years, competition from neighboring plants, and genetic variability. For example, while
Canada thistle has been observed to produce as few as 680 seeds per plant, Curly dock often
produces more than 30,000 seeds per plant.
Vegetative reproduction
In vegetative (asexual) reproduction, a new plant develops from a vegetative organ such
as a stem, root or leaf. Several modifications of these organs are common in perennial weeds,
such as underground stems (rhizomes), above-ground stems (stolons), bulbs, corms, and tubers.
Although vegetative structures generally do not survive as long in the soil as do seeds, very small
structures can result in a new plant. Canada thistle, for example, can produce a new plant from as
small as a 1/4-inch section of root.
Vegetative reproduction can be as prolific as seed production. Yellow nut-sedge (Cyperus
esculentus) has been reported to produce more than 1,900 new plants and more than 6,800 tubers
in 1 year.

Some of the vegetative propagules are described as follows:
 Rhizome: A horizontal, underground stem which can produce adventitious roots and
shoots (i.e., new plants) at the nodes. A rhizome can be distinguished from a root because
rhizomes have nodes, internodes, and scale leaves (rudimentary leaves). Roots do not
have nodes or leaves. Johnson grass is example.
 Stolon: An above-ground stem that grows flat on the ground and can produce
adventitious roots and shoots (i.e., new plants) at the nodes. Bermuda grass is example.
 Tuber: Enlarged terminal portion of rhizomes, possess extensive storage tissues and
axillary buds. Yellow nut sedge is example.
 Bulb: Specialized underground storage organ consisting of fleshy leaves with a short
stem at the base. Food storage in the leaves. Wild garlic is example.
 Creeping roots: Horizontal roots modified for food storage and vegetative reproduction
(can give rise to shoots). Often deep in the soil. Carolina horse nettle is example.
DISSEMINATION / DISPERSAL OF WEEDS

 A plant seed is a unique genetic entity, a biological individual. However, a seed is in a
diapause state, an essentially dormant condition, awaiting the ecological conditions that
will allow it to grow into an plant, and produce its own seeds.
 Seeds must therefore germinate in a safe place, and then establish themselves as a young
seedling, develop into a juvenile plant, and finally become a sexually mature adult that
can pass its genetic material on to the next generation.
 The chances of a seed developing are generally enhanced if there is a mechanism for
dispersing to an appropriate habitat at some distance away from the parent plant.
 The reason for dispersal is that closely related organisms have similar ecological
requirements. Obviously, competition with the parent plant will be greatly reduced if its

seeds have a mechanism to disperse some distance away. Their ability to spread and
remain viable in the soil for years makes eradication nearly impossible.
 Seeds have no way to move on their own, but they are excellent travellers. Plants have
evolved various mechanisms that disperse their seeds effectively.
 Many species of plants have seeds with anatomical structures that make them very
buoyant, so they can be dispersed over great distances by the winds.
 In the absence of proper means of their dispersal, weeds could not have moved from one
country to another.
 An effective dispersal of weed seeds and fruits requires two essentials a successful
dispersing agent and an effective adaptation to the new environment.
There are two ways of looking at weed seed dispersal:

 The expanding range and increasing population size of an invading weed species into a
new area
 The part of the process by which an established and stabilized weed species in an area
maintains itself within that area Dissemination includes two separate processes. They are
dispersal (leaving mother plant) and post-dispersal events (subsequent movement).
Dispersal of seed occurs in 4 dimensions viz.
1. Length
2. Width: Land/habitat/soil surface area phenomena
3. Height : soil depth, in the air
4. Time: shatters immediately after ripening (or) need harvesting activity to release seed
Common weed dispersal agents are Wind, Water, Animals, Human, Machinery, etc.
(a) Wind
Many seeds are well adapted to wind travel. Cottony coverings and parachute-like
structures allow seeds to float with the wind. Examples of wind-dispersed seeds include common
milkweed (Asclepias syriaca), common dandelion, Canada thistle, and perennial sowthistle
(Sonchus arvensis). Weed seeds and fruits that disseminate through wind possess special organs
to keep them afloat. Such organs are:
 Pappus – It is a parachute like modification of persistent calyx into hairs e.g.
Asteraceae family weeds - Tridax procumbens
 Comose - Some weed seeds are covered with hairs, partially or fully e.g. Calotropis
sp.
 Feathery, persistent styles - Styles are persistent and feathery e.g. Anemone sp.
 Baloon - Modified papery calyx that encloses the fruits loosely along with entrapped
air e.g. Physalis minima
 Wings - One or more appendages that act as wings e.g. Acer macrophyllum
Factors that influence wind dispersal:
 seed weight
 seed shape
 structures (wings or pappus)
 height of release
 wind speed and turbulence
(b) Water
Aquatic weeds disperse largely through water. They may drift either as whole plants,
plant fragments or as seeds with the water currents. Terrestrial weed seeds also disperse through
irrigation and drainage water. Weed seed often moves with surface water runoff into irrigation
water and ponds, where it is carried to other fields. Weeds growing in ditch banks along
irrigation canals and ponds are the major source of weed seed contamination of irrigation water.
Weed seed often remains viable in water for several years, creating a "floating seed bank"
and allowing weeds to disperse over large areas in moving water. Field bindweed seed, for
example, remains over 50 per cent viable after being submerged in water for more than 4 years.
Some seeds have special adaptations that aid in water travel. The seed pod of curly dock, for
example, is equipped with pontoons that carry the floating seed.
(c) Animals
Several weed species produce seeds with barbs, hooks, spines, and rasps that cling to the
fur of animals or to clothing and then can be dispersed to long distances. Farm animals carry
weed seeds and fruits on their skin, hair and hooves. This is aided by special appendages such as
Hooks (Xanthium strumarium), Stiff hairs (Cenchrus spp), Sharp spines (Tribulus terrestris) and
Scarious bracts (Achyranthus aspera). Even ants carry a huge number of weed seeds. Donkeys
eat Prosophis julifera pods.
Weed seeds are often ingested and passed through the digestive tracts of animals.
Animal droppings provide an ideal nutrient and moisture environment for weed germination.
Only a small percentage of the seed remains viable after exposure to an animal's digestive
enzymes. The ingested weed seeds are passed in viable form with animal excreta (0.2% in
chicks, 9.6% in calves, 8.7% in horses and 6.4% in sheep), which is dropped wherever the
animal moves. This mechanism of weed dispersal is called endozoochory e.g. Lantana seeds by

birds, Loranthus seeds stick on beaks of birds. Viable weed seeds are present in the dung of farm
animals, which form part of the FYM. Besides, addition of mature weeds to compost pit as farm
waste also act as source.
(d) Dispersal by Man
Man disperses numerous weed seeds and fruits with raw agricultural produce. Weeds
mature at the same time and height along with crop. Due to their similar size and shape as that of
crop seed man unknowingly harvest the weeds also, and aids in dispersal of weed seeds. Such
weeds are called “Satellite weeds” e.g. Avena fatua, Phalaris minor.
(e) Dispersal by machinery

Weed seeds often are dispersed by tillage and harvesting equipments. Seeds move from
field to field on the soil that sticks to tractor tires, and vegetative structures often travel on tillage
and cultivation equipment and latter dropping them in other fields to start new infestation. Disc-
type cultivation equipment is less likely to drag vegetative plant parts than are shovels or sweeps.
(f) Intercontinental movement of weeds

Introduction of weeds from one continent to another is through crop seed, feed stock,
packing material and nursery stock e.g. Parthenium hysterophorus
(g) Crop mimicry dispersal

Weed seed adaptations to look like crop seed: plant body or seed same size, shape, and
morphology as crop e.g. barnyard grass biotype looking like rice escapes hand weeding and is
dispersed with rice. Nightshade fruit (berries) are same size, shape as dry beans, harvested and
dispersed with beans.
(h) As admixtures with crop seed, animal feed, hay, and straw
Weeds probably are spread more commonly during the seeding of a new crop or in
animal feed and bedding than by any other method. Seed labels often indicate a tiny percentage
of weed seed, but consider this example. If a legume seed contains 0.001 percent dodder (a
parasitic annual; Cuscuta campestris) seed by weight, there will be eight dodder seeds per 2 kg
of legume seed. If the legume seed is sown in a field despite an extremely low dodder seed
percentage by weight, the small size of the seed, combined with rapid early-season growth, could
result in an infested legume field within a single season.

Lecture No. 5
ORGANIC PRODUCTION REQUIREMENTS
CONTENTS
5.1 COMPONENTS OF OF:
5.2 NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT IN OF
5.3 LIMITING NUTRIENT LOSSES
5.4 ORGANIC MANURES
5.5 FARM YARD MANURE (FYM)
5.5.1 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE QUALITY OF FYM
5.5.2 ENRICHMENT OF FYM
5.1 Components of OF:

i. Organic manures
Organic manures such as FUM, biogas slurry, compost, straw or other crop
residues, biofertilizers, green manures and cover crops can substitute for inorganic
fertilizers to maintain the environmental quality. Organic farmers may also use the see
weeds, fish manures and some permitted fertilizers like basic slag and rock phosphate.
ii Non-chemical weed control measures
Mechanical weed control, especially in row crops. No herbicides are used.
Cultural, biological and physical methods are resorted to. Botanical herbicides,
mycoherbicides and bioagents are employed to control weeds.
ii. Biological pest management
Non-chemical, biological pest management is encouraged. Natural enemies of
pests are encouraged. Botanical pesticides such as those derived from neem could be
used. Microbial pesticides like Bacillus thuringiensis is used.
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5.2 Nutrient management in OF

The first task in OF is to protect the soil fertility and health. Use of organic
manures, crop rotation, use of crop residues, green manures, intercropping with legumes,
use of biofertilizers etc., are resorted to.
5.3 Limiting nutrient losses

Better recycling of wastes
Handling of organic wastes
Application of organic matter at right time, method and quantity
Reducing run off by following conservation practices
Conservation of organic matter by decreasing burning of crop residues
In wet land, deceasing denitrification losses of nutrients
Nutrient release and time of uptake must be synchronized
Cropping pattern
Pumping of nutrient by hedge row planting
Minimizing the exports of nutrients from the farm
5.4 Organic manures
The organic manures are derived from biological sources like plant, animal and
human residues. These organic manures contain loa amounts of plant nutrients but,
organic matter, other than nutrients, present in large quantity hence, they are also called
as bulky organic manures. Among various bulky organic manures, FYM, compost, green
manure, concentrated manures, vermicompost, oil cakes are most widely used.
5.5 Farm Yard Manure (FYM)
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Farmyard manure (FYM) is decomposed mixture of cattle dung and urine with
straw and litter used as bedding material and residues from the fodder fed to cattle. The
waste material of cattle consisting of dung and urine soaked in the refuse of the shed is
collected daily and placed in trenches of about 6 m long, 2 m wide and 1 m deep. A
section of 2-3’ from one end of the trench is first selected for filling. The trench is filled
up to a height of about 50 cm above ground level and plastered over with slurry of cow
dung and earth. The material is allowed to decompose undisturbed for 3-4 months for
anaerobic micro organisms to complete fermentation.
FYM become ready to apply after 3-4 months. It is spread evenly over 3-4 weeks
before sowing, mixed with soil by hand hoe or cultivator. Well-decomposed FYM
contains 0.5% N, 0.2% P2O5 and 0.5 % K2O. Cow dung from biogas plant is also utilized
in similar manner.
5.5.1 Factors influencing the quality of FYM

Kind of animal species
Kind of bedding material
Kind of fodder fed to cattle
Age of the animal
Manner of collection in the shed
Storage in the pit etc.,
5.5.2 Enrichment of FYM

The recommended dose of P and K2O for the crops is mixed with 750 kg of
sieved FYM. The mixture is spread in the form of heap and plastering is done with red
earth paste. This anaerobic process is maintained for 30 days. Then the N fertilizer
recommended for the crop is mixed and applied immediately before sowing.
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Lecture No. 6
COMPOST
CONTENTS
6.1 PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSTING
6.2 ORGANIC RESOURCES AVAILABLE FOR COMPOSTING
6.3 ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR COMPOSTING
6.4 METHODS OF COMPOSTING
6.4.1 Bangalore method of composting
6.4.2 Indore method
6.4.3 NADEP Method
6.5 ESTABLISHMENT ACTIVITIES
6.6 MAINTENANCE
6.7 BENEFITS
Compost
Composting is a process by which organic wastes are converted into organic
fertilizers by means of biological activity under controlled conditions. It is an important
technique for recycling organic (agricultural and industrial) wastes and for improving the
quality and quantity of organic fertilizers.
Composting is a self heating, thermophilic and aerobic biological process occurs
naturally in heaps of biodegradable process and is carried out by different kinds of
heterophyllic microorganisms, bacteria, fungi, actinomyctes and protozoa, which derive
their energy and carbon requirements from the decomposition of carbonaceous materials.
6.1 Principles of composting

Compost making includes three important principles
i. Narrowing down of C: N ratio to a satisfactory level (10:1 to 2:1)
ii. Total destruction of harmful pathogens and
iii. Destruction of weed seeds by high temperature (60-65o C)
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6.2 Organic resources available for composting

i. Livestock and human wastes
ii. Crop residues, tree litter and weeds
iii. Green manure
iv. Urban and rural wastes
iv. Agro industrial by-products
v. Marine wastes
In India, it is estimated that the annual production of dung and urine of livestock
and human beings amounts to about 2000 mt with the potential to supply 6.4, 2.0 and 2.7
mt of N, P2O and K2O, respectively.
6.3 Essential requirements for composting

i. Bulky organic refuse: stubbles, cotton stalks, tur stalks, ground
nut shell, weeds, leaves, dust bin refuse etc.
ii. Starter material: Cattle dung, urine, night soil, sewage, urea,
rockphosphate or any other readily available nitrogenous
substance and microbial cultures.
iii. Water: to keep the moisture content of the material at a level of
50%.
iv. Air: especially in initial stages of decomposition.
6.4 Methods of composting

a) Indore method, b) Activated compost, c) Bangalore method, d) NADEP method,
e) Coimbatore method, f) Synthetic compost, g) Windrow composting (leaf compost), h)
Accelerated composting and enrichment, i) Phospho-compost, j) Reinforced compost
from sugarcane trash and press mud and k) Japanese method of composting.
6.4.1 Bangalore method of composting

Dr. Acharya developed this method for the utilization of town residues and night
soil. It is hot fermentation method. The compost production depot is located on the city
outskirts. First, refuse is filled in the trench to about 15 cm height. The night soil is
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spread over this to a layer of 5 cm. After filling the pit with refuse and night soil in
alternate layers, the pit is filled to 15 cm above the ground level with a final layer of 15
cm on the top. This may be made dome-shaped and converted with thin layer of soil with
red earth or mud to prevent moisture loss and breeding of flies. The materials are allowed
to remain as such without any turning and pot watering for about three months. The
compost obtained by this method contains 1.5% N, 1.0% P2O and 1.5 % K2O,
respectively.
6.4.2 Indore method

Waste materials are chopped into 5-10 cm pieces and dried to 40-50 % moisture
level. They are spread in layers of 10-15 cm thickness either in pits or in heaps of 1 m
width, 4-5 m length and 1 m depth. The heap is properly moistened with dung using earth
or night soil. Sufficient quantity of water is sprinkled over the heap to wet the composting
materials to the level of 50 % moisture. Periodical turnings (15, 30 and 60 days) are given
to aerate and material is covered with a thin layer of soil (2-3 thickness). The average
composition of manure: 0.8% N, 0.3% P2O and 1.5 % K2O, respectively.
Disadvantages: a) Requires labour for turning, b) Not practicable if large
quantity of material is there, c) Site should be at elevated level, near a cattle shed and
water source.
6.4.3 NADEP Method

The Nadep method of making miracle compost was first invented by afarmer named N.D.
andharipande (also popularly known as “Nadepkaka”)living in Maharashtra (India). The method,
which has become quite popularamong the farmers in Western India, now bears his name. The
Nadep method of making compost is unique not because it is successful in making good
compost, which other methods can also lay claim to;its real secret lies in the large quantities of
compost the process can deliverwith a minimum of human effort within a specific period of time.
The process basically involves placing select layers of different types of compostible materials in
a simple, mud-sealed structure designed with brick and mud water. The system permits
conversion of approximately 1 kg of animal dung into 40 kg of rich compost which can then be
applied directly to the field. The multiplication factor is significant in view of the fact that in the
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tropics, there is rapid decomposition of organic materials in the soil. This organic matter must be
replaced and replenished if agricultural fertility is not to go on declining. The problem is there is
a scarcity of compostible materials, particularly animal dung, prevailing within the country. (A
good proportion of animal dung is dried and used as fuel in many rural areas.) Thus, even if all
available organic materials, including dung, were religiously and scrupulously collected, they
would still not be sufficient to replace the organic constituents of the vast quantities of India’s
fast-degrading soils. The Nadep method of composting actually enables the farmer to get around
the difficulty of generation of mass and to increase the quantity of compost rapidly within a
given frame of time and without any significant additional expense.
Name of person or institution responsible for the practice or experience is Dr. Kumarappa
Gowardhan Kendra
The NADEP method of organic composting was developed by a Gandhian worker called
Narayan Deotao Pandharipande of Maharastra (Pusad). Compost can be prepared from a wide
range of organic materials including dead plant material such as crop residues, weeds, forest
litter and kitchen waste. Compost making is an efficient way of converting all kinds biomass into
high value fertilizer that serves as a good alternative to farmyard manure, especially for crop-
growing households without livestock.
Description
This method of making compost involves the construction of a simple, rectangular brick
tank with enough spaces maintained between the bricks for necessary aeration. The
recommended size of the tank is 10 ft (length) x 5 ft (breadth) x 3 ft (height). All the four walls
of NADEP tank are provided with 6// vents by removing every alternate brick after the height of
1ft. from bottom for aeration. Tank can be constructed in mud mortar or cement mortar.
6.5 ESTABLISHMENT ACTIVITIES

_ Raw materials required for filling NADEP tank:
_ Agricultural waste (Dry & green) – 1350-1400 kgs.
_ Cattle dung or biogas slurry – 98 – 100 kgs.
_ fine sieved soil – 1675 kgs.
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_ Water – 1350-1400 litres.

_ The important technique in the manufacture of Nadep compost is that the entire tank should be
filled in one go, within 24 hours and should not go beyond 48 hours, as this would affect the
quality of the compost. Thatched roof BRICKW ALL Flooring Air vents Green-farm
technologies for small and marginal farms Resources Center for Sustainable Development_
Before filling; the tank is plastered by dilute cattle dung slurry to facilitate bacterial activity from
all four sides. It is also filled in definite layers each layer consisting of the following sub layers.
Sub-layer-1
4 to 6// thick layer of fine sticks, stems, (To facilitate aeration) followed by 4 to 6// layer ofdry
and green biomass.
Sub-layer-2
4 kgs. Cow dung is mixed with 100 litres of water and sprinkled thoroughly on the agricultural
waste to facilitate microbial activity.
Sub-layer-3
60 kgs. of fine dry soil is spread uniformly over the soaked biomass for moisture retention and
acts as a buffer during biodegradation. Thus the proportion of organic materials for each layer is
100 kgs. Organic biomass: 4kgs.cowdung + 100 litres water+60 kgs soil. In this way,
approximately 10 -12 layers are filled in each tank. After filling the tank, biomass is covered
with 3// thick layer of soil and sealed with cow dung +mud plaster.
6.6 MAINTENANCE
After 15-30 days of filling the organic biomass in the tank gets automatically pressed
down to 2 ft. The tank is refilled by giving 2-3 layers over it and is resealed. After this filling the
tank is not disturbed for 3 months except that it is moistened at intervals of every 6-15 days. The
entire tank is covered with a thatched roof to prevent excessive evaporation of moisture. Under
no circumstances should any cracks be allowed to develop. If they do, they should be promptly
filled up with slurry.
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6.7 BENEFITS
Reduced cash expenses on chemical fertilizer, improved soil fertility, increased crop
yield_ Supports organic crop production, reduced dependence on outside inputs_ From each
NADEP tank approximately 2.5 tons of compost is prepared with in 90-120
days._ The use of compost reduced the need for mineral fertilizer thus reducing production costs
and outside dependence.
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Lecture No.7
GREEN MANURING
CONTENTS
8.1 TYPES OF GREEN MANURING
8.2 ADVANTAGES OF GREEN MANURING
8.3 DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS FOR LEGUME GREEN MANURE CROPS
Legume effect has been successfully utilised in green manuring. The amount of
nitrogen fixed by ordinary green manure crop like Dhaincha, Sunhamp, etc. may average
about 60 kg/ha. However, the amount of nitrogen accumulated by green manure crop is
not likely to be able to provide to the level of nitrogen currently needed by high yielding
varieties. Therefore, integrated use of both chemical fertilizer and green manuring is best
solution.
Green manuring
The practice of ploughing or turning into the soil undecomposed green plant
tissue for the purpose of improving physical condition as well as fertility of soil is
referred to as green manuring and the manures obtained by this method is known as green
manures. The use of green manure in crop production is recorded in China as early as
1134 BC.
8.1 Types of green manuring
1) Green manuring in situ: Any crop or palnt (generally leguminous) grown and
ploughed in situ is called green manuring in situ.
E.g.: Sesbania (Sesbania speciosa), dhaindia (Sesbania aculeate), sunhemp

(Crotolaria juncea), Phillipesara (Phaseolus trilobus), cowpea (Vigna anguiculata),
greengram (Mungbean) (Vigna radiata), black gram (Vigna mungo), berseem
(Trifolium alexandrium) etc.
2) Green leaf manuring: Consists of gathering green biomass (tender leaves and
twigs) from nearby location (bunds, field boundaries) and adding it to the soil.
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E.g.: Cassia auriculata, neem (Azadiracta indica), Glyricidia (Glyricidia maculate),

Leucaena leucocephala, Cassia tora, Tephrosia purpurea, Vitex nigundo, karanj
(Pongamia glabra), calotropis (Calotropis gigantea) etc,.
Green manuring
Legumes Non-legumes
Green manures Green leaf manures

E.g.-Dhaincha, sunhemp, E.g. Glyricidia, cassia,
Green gram, cowpea, soybeam Pongamia glabra, subabul
Green manure Green leaf manure

E.g. Sunflower, sesbania, E.g.: Calotropis, adathoda
Buck wheat, desmodium thespesia
Centroseme, crotolaria
8.2 Advantages of green manuring
1. Helps in improving physical and chemical properties of soil. E.g. Builds up soil
structure, improves tilth, formation of crumbs in heavy soil, increases water
holding capacity
2. Green manure crops absorb nutrients from the lower layer of soils and leave them
in the soil surface layer when ploughed in for use by the succeeding crops.
3. Helps to maintain OM status of soil.
4. Acts as source of food and energy to soil microbes and increases their population.
5. Helps in release of nutrients in available form for use by the crops. E.g. GM crop
increases the solubility of lime phosphate because of increase in microbial
activity.
6. Prevents leaching of nutrients to lower layers.
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7. Increases aeration of rice soils by stimulating the activities of surface films of

algae and bacteria.
8. It reduces soil temperature and protects the soil from the erosion action of water
as it forms canopy cover on the soil.
9. Leguminous green manure plants helps in N-fixation and adds the same to the
soil. E.g. 60-100 kg N/ha in single season.
Green manures 60 to 200 kg N/ha
Crotolaria juncea (sun hemp) 17 t/ha biomass, 160 kg N/ha
Dhainchia (Sesbania aculeata) 25-26 t/ha biomass, 18.5 kg N/ha
10. Helps in soil amelioration. E.g. Sesbania aculcata (Dhaincha) in soil – when
applied continuously for 4-5 seasons, green leaf manuring crops like Argenone
maxicana and Tamarindus indicus has buffering effect in sodic soils.
11. Certain green manure like pongamia and neem leaves are reported to control
insects.
12. Increases yield to the extent of 15-20 per cent compared to no green manuring.
8.3 Desirable characteristics for legume green manure crops
1. Multipurpose use
2. Short duration, fast growing, high nutrient accumulation ability
3. Tolerance to shade, flood, drought and adverse temperatures.
4. Wide ecological adaptability
5. Efficiency in use of water
6. Early onset of biological N-fixation
7. High N accumulation rates
8. Timely release of nutrients
9. Photoperiod insensitivity
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10. High seed production, high seed viability
11. Ease in incorporation
12. Ability to cross inoculate or responsive to inoculation
13. Pest and disease resistance
14. High N sinks in underground plant parts
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Lecture No.8
VERMICOMPOSTING
CONTENTS
9.1 Commonly used species
9.2 Preparation of vermicompost
9.3 Enemies of earthworm
9.4 Benefits of vermicompost
9.5 Use of vermicompost in agriculture
9.6 Origin and evolution of earthworm
9.7 Basic characteristics of earthworm suitable for vermicomposting
9.8 Maintenance of base culture
9.9 Methods of vermicomposting
Vermicomposting
Darwin (1881) was the first to show that earthworms affect soil formation and
development.
9.1 Commonly used species: Eisenia foetida, Perionyx excavatus, Eudrilus eugeniae,
Lumbricus rubellus, L. terrestris.
Eudrilus eugenia – African night crawler
Eisenia foetida – Tiger worm
Perionyx excavatus – Indian blue
Vermiculture is culturing of earthworms: Earthworms effectively harness the beneficial

soil microflora, destroy soil pathogens and convert organic wastes into valuable products
known as cast which contains biofertilizers, vitamins, enzymes, antibiotics, growth
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hormones and proteinaceous worm biomass. Hence earthworms are called as ‘artificial
fertilizer factories’.
• Earthworm is nocturnal
• Clitellum – adult stage
• Two adults meet and lay egg within a week. Eggs are of coriander seed shape.
• Earthwork take MO through the food. MO multiply in the in intestine of

earthworm and they come out with casts. It contains various types of bacteria,
actinomycetes, enzymes, vitamins and micronutrients.
9.2 Preparation of vermicompost
Pit size: 10 m x 1 m x 0.3 m
In irrigated area and heavy rainfall areas – above ground.
• Drench with chloropyriphos @ 2 ml/lit of H2O. Leave for one week and then go
for filling the pit in the following manner.
7. Paddy straw / sugarcane trash
6. Black soil
5. Green leaves
4. Dung biogas slurry
3. Crop residue
2. Dung / biogas slurry
1. Coconut coir or any material

which is having higher WHC
Crop residues 15 to 10 cm thickness; Black soil 3-5 cm; Other layers 6 to 10 cm
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Apply water @ 30 to 60 litres for 16 days. Leave 1000 to 2000 worms of suitable
species (E. eugeniae) at about 10 cm depth.
Worm multiplication and compost production will be higher if sugarcane trash,

sunflower or bajra residues are used.
Keep the pit always moist (30-60% moisture) by daily watering (@ 50 lit) during
summer or twice a week during rainy season. Provide shade to the pit.
• Vermicompost production is seen after 45 days of leaving worms to the pit. It will
be complete in 80-90 days. Residue will be converted to vermicompost (75%).
• To collect / take vermicompost from the pit, leave the pit without watering for
about 3 days. Worm will move to deeper layer due to lack of moisture in the
upper layer. Take out the compost from the upper layer and sieve the compost and
store it in a gunny bag under shade.
• About 2 to 4 t vermicompost will be produced from one gunta area in 3 months

and 6 to 12 t vermicompost will be produced from one gunta in one year.
• Earthworm complete their life cycle within 90 days by which time they multiply
about 40 to 50 times. In vermicompost, eggs, nymphs and adults (all forms /
stages) are found.
9.3 Enemies of earthworm
Termites, ants, rats, centipedes, frog, birds, pig, etc. Termites and ants are main
enemies.
Control
1. Chloropyriphos @ 2 ml/lit
2. Maintain 40-50% moisture in the pit (for controlling termites, ants and rats)
3. Plant turmeric plants around the pit.
4. Open small trench around the pit and put bavistin powder in it.
9.4 Benefits of vermicompost
1. It contains NPK (0.8 : 1.1 : 0.5%)
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2. It contains micronutrients (Mg, Fe, Bo, Mo, Zn), growth regulators and beneficial
MO.
3. It increases WHC of soil.
4. It increases aeration in soil.
5. Decreases salinity and increases availability of nutrients.
6. Reduces soil erosion.
7. Decreases cost of cultivation.
8. Reduction in incidence of diseases and pests
9. Increases yield.
9.5 Use of vermicompost in agriculture
1. For almost all crops, apply vermicompost @ 2.5 t/acre at the time of sowing.
2. Vermiculturing (in situ): Leave worms in the field. Maintain sufficient moisture
by regular irrigation and lot of crop residues. Crop residues have to be there in the
field. Don’t apply chemicals or chemical fertilizers to soil but through the leaves.
3. Spray the vermiwash on the crop (it contains micronutrients, growth regulators
and MO) (Coelomic fluid-antibacterial)
Primary degradation by microorganisms and secondary degradation by

earthworm. All microorganisms multiply several times in earthworm guts. These
microorganisms do biogradation than actual earthworms.
9.6 Origin and evolution of earthworm
No such scientific information on origin and evolution of earthworm because of

their soft body and decay quickly. So fossils are not found. However,
1. Stepheson (1930) – stated that earthworm originated in around 120 m years ago,
after origin of dicot plants.
2. Others – Earthworm originated prior to origin of dicots, i.e., 570 m years agro.
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Clitellum: Glandular portion of epidermis associated with cocoon production (cocoon –

nothing but eggs or cases). It indicates sexual maturity.
Vermiculture: Only culture of earthworm and multiplication.
Vermicomposting: Management of earthworm to produce compost.
9.7 Basic characteristics of earthworm suitable for vermicomposting
1. Should have high rates of consumption, digestion and assimilation.
2. Should have high adaptability to varying environmental factors (temperature,

rainfall, relative humidity, etc.). Soil temperature should not be >35°C. No
stagnation of water for > 45 days.
3. Should have feeding preference and adaptability to wide range of organic

materials.
4. Should have high growth rate.
5. Should have compatibility with other worms.
6. Should have disease resistance.
7. Should have least inactivity period (time taken for earthworm for feeding after
introduction).
9.8 Maintenance of base culture
For initial multiplication, best substrate is cow dung. Base culture should be
multiplied on this substrate. For any commercial venture, maintenance of seed culture is a
must. Mixing of cow dung + pieces of banana pseudostem in 1 : 1 ratio gives more
number of worms due to more multiplication rate. One year old semi-decomposed rice
straw makes the worm to lay as many cocoons as possible.
9.9 Methods of vermicomposting
1. Indoor (small scale production)
2. Outdoor (large scale production)
a. Pit system
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b. Heap system
c. Brick system
d. Kadapa slab method
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Lecture No. 9
Recycling of organic residues
CONTENTS
10.1 INTRODUCTION
10.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC RESIDUES
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Agricultural wastes can be considered to include crop after harvest and primary
processing, tree residues, organic / plant residues from social forestry, animal excreta and
processing left over from the slaughter. Lower and agro-industrial wastes. Thus,
agricultural wastes comprise all organic wastes produced and disposed off or used in
primary agricultural production. It is estimated that these organic wastes available in
India can supply about 7.1, 3.0 and 7.6 mt of N, P2O5 and K2O, respectively. The
important organic wastes potential in India:
Animal wastes 2018 mt
Crop residue 407 mt
Municipal wastes 29 mt
Rice husk 15 mt
Rice bran 2.5 mt
Bagasse 5.3 mt
Press mud 2.0 mt
Saw dust 2.2 mt
Conversion of all the available organic wastes in India can yield 2014 mt of solid
organic manure.
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700 mt of plant biomass
2000 mt animal excreta including humans.
Chinese are most efficient in recycling all organic wastes.
10.2 Classification of organic residues (sources of organic residues)
1. Livestock and human wastes: Human excreta, livestock dung and urine,
byproduct of slaughter houses and animal carcases, blood, bones, horns,
hooves, leather, hair, bonemeal, horn and hoof meal.
2. Crop residues, tree wastes and aequatic weeds
3. Green manures
4. Urban and rural wastes. E.g. rural and urban solid wastes, sewage and sullage
5. Agro-industrial byproducts: E.g. Oil cakes, paddy husk and bran, bagasse and
pressmud, saw dust, fruit and vegetable wastes, tea and tobacco wastes, etc.
6. Marine wastes. E.g. Fish mean and sea weeds.
7. Tank silts.
1. 80 to 90% of inorganic nutrients ingested by animals in their feed is excreted in

faeces and urine. The nutrients in the animal manure depends on the age and type of
animal, nature of work, the feed fed to the cattle, the bedding material used, etc. The
proportion of organic matter excreted is equivalent to about 40 per cent of organic matter
intake. Urine is normally low in phosphorus and high in potassium, whereas equal parts
of nitrogen is excreted in the faeces and urine of cattle.
a) Sheep and goat manure : 3% N, 1 P2O5 and 2% K2O
b) Poultry manure : 3.03% N, 2.63% P2O5 and 1.4% K2O
c) Blood meal : 10 to 12 % N, 1 to 2% P2O5 and 1% K2O
d) Fish manure : 4 to 10% N, 3 to 9% P2O5 and 0.3 to 1.5% K2O
e) Bone meal : 4% N, 20% P2O5 (raw bone mean), 1 to 2% N, 22 to

24% P2O5 (steamed bone meal)
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Human excreta
Night soil: 5.5% N, 4% P2O5 and 2% K2O
2. Crop residue
Cereal straw and residues : 0.5% N, 0.6% P2O5 and 1.5% K2O
Availability of crop residues : Rice (118.9 mt), wheat (57.5 mt), maize (21.0 mt), millets
(40.0 mt), sorghum (41.0 mt) and sugarcane (43.0 mt).
Cotton : Stalks, leaves, flowers, roots and bark, stems, press wood, cotton dust.
Tobacco : Leaf scrap, stalks
Rice milling : Rice bran, rice husk, straw
Sugarcane : Trash, bagasse, molasses, pressmud (1-1.5% N, 4-5% P2O5 and 2-7%
K2O – pressmud)
Cereals : Leaves, stalks, etc.
Weeds : Water hyacinth, Ipomoea, lantana, cassia, etc.
3. Green manure
4. Urban and rural wastes
Sewage
5. Farm residues
Fruit and vegetable wastes
Mango (peels and kernel), pineapple (peels, cores, trimmings), citrus fruits (peels,
pomace, cull fruits and seeds), guava (peels, pomace and seeds), peach (peels and cores),
plum (stone), grape (stalks, pomace, seed, and rottens), banana (peels), tomato (seeds and
pomace), potato (peels, rottons from cold storage), mushroom (stalks, cuttings,
trimmings)
Plantation industry
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Coconut (coir dust), arecanut (husk, leaf sheath and leaves), cashewnuts (cashew
apple, testa, shell liquid), tea (tea wastes), coffee (husk or pulpy mass), rubber (rubber
sticks, leaves, mill wastes).
Oil seed industry:
Ground nut is important crop followed by rape seed and mustard, sesamum,
linseed and castor. Oil seeds- (i) Edible. E.g. Groundnut, safflower, sesamum, cotton,
coconut, (ii) Non-edible: E.g. pongamia, mahua and neem cake.
Non-edible cakes are used as manures especially for horticultural crops. Nutrients
present in cakes are made available to crops 7 to 10 days after application.
Sugar milling industry
Bagasse: 33% is bagasse. Apart, it is used in producing pulp, paper board, etc., a portion
of bagasse could be utilised as both for fuel and manure if it is processed through biogas
plants. 0.25% N, 0.12% P2O5, after composting: 1.4% N, 0.4% P2O5.
Pressmud: 1.25% N, 2% P2O5 and 20-25% organic matter. After composting: 1.4% N
and 1.0-1.5% P2O5. It is very high in lime (45%). It is good to apply in acidic soil.
Sawdust: It is wide in C/N ratio (400 : 1). It absorbs 2-4 times more moisture than straw /
cereal residues. It can be used as a good absorbatn for soaking urine in cattlesheds and
bedding materials for cattle. Can be used as mulching material.
6. Fishery and marine industry
Sea food and canning industry is an important industry. Prawn shell and head fish
and frog legs are the main byproducts of this industry (4 to 10% N, 3 to 9% P2O5 and 0.3
to 0.5% K2O).
Marine algae and sea weeds: 1 to 2% P2O5 and 2 to 7% K2O and a number of trace
elements.
7. Tank silts
It consists of a large proportion of finer soil particles of silt and clay and organic
matter carried by run-off water from the surrounding soil to the tanks during heavy rains.
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It contains 0.3% N, 0.3% P2O5 and p.3% K2O. It is an active culture of microorganisms,
especially the N-fixers.
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Lecture 10
INTRODUCTION TO BIOFERTILIZERS
CONTENTS
11.1 INTRODUCTION
11.2 DEFINITION
11.3 IMPORTANCE
11.4 BENEFITS
11.1 INTRODUCTION
According to an estimate 240 million tonnes of food grains will be required to feed about
one billion expected populations by 2000 AD in India and to achieve this milestone, a sizable
quantity of mineral fertilizers will be required. The total fertilizer requirements of our country
would be 23 million tonnes as against the present consumption level of 13 million tonnes per
annum. The problem is so acute that it is beyond any single type of nutrient source to accept the
challenge of appropriate nutrient supply. Integrated use of all the sources such as mineral
fertilizers, organic manures, biofertilizers, etc. is the only alternate for improving soil fertility.
The use of organic manures and mineral fertilizers is in practice but use of biofertilizer in
agriculture is not very popular. Hence, there is a need to make its use popular. The increased cost
of fertilizer production coupled with progressively increasing use of chemical fertilizers
particularly needed by HYV (High Yielding Varieties) are adding to the cost of cultivation of
crops and causing nutritional enhancement in Indian agriculture. Recent energy crisis, rapid
depletion of non renewable energy sources like naptha, natural gas, sulphur, etc. their production
also releases pollutants, nutrient potential from all organic sources in India is over 19 million
tonne/year which is adequate requirement to meet 70 per cent of the projected nutrient
requirement for the decade ending 2000 A.D
Nutrient need of growing plant can be met through a number of sources. The major sources of
plant nutrient are minerals fertilizer, organic manure, recycled waste and byproduct, biological
nitrogen fixation (BNF), natural minerals and to lesser extent nutrient recycled through irrigation
water and precipitation. These supplement major plant nutrients and the plant productivity for
sustainable agriculture. They are important and cost effective inputs in agriculture, plantation and
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commercial crops. Microbial inoculants/biofertilizers on their application multiplies in

rhizosphere soil and benefits the growing crops. If the soil conditions are favorable, the
populations of added microorganism are built up in the rhizosphere of plants and frequent
application of microbial inoculants can be avoided. They are inexpensive and help in reducing
the consumption of chemical fertilizers. The cost of production of biofertilizer is low and so is
the selling price. On nutrient basis, one tonne of Rhizobium inoculants is equivalent to 100
tonnes of inorganic fertilizer
It has now become possible to meet a large part of our total nitrogen demand through
proper husbandry of BNF (Biological Nitrogen Fixation) by micro-organism (bio-fertilizers) in
crop production systems. Bio-fertilizers are capable of providing an economically viable level
for achieving the ultimate goal of enhanced productivity.
11.2 DEFINITION
'Biofertilizer' is a substance which contains living microorganisms which, when applied
to seed, plant surfaces, or soil, colonizes the rhizosphere or the interior of the plant and promotes
growth by increasing the supply or availability of primary nutrients to the host plant.
Biofertilizers (BF) (microbial nutrients) are the products containing living cells of
different types of microorganisms which have an ability to mobilize nutritionally important
elements from non usable to usable form through biological process. Although the advent of the
phenomena is as old as a century, the need of its commercial exploitation was not felt in
traditional agriculture. In recent years, biofertilizers have emerged as an important component of
INSS (Integrated Nutrient Supply System) and hold a promise to improve the crop yields and
nutrient supplies.
Biofertilizers are not fertilizers. Fertilizers directly increase soil fertility by adding
nutrients. Biofertilizer, a term which refer to all such microorganism which add, fix, mobilize or
solubilize the nutrient in simpler form which is easily used by plants. There significance lies in
their ability to supplement/mobilize soil nutrient with minimal use of non-renewable resources
and as components of integrated plants nutrient systems. Biofertilizers are more aptly termed as
Microbial/Bacterial or Fungal inoculants. Biofertilizers add nutrients through the natural
processes of fixing atmospheric nitrogen, solubilizing phosphorus, and stimulating plant growth
through the synthesis of growth promoting substances. Biofertilizers can be expected to reduce
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the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. The microorganisms in biofertilizers restore the
soil's natural nutrient cycle and build soil organic matter. Through the use of biofertilizers,
healthy plants can be grown while enhancing the sustainability and the health of soil.
Biofertilizers are very similar to compost tea. They can be thought of as an engineered compost
tea where only the microorganisms that are most beneficial are used.
11.3 Importance
The increase in the productivity during the green revolution period is accompanied by an
exponential increase in consumption of non-renewable sources of energy. In view of the fast
diminishing energy sources comined with their escaling cast.
11.4 Benefits
1) Germination increase up to 20 percent. Improved seedling emergence and growth.
2) Increase yield from 10 to 40 percent.
3) Improve the quality of fruit and keeping quality.
4) Saving of 25 to 35 percent inorganic fertilizers.
5) Increase the availability and up take of N and P in plants.
6) Improve the status of soil fertility maintain good soil health and crop productivity.
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Lecture No. 11
SOIL IMPROVEMENTS AND SOIL AMENDMENTS
CONTENTS
12.1 Saline and alkali soils
12.2 Saline soil (white alkali)
12.3 Sodic soil (black alkali/non-saline alkali)
12.4 Saline-alkali land
12.5 Effects of soil salinity and alkalinity
12.6 Acid soils
12.7 More about Saline Soils
12.1 Saline and alkali soils
When the chloride (Cl-), sulphate (SO4=), carbonate (CO3=) and bicarbonate
(HCO3=) salts of sodium (Na+), calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) are increased in
soil, the soil becomes saline and alkali. On the basis of amount of salts, average quantity
of exchangeable sodium and pH, such soils are classified as saline, alkali and saline-
alkali soils.
12.2 Saline soil (white alkali)
Characteristics
High toxic concentration of soluble salts in the rootzone. Soluble salts are Cl- and
SO42- of Na, Ca and Mg. Electrical conductivity (EC) of soil solution saturated extract is
more than 4.0 dS/m at 25°C, ESP is <15% and pH is <8.5.
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Formation of saline soil
Common in arid and semi-arid regions having rainfall less than 55 cm. Lots of
salts are deposited on soil surface in saline soils and saline soil layer shines white in dry
season.
Favourable conditions
i) High water table with a fairly high salt concentration
ii) High temperature
iii) Low rainfall
Sources of salts: Soil, ground water, irrigation water, canal and sea.
Reclamation
i) Remove excess salt to a desired level in the rootzone
ii) Leach with good quality water
iii) Give adequate drainage
iv) Intermittent ponding of water.
Salt tolerant crops are grown during initial period.
12.3 Sodic soil (black alkali/non-saline alkali)
High exchangeable sodium percentage interferes with plant growth.
Characteristics
a) EC < 4.0 dS/m at 25°C b) ESP > 15%
c) pH > 8.5 (8.5-10.0) d) Low infiltration rate
Occurrence: Indo-Gangetic plains of UP, Punjab and Haryana.
Reclamation
Replace exchangeable Na+ by Ca++ and thus released Na+ salt be leached out of
rootzone.
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3 Organic Farming
Amendments
i) Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
ii) Phosphogypsum
iii) Iron pyrite (FeS2)
iv) Calcium salts, acids, acid formation materials
v) Bulky organic manures, green manures, crop residues. These are applied in
conjunction with gymsum.
vi) Leaching with water of good quality.
Management practices
i) Cropping with green manure
ii) Apply high dose of N (because of volatilisation, N loss)
iii) Apply zinc during initial years of reclamation
iv) Frequent irrigation with small quantities of water
12.4 Saline-alkali land
Characteristics
a) EC > 4 dS/m at 25°C
b) ESP > 15%
c) pH < 8.5
Favourable factors
(i) Aridity, (ii) Poor external or internal drainage, (iii) Irrigation by saltish water,
(iv) Permanent water course, (v) Rise in water table by excess irrigation (vi) Erratic use
of irrigation water (i.e., flooding followed by intense drought).
Salike-alkali land is difficult to manage because of its poor physical condition.
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12.5 Effects of soil salinity and alkalinity
i) In alkali condition, soil is dispersed and becomes compact.
ii) Less water permeability due to compactness
iii) Low aeration
iv) Low microbial activities
v) Unavailability of nutrients like P, Ca, N
vi) Nutritional disturbances at pH 8.5 and more
vii) Hindrance in water absorption
viii) Increase in osmotic pressure of soil solution badly affects the plants growth
ix) In alkali soil highly toxic Na2CO3 is present.
12.6 Acid soils
Acid soils are those having pH less than 5.5.
Processes in acid soil formation
1. Laterisation of varying degrees
2. Podzolisation with sub-temperate to temperate climate.
3. Intense leaching of light alluvial soils.
4. Marshy conditions with significant amount of partly decomposed organic

matter.
Characteristics of acid soils
1. Physical: a) light texture, b) high permeability, c) poor water holding capacity, d)

poor cation exchange capacity, e) poor organic matter content.
2. Chemical: a) Base unsaturated soil, more anions than cations, b) Active and
potential soil acidity, c) Availability of nutrients (Al, Fe, Mn, Zn, Co). Toxic effects on
plants Al3+ concentration is more.
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3. Biological
1. There is no effect of pH on the population of fungi. Hence, fungi population is

more than bacteria.
2. Fungi cause diseases
3. Rate of decomposition of biological materials and rate of mineralization and

nitrification, etc., are reduced when acidity is increased.
Management of acidic soils
1. By growing crops suitable for particular soil pH.
2. Ameliorating the soils through the application of amendments.
Liming
Application of lime raises the soil pH to a desirable level. The quantity of liming
material to be applied depends on soil pH, soil texture, capacity and type of liming
material. On an average, hydrated lime Ca(OH)2 at the rate of 5 t/ha is applied in the field
and is thoroughly mixed in soil. The gap between lime application and crop sowing is
atleast two or three months.
Liming materials
1. Calcium limestone (CaCO3) (more than 90% use in India)
2. Dolomite (rich in Mg)
3. Quick lime (CaCO)
4. Slaked lime Ca(OH)2
5. Coral shell lime
6. Chalk CaCO3
7. Blast furnace slag CaSiO3 and Ca2SiO4
8. Miscellaneous sources like wood ashes, etc.
Biological reclamation
Use of organic materials and crops
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Soil amendments
Soil amendments are substances that influence plant growth favourably by

changing the soil pH, increasing the nutrient availability, improving the physical
conditions of the soil and counteracting the effects of injurious substances. There are
three types of soil amendments.
There are three types of amendments
1. Materials used for amending acidic soils. E.g. Lime
2. Materials used for ameliorating alkali soils. E.g. Gypsum and

phosphogypsum.
3. Soil aggregating agents or soil conditioners to stabilise soil aggregates and to

form granular structures. E.g. Poly-electrolytes, including polyvinylites,
polyacrylates, cellulose gums, lignin derivatives and silicates.
1. Gypsum: Gypsum is dehydrated calcium sulphate (CaSO4.2H2O) and used as a

popular amendment for the reclamation of alkali soils. Pure gypsum contains 18.6% S
and 23.2% Ca. Commercial agricultural grades (70-80%) contain 13-15% S and 16-19%
Ca. The sulphur in gypsum is in plant available sulphate form and its solubility is
comparable to that of SSP. Most of the gypsum mines are located in Rajasthan.
2. Phosphogypsum: It is a byproduct of phosphoric acid production. The CaSO4 in

phosphogypsum is available as dehydrate (CaSO4.2H2O), hemihydrate (CaSO4.1/2 H2O)
and anlydrate (CaSO4) or in combination of dehydrate and hemihydrate. Phosphogypsum
is high grade gypsum with 80-90% purity. It may also contain traces of iron, manganese,
zinc and copper. This fertilizer is of great importance in alkali soils as a source of S.
3. Lime and liming materials: Calcium oxide (CaO) is the only material to which
the term lime may be correctly applied. It is also called as unslaked lime, burned lime or
quick lime (CaO). It is most effective with high neutralising value or calcium carbonate
equivalent (CCE) of 179% compared to pure CaCO3. Complete mixing of this material
into the soil is very difficult. Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] is a white powder and called
slaked lime or hydrate lime [Ca(OH)2]. The other common liming materials are calcium
carbonate (CaCO3), calcite or calcium-magnesium carbonate [CaMg (CO3) 2] or
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dolomite. Limestone is mined by open pit method. Most of the agricultural limestones
have the CCE value of 90-98% because of impurities present.
12.7 More About Saline Soils
Introduction
Soil salinity has caused heavy loss of national wealth in India. Out of 329 million
hectares of land in the country, about 175 million ha. (53 %) is suffering from
degradation in some form or the other. There are 7.61 M ha of salt affected soils in India
as per the Ministry of Agriculture, GOI. The extent of this problem area as given by
different sources varys from 8.56 M ha to 10.9 M ha. Water logging affects another 8.52
M ha mainly in the irrigation commands, which includes some of the saline-alkali soils
also. In Haryana, parts of Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, substantial areas of good
irrigated lands are affected by saline - alkali and water-logging problems. There are
several reasons for development of salinity in the soils, such as:
• Excessive and uncontrolled irrigation

• Accumulation of salts in the top layer due to evapo-transpiration in arid
conditions
• Water logging conditions in perennial river basins/ irrigation sources due to
seepage
• Excessive use of chemical fertilizers containing chlorides, sulfates etc.
• Poor drainage conditions.
The problem of salinity, alkalinity and water logging deserve special treatments based
on the local conditions and soil texture, structure and topography. When water is used
for agricultural purposes, in most cases more than 50 percent goes waste. It seeps out of
unlined channels, pipes, ditches, runoff fields or percolates in to the soil and accumulate
in uneven depressions. Water dissolves naturally occurring salts in the rocks and soils
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and carries them to the surface of the soil, where the water molecules evaporate, leaving
the salts to accumulate near the surface. Excess salts, eventually will lead to alkali
problem.
The growing problem of salinity-alkalinity should be minimised or eliminated as

early as possible since it is growing at the rate of 10% every year. Soil salinity has
become an acute problem rendering crop productivity to decline or making the soil unfit
for cultivation. Irrigation has both sides of bane and boon. Unscientific irrigation has
endangered many favorable environmental conditions and human health. The
Government / people have now realised the seriousness of the problem. In the absence of
adequate drainage provisions, with the introduction of new irrigation projects and also
the faulty water management practices on the farms, additional area will turn salty each
year.
Saline soils contain soluble salts which impair the soil productivity. Such soils
can normally be identified by the presence of white crusts of salts on the surface of the
land area and poor crop growth. Internal drainage of such soils will not be bad. By
opening adequate drains, such soils can be improved.
Drainage becomes a problem when the soil is water logged. In such soils, the
aeration will be a limiting factor and microbial activities will be hindered and hence the
removal of excess water from such water logged areas becomes very essential.
On the other hand, sodic soils containing excess sodium become extremely water-
logged as the soil porosity is lost and water do not percolate down easily / quickly. In
case of excess Sodium contents of the soil, it has to be treated with soil amendments
such as gypsum, sulfur etc., and then the salts have to be drained. In summary, the basic
requirement is provision of adequate and appropriate drainage system. Black soils are
worst affected as they have poor drainage due to high clay content.
2. Visual Effects of Saline - Alkali soil
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9 Organic Farming
The Harmful effects of saline water irrigation are mainly associated with
accumulation of salts in the soil and are manifested through reduced availability of water
to plants, delayed germination and slow growth rate.
• Excessive salts in the soil can induce early wilting and the effects are almost
similar to those of drought.
• Some of the visual symptoms are that the plants look stunted; leaves are smaller
but thicker and have often dark green colour as compared to plants growing in a
salt free area irrigated with good quality water.
• Alkali soils become extremely hard on drying and slushy on wetting. Black
incrustation is seen on the surface.
• All useful microbial activity is completely lost making the soil unhealthy for
crops.
3. Management of Saline soils
The farmers are aware of soil salinity and its bad effects. The yields of various
crops have drastically reduced due to salinity. The problem is more pronounced in recent
years. The farmers are shifting to other activities like dairying and there is growing
tendency towards crop rotation. The farmers are following measures like green
manuring, crop rotation, sub-soiling, open drainages, mulching etc. to a limited extent.
The practice of application of amendments like Gypsum is not popular in many parts of
the country due to non availability in the local markets.
The problem of saline soils was studied from various angles and concluded that
unless corrective measures are adopted at appropriate time, vast tracts of so called fertile
soils will become barren leading to unproductivity and under production. It is the
ultimate responsibility of every one involved in rural development to save the soil from
the bad effects to sustain the growing population. The importance of soil management
will have to be given top most priority in the years to come. Otherwise, viability of crop
production will be eroded.
4. Provision of subsurface drainage
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10 Organic Farming
In the areas of high salinity, it is essential to bring down the salinity by leaching the
salts. It is also necessary to lower the water table if it is shallow and saline and maintain
it below the critical depth to prevent resalinisation. Drainage of agricultural lands can be
achieved through a package of the following measures :
• Intercept the flood and seepage water from above by opening sufficiently large
drain (called interceptor drain) and divert the same from affecting the holding.
• Construct a good feeder drain (called vertical disposal drain) in the field, along
the slope and connect it with the common drain or natural drains such as nallas.
• Construct adequate drains in the plots and crop fields and connect them to the
vertical disposal drain.
• Provide drop pits and stone pitching in erodable spots.
• If the soils are alkali in nature, apply sufficient quantities of chemical and organic
amendments, based on soil test results.
Traditionally drainage is provided by means of open ditches, dug out either by human
labour or by earth moving equipment. The width and depth depends on the quantity of
water to be removed and root system of the crop. Though, they can be opened without
much skills, they have several limitations such as :
The sides collapse and silt up fast.

Weeds and grasses grow up and clog the drain and also spread weed seed.
Harbor pests like rats.
Become water-logging and breed mosquitoes.
Occupy 15-20 % of land area.
Obstruct cultivation and movement of machinery.
All lateral drains have to be ploughed up and re-laid after each cropping.
Out of the various methods of drainage systems and reclamation of saline soils,
subsurface drainage system will be most effective and long lasting particularly in heavy
soils. This system includes laying of perforated PVC pipes under ground and draining
the accumulated salts along with water to a common outlets/well. The drained water will
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11 Organic Farming
be tested for its quality and if found suitable, the same water will be recycled to the crop.
There are different dimensions of perforated and unperforated pipes (blind pipes)
available with reputed plastic manufacturing companies , with BIS specification. It is an
excellent system for all irrigated agriculture crops like sugarcane, yielding orchards,
plantations and sensitive crops like turmeric.
The steps involved in laying a successful sub-surface drainage system :
• Investigation and diagnosis of the water-logging problem, soil physical and

chemical properties, availability of natural outlet and fall etc.
• Drawing a perfect design, which includes decisions on dia of the pipe, distance
between laterals, depth and manholes for maintenance.
• Sellection of proper materials - pipes, fittings, filter material, outlets etc.
• Proper laying of the system to ensure smooth flow.
4. Benefits of drainage
Flooding and loss of seeds and fertilizers are largely eliminated Dries up the fields
quickly soon after rains and thus making the land ready for cultivation. It avoids
permanently ponded areas and swamps etc. It removes excess water, salinity and
alkalinity from the soils It keeps the soil pores open and thus increase both infiltration
and permeability rates of the soil Where underground drainage is practiced, there will
be a better physical condition of the soil that permits vigorous and deeper root growth
and as a result drought tolerance. Improves earthworms, soil microbes etc. and thus
better health of soil. Reduces certain crop diseases.
6. Difficulties in financing for soil reclamation
Besides ignorance of bad effects of soil salinity and subsequentreduction in crop

yields, the bankers are reluctant to finance for reclamation of saline soils. In certain case,
the local bankers are not aware that NABARD provides refinance assistance for
reclamation of saline soils under land development activity. There are certain difficulties
in financing for reclamation activities as discussed below :
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12 Organic Farming
• Desalinisation is a long term process; and simultaneously protection to safeguard

land area is also essential.
• Desalinisation is not limited to the individual efforts. It should be scientifically
managed on the basis of land slope and command areas. Individual farmer's
efforts goes futile if other neighboring farmers do not follow the amelioration
programmes. Collective efforts are essential for more effectiveness.
• Desalinisation is a scientific process. On the contrary, farmers do not know
scientific processes and their results. Farmers ignorance in this respect results in
waste of time and money. Lack of demonstration farms is a serious limitation.
• UGP drainage system is a skill oriented one and needs proper guidance.
• The farmers are not submitting schemes for amelioration of salinity. Similarly
farmers are not aware of the scheme of financing for desalinisation. Lack of
knowledge among farmers and many officials is a serious limitation. Farmers are
restless due to the growing problem of salinity, but helpless due to lack of
knowledge and lethargy of the farmers institutions in solving the problem of soil
salinity. Sugar factories and NGOs should take initiative in this regard and work
out for repayment through tie-up and extension support.
• Government initiation plays a significant role in the scheme of desalinisation. In
fact the problem of salinity is an out come of hurried efforts of irrigation
development. Government is not having any well-drawn out scheme for this
problem.
• Cooperative credit structure is much worried of the salinity, because of its high
exposure to cooperative sugar factories. Other financial agencies are not so
worried of the problem.
• Construction of drainage systems to channelise the saline water to flow towards
slopes is the major effort required to be implemented. The use of excavators is
essential. Similarly drainage should be constructed as per the slopes, which
covers farm units owned by many farmers. So group action needs to be
promoted. Simultaneously proper maintenance of the drainages is also essential.
All these activities can only be made through collective efforts. Banking agencies
consider that it would be difficult to coordinate.
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13 Organic Farming
In order to adopt permanent and cost effective saline soil treatment methods, it has been
suggested to take up the subsoil drainage system rather than following temporary
cultural practices like green manuring, open drains, crop rotation, mulching etc. A
simple model of laying underground drainage system with PVC pipes to drain out excess
water in waterlogged areas and soluble salts in salt affected areas is explained below.
7. Potential Benefits and high Returns:
The subsurface drainage system is perceived as costly. The initial cost varys from
Rs. 60,000 to Rs.75,000 per ha. However, considering the huge loss to yield and income,
the investment is highly viable and prudential. It has been observed in many sugarcane
growing areas of Maharashtra that there has been a drastic reduction of cane yields, from
as high as 120 to135 tons per ha to as low as 50 to 60 tons per ha now. For example the
average cane productivity in many sugar factory command areas in Ahmed Nagar
District has come down to 60 to 75 tons per ha. The value of this loss is substantial to
take such high investment to restore the soil productivity. It amounts to a loss of income
of over Rs. 50,000 per ha per year. One of the innovative farmers who had installed such
an under ground system near Rahuri of Maharashtra started getting an yield level of
about 150 tons of cane per ha. From this it is evident that even if Rs. 25,000/- has to be
spent per acre, the entire investment can be recovered with 2-3 years. Similarly, those of
the farmers who have laid under ground tile drains in coastal Karnataka in Areca gardens
have started realizing very high yields of areca nut, as also inter crops of pepper. Since
such areas have assured irrigation, this item should be taken up on high priority. The
investment is highly viable. However, the high initial cost warrants credit support to
many farmers. The sugar factories which will be highly benefited from the increased
availability of cane with in their command area, should help the farmers in arranging the
credit, pipes, earth moving machinery etc. to the farmers. The command area banks
should come forward to formulate suitable location specific schemes. To provide
guidance in this regard a model scheme is given below.
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Lecture 12
Organic Weed Management
CONTENTS
13.1 INTRODUCTION
13.2 Organic Methods of Weed Management
13.1 Introduction
Weeds can be considered a significant problem because they tend to decrease crop
yields by increasing competition for water, sunlight, and nutrients while serving as host
plants for pests and diseases. Since the invention of herbicides, farmers have used these
chemicals to eradicate weeds from their fields. Today, some farmers have a renewed
interest in organic methods of managing weeds since the widespread use of agro-
chemicals has resulted in purported environmental and health problems. It has also been
found that in some cases herbicide use can cause some weed species to dominate fields
because the weeds develop resistance to herbicides. In addition, some herbicides are
capable of destroying weeds that are harmless to crops, resulting in a potential decrease
in biodiversity on farms. It is important to understand that under an organic system of
weed control, weeds will never be eliminated but only managed.
Organic weed management is a holistic system involving an entirely different
approach to managing a farming system. The organic farmer is not interested in
eliminating all weeds but wants to keep the weeds at a threshold that is both economical
and manageable. A farmer who manages weeds organically must be intimately familiar
with the type of weeds and their growth habits to determine which control methods to
employ.
Optimizing the biological terrain of the soil for the crop will create an
unfavorable environment for many weeds, effectively reducing weed numbers and vigor.
This concept forms the core of effective weed control in an organic production system.
Contrast to this the weed-control strategies of conventional farming, with heavy use of
salt fertilizers, herbicides, monoculture and imbalanced cation saturations. Indeed, that
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environment could accurately be described as one of cultural weed enhancement. The

conventional field environment presents heavy pressure to select for herbicide-resistant
weeds that thrive under these conditions. Each year, these highly adapted weeds find the
same favorable conditions and reproduce abundantly. It is really no wonder that most
herbicides are only effective for a few years before a newer, stronger (and more
expensive) chemical is needed to control weeds sufficiently. It is important to know your
enemy. All weed species have their weaknesses and their strengths, usually occurring at
distinct stages of their life cycles or resulting from specific growth patterns. Different
weeds present problems at different times of year, or with different crops. Some weed-
control strategies, such as disking a field infested with quackgrass, may even increase the
prevalence of certain species of weeds under specific conditions. Grassy weeds often
require different control measures than do broad-leafed weeds. Correctly identifying the
species of weeds that are causing major problems in your fields is critical to choosing and
timing effective control measures
13.2 Organic Methods of Weed Management

1. Thermal weed control
Thermal weed control involves the use of flaming equipment to create direct contact
between the flame and the plant. This technique works by rupturing plant cells when the
sap rapidly expands in the cells. Sometimes thermal control involves the outright burning
down of the weeds. Flaming can be used either before crop emergence to give the crop a
competitive advantage or after the crop has emerged. However, flaming at this point in
the crop production cycle may damage the crop. Although the initial equipment cost may
be high, flaming for weed control may prove cheaper than hand weeding.
2. Soil solarization: During summer and fall, organic farmers sometimes sterilize their
soil through solarization. During this process, a clear plastic film is placed over an area
after it has been tilled. Solarization works when the heat created under the plastic film,
which is tightly sealed at the edges, becomes intense enough to kill weed seeds.
3. Mulch: Mulching or covering the soil surface can prevent weed seed germination by
blocking light transmission preventing seed germination. Allelopathic chemicals in the
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mulch also can physically suppress seedling emergence. There are many forms of
mulches available. Listed are three common ones:
i. Living mulch: Living mulch is usually a plant species that grows densely and low to
the ground, such as clover. Living mulches can be planted before or after a crop is
established. It is important to kill, till in, or otherwise manage the living mulch so that it
does not compete with the actual crop.
ii. Organic mulches: Such materials as straw, bark, and composted material can provide
effective weed control. Producing the material on the farm is recommended since the cost
of purchased mulches can be prohibitive, depending on the amount needed to suppress
weed emergence. An effective but labor-intensive system uses newspaper and straw. Two
layers of newspaper are placed on the ground, followed by a layer of hay. It is important
to make sure the hay does not contain any weed seeds.
iii. Inorganic mulches: Materials such as black polyethylene have been used for weed
control in a range of crops in organic production systems.
4. Mechanical weed management
Managing weeds mechanically is both time consuming and labor-intensive but it is also
one of the most effective methods for managing weeds. The choice of implementation,
timing, and frequency will depend on the structure and form of the crop and the type and
number of weeds. Cultivation involves killing emerging weeds or burying freshly shed
weed seeds below the depth from which they will germinate. It is important to remember
that any ecological approach to weed management begins and ends in the soil seed bank.
The soil seed bank is the reserve of weed seeds present in the soil. Observing the
composition of the seed bank can help a farmer make practical weed management
decisions.
5. Stale seedbed
The stale or false seedbed technique of flushing out weed seeds from the soil
works by depleting the seed bank. After the soil is cultivated two to three weeks before
sowing, emerging weeds are killed by flaming or light cultivation. By helping to reduce
the seed bank. This technique reduces subsequent emergences of weeds.
6. Crop rotation
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Crop rotation has been at the heart of the organic weed management system since
medieval times and has persisted well into the 20th century due to its proven effects on
weed populations. The goal of a crop rotation is to create an unstable environment that
discourages weeds from becoming established in the field. Deciding on the sequence of
crops, a farmer must take into account the type of soil he or she is working with, the
climate, and the crop. Diverse crop rotations are essential to build a healthy, sustainable
organic system and break pest and weed cycles. In general, it is best to alternate legumes
with grasses, spring-planted crops with fall-planted crops, row crops with close-planted
crops, heavy feeders with light feeders. Careful use of cover crops during times when the
ground would be bare adds valuable nutrients (especially nitrogen), adds organic matter,
improves soil microbial diversity, and prevents erosion. Maintain a long-term balance of
diverse crops on a farm, taking into account any necessary soil conservation practices,
livestock requirements, time constraints and market profitability.
7. Crop establishment and competition
Make sure crops emerge first to give them a head start in their competition with weeds.
Transplanting helps increase a crop’s competitive ability since the plants are larger and
easier to establish. Sow crops close together by reducing the row spacing. Since the crop
will take up more space, it shades the weeds, reducing the weeds’ ability to compete.
Another technique involves increasing the seeding rate of a crop. This increases the
competitive ability of the crop by increasing the odds that the crop will survive in greater
numbers than the weeds. The most effective way to control weed growth is to have highly
competitive crops. A vigorously growing crop is less likely to be adversely affected by
weed pressure. It is imperative to create conditions where the intended crop can establish
dominance quickly. Using high-quality, vigorous seed, well adjusted planting equipment,
adapted varieties, optimal soil fertility, good soil drainage and tilth, and proper soil
preparation will usually result in rapid, vigorous crop growth.
8. Sanitation. Using clean seed will prevent the introduction of new weed problems and
will avoid planting a generous crop of weeds with your desired crop. Mowing weeds
around the edges of fields or after harvest prevents weeds from going to seed. Hand-
roguing weeds in problem areas, and thoroughly composting manure can reduce the
spread of weed seeds and difficult weed species. Thorough cleaning of any machinery
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that has been used in weedy fields is a good idea, as is establishing hedgerows to limit
wind-blown seeds. Common sense, yes — and it works! Cultural practices won’t prevent
all weed growth, and some mechanical follow- up will usually be necessary, but cultural
practices can improve soil conditions, permitting more effective mechanical control, they
can adjust weed species to ones that are easier to control, and, most importantly, cultural
weed-control practices can produce high-quality, vigorous, high-yielding organic crops.
It is important to maintain proper sanitation on the farm to reduce the
introduction and spread of weed seeds. There are several ways to keep weeds and weed
seeds from entering the farm. First, any animal manure that will be used on the farm
should be composted because weed seeds can pass through an animal’s digestive system
unharmed, it is important to compost the manure. Composting results in temperatures that
become high enough to kill many weed seeds. Second, purchase certified seed that is
guaranteed to be free of weed seeds. If you are a farmer interested in saving your own
seed, be diligent about collecting clean seed so you do not contaminate your collections.
Also make sure to remove weeds before they set seed. Once a weed is allowed to set
seed, the number of weed seeds in the seed bank is increased. Last, keep tillage and other
equipment clean when moving between fields to reduce the spread of weed seeds.
9. Allelopathy
Allelopathy is an alternative and organic approach to weed control that uses
chemicals that are excreted from a plant to cause either direct or indirect harm to weeds
by negatively affecting their germination, growth, or development. Nearby weeds can be
affected by allelopathic chemicals entering the rhizophere from the roots or the aerial
parts of the crop plant. Crop residues from cover crops, such as fall rye, or other organic
mulches can also be used to suppress weeds through such allelopathic interactions. This
“allelopathy” is one of nature’s most effective techniques of establishing plant
dominance. Allelopathic crops include barley, rye, annual ryegrass, buckwheat, oats,
sorghum, sudan-sorghum hybrids, alfalfa, wheat, red clover and sunflower. Selecting
allelopathic crops can be useful in particularly weedy fields with reducing overall weed
pressure.
9. Soil Fertility & Condition. In an organic system, it is important to rely on the
biological activity of the soil as the main source of fertility and favorable soil physical
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structure. An active and diverse soil microbial population is the key to growing healthy,
high-yielding organic crops. Successful organic fertility management should primarily
feed the soil microbial life in a long-term manner, rather than simply feeding the plants.
Soil organic matter is a tremendous source of plant nutrients and water holding capacity.
Soil tests can be useful, but only if the results are interpreted appropriately for an organic
system. Careful attention to the balance of key nutrients can often reduce weed problems
and enhance crop plant growth. One common mistake made by many organic farmers is
the improper application of manure or improperly finished compost. This can throw off
the balance of certain soil nutrients and microbial life and can often increase weed
growth. Some soil fertility amendments, such as gypsum, can increase the looseness and
tilth of the soil. This improves success for mechanical-cultivation operations, but it also
seems to reduce the pressure from certain weed species that are favored by hard, tight
soils.
10. Variety Selection. Careful selection of crop varieties is essential to limit weeds and
pathogen problems and satisfy market Lely weeder. needs. It is important to consider
planting disease-resistant varieties if certain pathogens are prevalent in the area. Any crop
variety that is able to quickly shade the soil between the rows and is able to grow more
rapidly than the weeds will have an advantage. Deep shading crops, which intercept most
of the sunlight that strikes the field and keeps the ground dark, will prevent the growth of
many weed species. Alfalfa, clover and grasses are particularly good shading crops
because any weeds that grow in them will usually be cut when hay is harvested, thereby
preventing weed seed production.
11. Mycoherbicides
Herbicides especially soil applied, have harmful effects on both human and
animal health. In this context, fungal pathogens control specific weeds and continue to
survive on the weeds year after year unlike herbicides that are to be applied every year.
Fungal pathogens as a bioagent in controlling weeds are more popular than
bacterial, viral or nematodes because, most of the plant pathogens are fungi, which are
destructive and widely prevalent, and they can be safely used in organic farming.
Phytopathogens normally initiate diseases in specific weeds and produce phytotoxins
killing the weeds within 3-5 weeks.
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Characteristics of mycoherbicides
a. They should be culturable in artificial media
b. They should produce abundant spores
c. They should be stable in storage
d. Should be genetically stable
e. Effective under field condition
f. Tolerant to variation in temperature
g. These herbicides should be compatible with other chemicals/culturable practices
For controlling water hyacinth: Alternaria eichhornea, Cercospora piaropi, C.
rodmanii, Uredo eichhornea and Rhizoctonia solani.
For controlling weeds in rice and soybean field: Colletotrichum gloeosporoids.

For controlling Eupatorium reparium : Rust fungus
List of fungicides used to control specific weeds
Mycoherbicides Weeds to control Trade name
Colletotrichum Aeschynomene Collego
gloeosporoids
C. furarioides Aslepias seriacea -
Cercospora rodmanii Eichornea crassipes ABG 5003
Puccinia chandrillus Chandrillana juncea -
P. abrupta Parthenium hysterophorus -
Phytophthora palmivora Morrenia odorata Devine
Alternaria sp Crisium avense -
A. cassia Cassia abistifolia Caset
A. crassa Datura stramonium -
A. helianthi Xanthium stromarium -
Phomopsis convolvulus Convolvulus arvensis -
Bipolaris halepense Sorghum halepense -
Mycoherbicides under the trade name Collego are popular in USA. Devine is a
liquid formulation of pathotype Phytophthora palmivora . Colego is wettable
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formulations of Colletotrichum gloeosporoids. The skeleton weed (Chandrillana

juncea) was a problematic weed in wheat belt of Australia and has been successfully
controlled by rust fungi.
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Lecture No. 13
ORGANIC FOOD QUALITY
CONTENTS
15.1 INTRODUCTION
15.2 CHEMICAL FOOD CONTAMINANTS
15.3 MICROBIAL FOOD CONTAMINANTS
15.4 FOOD IRRADIATION
15.5 AIMS OF ORGANIC PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Consumers expect their food to be enjoyable, nutritious and safe. Quality

attributes include (a) Nutritional value, (b) Organoleptic properties (appearance, colour,
texture and taste), (c) Functional properties.
15.2 Chemical food contaminants: Synthetic pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers,

fungicides, veterinary drugs (i.e., antibiotics, growth hormones), synthetic preservatives
and additives and irradiation.
(a) Pesticide residue: Organically produced foods contain less residues than
conventionally produced foods. Organic certification schemes specify that land must be
free from chemical inputs for 2 or 3 years prior to organic production. Low levels of
pesticides due to previous land use and pesticides drifts from conventionally managed
farms may be present. It should be below the maximum residue limits (MRL). In organic
management, biological control is the preferred method of pest management.
(b) Nitrates from fertilizers: Nitrates content of organically-grown crops,

particularly nitrophilic leaf, root and tuber crops, is reported to be significantly lower
than in conventionally grown products.
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E.g.
● Methaemoglobinaema (a disease that interferes with oxygen carrying capacity of

blood)
● Nitrosomine illness is caused by presence of secondary amines, which causes cancer in

human beings.
● Feroxyl nitrates, alkyl nitrates, vapours of HNO3 and nitrate aerosols causes respiratory
illness
● Entrophication
Under certain conditions, nitrates may be converted to nitrosamines which are

carcinogenic.
c) Environmental contaminants
Due to industrial activity (mining, smelting activities), the energy sector,

agricultural practices or disposal of hazardous and municipal wastes. The use of biosolids
(sludge) leads to contamination of food with heavy metals, toxic organic compounds
(such as dioxin, PCB) and persistent microbial pathogens. The codex and EU organic
standards prohibit the use of sewage sludge.
d) Veterinary drugs and contaminants in animal feeds
According to EC regulations, the livestocks are to be fed on organically-produced

feed stuffs, the potential for contamination with pesticide residues and other agricultural
chemicals is greatly reduced compared to conventional farming methods.
Contaminants in animal feeds such as pesticide residues, agricultural and

industrial chemicals, heavy metals and radioactive nuclides may pose problems.
In Denmark, organic milk currently account for 20 per cent of total milk
production.
15.3 Microbial food contaminants
a) Contamination from natural fertilizers
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Untreated or improperly treated manure or biosolids used as fertilizers or soil

nutrient agents, whether in organic or non-organic agriculture, can lead to contamination
of products and/or water resources. Animal and human faeces known to contain a range
of human pathogens. Properly treated manure or biosolids are effective and safe
fertilizers. Pathogenic organisms can survive upto 60 days under compost.
b) E. coli contamination
Virulent strains of E. coli develop in the digestive tract of cattle which is mainly
fed with starchy grains. Cows mainly fed with hay generate less than one per cent of E.
coli found in faeces of grain fed animals. Therefore, ruminants (cattle and sheep) are fed
with diets with a high proportion of grass, silage and hay. Organic farming potentially
reduces the risk of E. coli contamination.
c) Mycotoxins
Mycotoxins are toxic by-products of certain moulds that can grow on certain food
products under suitable conditions. Aflotoxins are the most toxic of these compounds and
can cause liver cancer at low doses if ingested over a prolonged period of time. Organic
farming may lead to increased risk of mycotoxic contamination since fungicides are not
allowed in OF. Therefore, good agricultural, handling and storage practices are required
in organic agriculture to minimise the risk of mould growth and mycotoxins
contamination.
15.4 Food irradiation
Irradiation of food assists in the control of insects, parasites, pathogenic bacteria

and various deteriorative changes that occur in same foods. When food irradiation is
carried out according to internationally accepted guidelines, there is no associated food
safety risk. Genetically engineered organism (GMD): International guidelines ban the use
of GMOs.
15.5 Aims of organic production and processing
• To produce sufficient quantities of high quality food, fibre and other products.
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• To work compatibly with natural cycles and living systems through the soil,
plants and animals in the entire production system.
• To recognise the wider social and ecological impact of and within the organic
production and processing systems.
• To maintain and increase long-term fertility and biological activity of soils using
locally adopted cultural, biological and mechanical methods as opposed to
reliance on inputs.
• To maintain and encourage agricultural and natural biodiversity on the farm and
surroundings through the use of sustainable production systems and protection of
plant and wildlife habitats.
• To maintain and conserve genetic diversity through attention to on-farm

management of genetic resources.
• To promote the responsible use and conservation of water and all life therein.
• To use, as far as possible, renewable resources in production and processing

systems and avoid pollution and wastes.
• To foster local and regional production and distribution.
• To create a harmonious balance between crop production and animal husbandry.
• To provide living conditions that allow animals to express the basic aspects of
their innate behaviour.
• To utilize biodegradable, recyclable and cycled packaging materials.
• To provide everyone involved in organic farming and processing with a quality of

life that satisfies their basic needs within a safe, secure and healthy working
environment.
• To support the establishment of an entire production, processing and distribution

chain which is both socially and ecologically responsible.
• To recognize the importance of, and protect and learn from, indigenous
knowledge and traditional farming systems.
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Lecture No. 14
QUALITY CONTROL STANDARDS
CONTENTS
16.1 Introduction
16.2 IFOAM
16.2.1 Aims and activities of IFOAM
16.2.2 Standards
16.3 The four IFOAM main principles of organic production
16.4 Codex alimentarious guidelines
16.5 Codex guidelines for organic production system
16.6 European Union regulations
16.7 National Standards for Organic Production (NSOP)
16.8 Common issues in various standards
16.1 Introduction
In order to assure the consumer that a product is produced organically, a kind of

quality control is needed. The organic quality is based on standards, inspection,
certification and accreditation. All organic food is produced and handled according to
strict rules called ‘organic standards’. These standards cover all aspects of food
production from animal welfare and wildlife conservation, to not allowing artificial food
additives. All organic forms are visited at least once a year by a certifying inspector to
check that standards are met. Organic standards do not define a quality status which can
be measured in the final product (E.g. quality of pesticide residues, heavy metals, etc.).
They define the way of production (E.g. that no chemical pesticides and fertilizers are
used). There are organic standards at the national as well as international level.
16.2 IFOAM (International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement) Basic

standards
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IFOAM started during 1970, which now has more than 750 member organisations
in over 100 countries. Took the lead in setting standards for organic agriculture. Several
countries and organisations have their own standards but largely follow IFOAM
standards. Meanwhile, the FAO and WHO jointly brought out guidelines during 1999,
known as Codex Alimentarius Commission’ guidelines for production, processing,
labelling and marketing of organically produced food (ACIGL-32-1999).
India – NPOP (National programme for organic production) during 2000.
IFOAM basic standards are most important organic standards which also
describes the principle of organic farming. These are the mother or organic standards.
They are standards for standard setting on the national of international level. They are not
for certification. It provides framework for certification bodies and standard setting
organisations to develop their own certification standards. They are regularly reviewed
and updated by the IFOAM members from all over the world.
16.2.1 Aims and activities of IFOAM
• Information exchange about all facts or organic agriculture.
• Promotion of the worldwide development of organic agriculture.
• Exchange of knowledge and experience among members and the organic

movement as a whole.
• Representing the organic movement in international institutions.
• Continuously revising the IFOAM basic standards and the norms for
accreditation.
• Developing a harmonised international organic guarantee system from the basic

standards to the IFOAM accreditation programme.
16.2.2 Standards
Standards are rules of production for organic agriculture. They determine the
production process within the ecological and social environment through which the
product emerges. There are standards at various levels.
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1. International standards: International standards are those standards for organic

agriculture approved by international bodies and recognised by legal authorities. E.g.
Codex Alimentarius Commission guidelines.
IFOAM basic standards: They were first published in 1980. Since then they
have been subjected to biennial review and publication. These basic standards define
organic products grown, produced and handled. They reflect the current state of organic
production and processing methods.
Codex alimentarius: The codex guidelines for organically produced food will be
regularly reviewed at least every four years based on given codex procedure.
2. Regional / supranational standards
Different regions in the world are involving regional or supranational standards

for organic agriculture. E.g. European Union Council’s regulations.
European Union Council’s regulations: The European Union regulation on

organic production lays down minimum rules governing the production, processing and
import of organic products, including inspection procedures, labelling and marketing for
the whole of Europe. Each European country is responsible for enforcement and for its
own monitoring and inspection system. Applications, supervision and sanctions are dealt
with at regional levels.
3. National standards
National standards are basic organic agriculture standards prepared by respective

countries on the basis of which detailed standards are prepared by certification agencies
and statutory boards for the development of crops.
Some of the national standards are
1. USDA standards
2. Canadian organic standards
3. Australian organic standards
Organic standards
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The use of synthetic pesticides, weedicides and agro-chemicals led to

contamination of products and the quality of the produce is under question. Thus,
pesticide residue laboratories were set up to test the pesticide contamination in food and
drink, but it did not prevent terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem on land and water. Thus, the
clean and uncontaminated food can only be obtained by growing than in places, which is
not contaminated and not applied with toxic chemicals. The standards are set which
makes the food products to be grown under specified conditions, using only permissible
inputs, following organic principles during growing, harvesting, processing, packing and
transportation and the same came to be known as ‘organic standards’.
Organic standards are sets of definitions, requirements, recommendations and

restrictions regarding the practices and materials that can be used within certified organic
production and processing systems. Organic standards also cover such aspects as the
transport, storage and marketing of organic products. Organic standards typically contain
lists of materials that are permitted as farm and processing inputs, such as fertilizers,
pesticides and food additives. All other materials should be considered as prohibited
unless the relevant certification programme approves their use. Organic standards
generally emphasis the use of good management practices to minimise the need for inputs
wherever possible. Organic standards address such broader aspects as biodiversity, native
vegetation retention, waterway management, animal husbandry, ethics and waste
management.
16.3 The four IFOAM main principles of organic production
• The principle of health: Organic agriculture should sustain and enhance the
health of soil, plant, animal and human as one and indivisible.
• The principle of ecology: Organic agriculture should be based on living

ecological systems and cycles, work with them, emulate them and help sustain
them.
• The principles of fairness: Organic agriculture should build on relationships that

ensure fairness with regard to the common environment and life opportunities.
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• The principle of care: Organic agriculture should be managed in a precautionary

and responsible manner to protect the health and well being of current and future
generations and the environment.
16.4 Codex alimentarious guidelines
In 1991, the Codex Alimentarius Commission, a joint FAO / WHO food standards
programme began developing guidelines for the production, processing, labelling and
marketing of organically produced foods. The guidelines include general sections
describing the organic production concept and the scope of the text, description and
definitions, labelling and claims (including, products in transition/conversion), rules of
production and preparation including criteria for the substances allowed in organic
production; inspection and certification systems; and import control. Guidelines for the
production, processing, labelling and marketing of organically-produced foods adopted
during 1999. During 2001, it included sections ensuring livestock and livestock products
and bee keeping and bee products. In earlier guidelines (IFOAM), only organic farming
and processing were included, but in codex labelling and marketing are included codex
guidelines are widely adopted throughout the world.
16.5 Codex guidelines for organic production system
1. Enhance the biological diversity within the whole system
2. Increase the soil biological activity. E.g. flora, fauna, etc.
3. Maintain long-term soil fertility.
4. Recycle wastes of plant and animal origin in order to return nutrients to the land.
Thus, minimising the use of non-renewable resources.
5. Rely on renewable resources in locally organised agricultural ecosystems.
6. Promote the healthy use of soil, water and air as well as minimise all forms of
pollution that may result from agricultural practices.
7. Handle agricultural products with emphasis on careful processing methods in

order to maintain the organic integrity and vital qualities of the products at all
stages.
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8. Become established on any existing farm through a period of conversion the

appropriate length of which is determined by site specific factors, such as history
of land, type of crops and livestocks to be produced.
16.6 European Union regulations
The European Union was one of the first to set up a policy on organic farming by
adopting EU Council regulation. With this regulation, the council created a community
frame work defining in detail the requirements for agricultural products or food stuffs
bearing a reference to organic production methods. The regulation is set up primarily as a
labelling regulation, meant to regulate the internal market for organic products but it also
describes the organic production standards and inspection and supervision requirements.
It virtually deals with all agricultural products and with all aspects of primary food
production and food processing.
16.7 National Standards for Organic Production (NSOP)
In India, standards for organic agriculture were announced in May, 2001 and the
National Programme on Organic Production (NPOP) is administered by Agricultural and
Processed food products Export Development Authority (APEDA) using the IFOAM
basic standards under the Ministry of Commerce. It includes definite principles, basic
standards of production, documentation, inspection and certification guidelines. The
Government has set the frame conditions in which the organic sector of a country
operator which include content and legal status of organic standards, the regulations
concerning the use of organic claims and labels, the legislation on consumer protection
and the accreditation system. As per the national accreditation policy, all certifying
agencies operating in India are to obtain accreditation from any one of the accrediting
agency appointed by the Government of India (E.g. Spice Board, Coffee Board, Tea
Board, APEDA, etc.).
5. Plant protection
Natural methods are to be adopted. Preventive, cultural thermophysical, etc.,

promote natural predators and bioagents.
Prohibited: Synthetic products, GM products.
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Restricted: Most of the plant products. Even neem oil, biopesticides (NPV, fugae,
bacterial, etc.)
Not allowed: Alcoholic product based plant pesticides, soft soap based pesticides even
sterilised insects
Allowed: Most of homeopathic, herbal and BD preparation, pheromone traps and

mechanical traps-allowed / permitted.
Until now, the Indian standards are only compulsory for products to be exported.
It is planned to apply the same standards also for the domestic market.
NSOP guidelines
1. Formation of organic farmers group: Farmers with similar farming and

production should be brought together preferably in the same village in contiguous areas.
2. Conversion period in organic farming: It is the time between the start of

organic management and certification of crops. Conversion period varies from 1 to 3
years depending on the current usage of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and false usage of
lands. It is determined by certification agencies, while deciding the period, ecological
regions are considered.
3. Plant and planting material: All seed and planting material essentially used
from the same farm or other organic farming farms which are adopted to local soil and
climatic conditions.
4. Fertilisation policy in organic farming: Biodegradable materials are

encouraged. Poultry manure, if it is produced outside the farm, is avoided. They set
limitations for use of biodegradable material. Excess use of it also pollute environment.
Manures containing human excreta should not be directly used on crops which are used
for direct consumption. Carbon based materials should form the basis for nutrition. Some
of the mineral fertilizers have restricted use and can be used as supplementary to
manures. E.g. Lime, gypsum, rock phosphate, KNO3 are permitted.
Permitted FYM, urine, crop residues, mulches, cover crops, poultry manure,
biofertilizers, BD preparation, vermicompost, botanical extracts, etc.
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Restricted use Blood meal, bone meal, compost, city waste, FYM from other farm.
Restricted minerals NaCl, KSO4, gypsum, MgSO4, lime, rock phosphate.
16.8 Common issues in various standards
1. Maintenance of organic management
The standards requirements should be met during the conversion period. If the
whole farm is not converted, the certification programme should ensure that the organic
and conventional parts of the farm are separate and inspectable. Converted land and
animals should not get switched back and forth between organic and conventional
management.
2. Soil healths and water quality
• Enhancement of biodiversity
• No burning of vegetation
• Recycling, generation and addition of OM and nutrients
• Measures to be taken to avoid land degradation and pollution of water resources

and should not exploit it.
• Manures to avoid salanisation.
• Rain water recycling where possible
• No clearing of forest
• Measures to prevent soil and water erosion.
3. Biodiversity
• Minimum crop rotation requirements / variety
• Should manage weeds, insects, diseases and other pests while maintaining soil
fertility, OM and microbial activity.
• Standards for orchards / plantation floor cover and/or diversity or refuse plantings
in the orchard should be set.
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4. Soil productivity
• Compost prepared from agricultural products produced in the field. Native soil
MO are to be utilised.
• Legumes, GM or deep rooting plants in rotation programme
• Use mineral fertilizer (ground rock, lime, dolomite, etc.) microbial fertilizers,
biodynamic preparations and botanical preparations
• No synthetic / chemical fertilizers are permitted.
• Use of fertilizers and soil improvement materials noted only in the organic
standards. Maximum amount of manures may not exceed 170 kg N/year/ha.
5. Pest, disease and weed management
Noxious animal, insects, pests, disease, weed, etc., are to be controlled by
1. Cultivation methods (suitable crop / varieties, time of planting and other cultural
management)
2. Physical method (using light, heat, sound, etc., or manual or mechanical methods)
3. Biological method (predators, parasites, etc.)
4. In case of critical agricultural chemicals noted in the standards are to be used.
Ionising radiation should not be executed for the disease and pest control,
preservation of foods, removal of pathogens and sanitation. Products which can be used
under the supervision are biopesticides (Bt, trichoderma, NPV, pseudomonas, etc.),
Bordeaux mixture, sulphur, soft soap and most plant based products (neem, rotenone,
pyrethrum, etc.). Maximum use of copper under NPDP 8 kg/ha/year.
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Lecture 15
CERTIFICATION PROCESS AND PROCEDURE
CONTENTS
18.1 Certification
18.2 Accreditation
18.3 Types of certification
18.4 Steps in certification
18.5 Group certification
18.6 Internal control system (ICS)
18.1 Certification: Certification means the farm and the farmer’s methods inspected
by an organic certifying group to ensure that they comply with guidelines on organic
farming. Each certifying group has a code of standards, which is available to
interested people. Certification is a procedure by which a third party gives written
assurance that a product, process or services is in conformity with certain standards.
Certification is the key to the National Organic Programme. The certification process
focuses on the methods and materials used in production.
A third party- an organic certifying agent evaluates producers, processors and

handlers to determine whether they conform to an established set of operating
guidelines called organic standards. Those who conform are certified by the agent and
allowed to use a logo, product statement or certificate to document their product as
certified organic.
18.2 Accreditation
In March 2000, the Ministry of Commerce launched NPOP (National

Programme for Organic Production) design to establish National Standards for
Organic Products, which could then be sold under the logo ‘India Organic’. For
proper implementation of NPOP, NAPP (National Accreditation Policy and
Programme) has been formulated with Accreditation regulation announced in May
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2001. These make it mandatory that all certification bodies whether internal or foreign
operating in the country must be accredited by an Accreditation agency.
An agricultural product can only be exported as organic product if a

certification body duly accredited by APEDA certifies it.
18.3 Types of certification
1. Foreign certification: The inspection and certification of export oriented

organic projects in developing countries are certified by the certification bodies based
in importing countries. The main disadvantage is that costs of certification are high
due to frequent plane trips and Western salaries.
2. Co-certification: Local branch officers of Western Certification programmes

conduct inspection along with local inspection staff who speak local languages and
familiar with local conditions. However, inspection work is supervised by the Head
Office. This reduces number of plane trips.
3. Indigenous certification: Indigenous certification bodies can usually offer

cheaper inspection fees as less traveling is required and only local salaries have to be
covered. They support the development of domestic markets.
For export to the European Union (EU) market, a certificate from a

certification body, which is accepted by EU competent authorities is essential. To
regulate the export of certified organic products, the Director General of Foreign
Trade, Government of India has issued a public notice according to which no certified
organic products may be exported unless they are certified by an inspection and
certifying agency duly accredited by one of the accreditation agencies designated by
Government of India.
18.4 Steps in certification
1. Identification of a suitable certifier: The producer or farmer makes contact

with certifying agency. Certifying agency gives information on standards fees
application, inspection, certification and appeal procedures.
2. Submission of an application: Submit application along with field history,

farm map, record keeping system, etc.
3. Review of application
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4. On-farm inspection
5. Final review
The outcome of the review may be a) approval for organic certification, b)

request for additional information, c) Notification of non-compliance, d) Denial of
certification.
If certification is granted, the producer can begin marketing his or her products
as organic. The producer is free to use the seal of certifier.
Examples of non-compliance may include
1. In adequate records of manure application, equipment clearing on-farms where

conventional production is also done and compost preparation.
2. A farm that has had chemicals used on it and is in its 1st or 2nd year of
transition to organic production cannot be granted certification because the
land must be free from prohibited pesticides and fertilizer for a minimum of
three years.
3. The contract indicating scope, obligation, inspection and certification, sanction

and appeals, duration, fee structure is executed. The costs of certification depends on
size of farm, type of production system, group of farmers, location of unit, travel time
to reach the inspection site and costs for travel, food and accommodation during
inspection.
4. The farm has to undergo inspection at least once a year. Inspectors verify that
organic practices such as long-term soil management, buffering between organic
farms and neighbouring conventional farms and record keeping are being followed.
Processing inspections include review of the facilities of clearing and pest control
methods, ingredient transportation and storage and record keeping and audit control.
The inspector evaluates the performance of the farm activities with the help of
farmers statements and records and by viewing the fields, animals and farm buildings.
He can take samples for laboratory testing and may conduct unannounced inspections.
The inspector transmits his/her findings to the certification body as a written report.
5. Final review and certification
The certification body compares the results of the inspection with the
requirements of the organic standards. A certification committee decides whether
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certification may be granted or not and then the agency issues approval or denial of
certificate. The certificate is given for current years harvest only and hence annual
certification is required. The operator can request for reconsideration of decisions of
denial of certificate if has valid reason.
18.5 Group certification
Majority of agriculture practitioners worldwide are small holders and are often
located in remote areas with long travel times from one place to another. Furthermore,
the overall revenue from their agricultural production is usually too small to allow a
viable farm inspection by external inspection body for each farmer.
Based on these observations, an idea was generated to develop Grower Group

Certification (CGC) where group certification refers to the certification of a group of
producers who are in close proximity to one another, whose farms are uniform in
most ways and who are organized under one management and marketing system
(IFOAM).
According to NPOP, certification of an organized group of producers,

processors and exports with similar farming and production systems and which are in
geographical proximity.
18.6 Internal control system (ICS)
As per IFOAM and NPOP definition, Internal Control System (ICS) is a

documented quality assurance system that allows the external certification bodies to
delegate the inspection of individual group members to a body identified from within
the operators of the group. This can be legally recognised farmers association,
cooperatives, NGOs or exporters, project or a farmer group. This means, in practice
that a growers group basically controls all farmers for compliance with organic
production rules according to defined procedures. The organic certification body then
mainly evaluates whether the ICS is working well and efficiently. The ICS guards the
integrity of the organic quality of the products particularly in smallholder projects. It
is a system in which all persons dealing with products (grower, buyers and store
keepers) are identified, registered, instructed on the requirement of organic
certification and where large number of farmers are to be inspected by a foreign
certification body, the involved cost can be very high. In such cases, smallholder
group certification can be done. It is done for defined groups (may be upto 900 to
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1000 farmers) with similar farming and production system located in geographical
proximity. Only one application is required to certify the entire farms of such small
holder group and the certification and inspection fee is shared by each individual
farmer / operator.
Contracted to ensure compliance. The activities of these persons are monitored by

regular visits and documentary control. Besides this, the persons involved are made
aware of their common responsibilities for the products, which imply certain social
control.
Developing countries are increasingly looking for ways to reduce certification

costs and procedures in order to make certification more feasible for small farmers.
ICS is an alternative scheme, which help group of small farmers to reduce costs and
simplify procedures of internal inspection and certification.
The external auditor can invariably insists on physical inspection of all

individual holdings extending up to and above four hectares. It may also be noted that
the number of units above four hectares should not exceed 50 per cent of the total area
under the group certification.
Marginal farmers < 1 ha
Small farmers 1 to 1.99 ha
Semi-medium farmers 2 to 3.99 ha
Medium farmers 4 to 9.99 ha
Large farmers > 10 ha
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Lecture No. 16
CERTIFICATION AGENCIES
CONTENTS
19.1 International inspection and certification agencies
19.2 Certification agencies in India
19.3 Accreditation agencies
19.4 Organic market
19.5 Organic food products exported from India
19.6 Export of organic food products from India (2002)

19.7 Advantage India
19.1 International inspection and certification agencies
1. Soil Association Inspection Scheme, UK
2. SKAL, The Netherlands
3. ECOCERT, France / Belgium / Germany
4. IMO, Switzerland
5. Organic Crop Improvement Association, USA
6. Demeter Association, USA
19.2 Certification agencies in India
• ECOCERT: International (Based in France and Germany branch office in

Aurangabad, Maharashtra).
• IMO Control Pvt. Ltd. – Institute for Marketology (based in Switzerland, office in
Bengaluru, Karnataka).
• LACON GmbH (based in Germany, office in Aluva, Kerala).
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• SGS India Pvt. Ltd. (based in Switzerland, office in Delhi and other cities)
• BIOINSPECTA (based in Switzerland, branch office in Cochin, Kerala)
• SGS India Pvt. Ltd. (based in India, office in Bengaluru)
• APOF Organic Certification Agency (AOCA) (based in India, office in Gurgaon,

Haryana)
• SKAL International (based in Netherlands, branch office in Mumbai)
• INDOCERT (based in India, office in Aluva, Kerala)
• India Society for certification (ISCOP) (based in India, office in Coimbatore)
All the above certification bodies are accredited under NPOP.
Ministry of Commerce, Government of India- apex body for NSPO, Ministry of

Agriculture, Horticulture, APEDA, Coffee Board, Tea Board, Spice Board, Coconut
Development Board, Cocoa and Cashewnut Board are members in steering committee.
They will be administering and developing National Accreditation Policy and

programmes to implement national organic programme.
19.3 Accreditation agencies
1. APEDA
2. Coffee Board
3. Tea Board
4. Spice Board
5. Coconut Board
6. Cocoa and Cashewnut Development Board
In turn, these accreditation agencies have inspection and certification agencies.

These agencies directly contact farmers, organic input producers, processors and
marketing agencies.
19.4 Organic market
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The organic food production costs are higher in the developed countries as
organic farming is labour intensive and labour is costly in these countries. However, in
country like India, where labour is abundant and is relatively cheap, organic farming is
seen as a good cost effective solution to the increasing costs involved in chemical
farming. Currently most of the organic farmers in India are still in the transition phase
and hence their costs are still high. As these farmers continue with organic farming, the
production costs are expected to reduce, making India as one of the most important
producers of organic food.
19.5 Organic food products exported from India
• Organic cereals: Wheat, rice, maize or corn
• Pulses: Redgram, black gram
• Fruits: Banana, mango, orange, pineapple, passion fruits, cashewnut, walnut.
• Oilseeds and oils: Soybean, sunflower, mustard, cotton seed, groundnut, castor
• Vegetables: Brinjal, garlic, potato, tomato, onion.
• Herbs and spices: Chilli, peppermint, cardamom, turmeric, black pepper, white
pepper, amla, tamarind, ginger, vanilla, cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, mace.
• Others: Jaggery, sugar, tea, coffee, cotton, textiles
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19.6 Export of organic food products from India (2002)

Organic food items Sales (tones)
Tea 3,000
Coffee 550
Spices 700
Rice 2,500
Wheat 1,150
Pulses 300
Oil seeds 100
Fruits and vegetables 1,800
Cashewnut 375
Cotton 1,200
Herbal products 250
Total: 11,925
Exports
Products exported : 18 items
Total exports (2002-03) : 63,452 mt.
Approx. value : Rs. 89.42 crore
Total agricultural exports : Rs. 27,720 crore
Organic export : 0.32%
Market
Current market : 23-25 billion US $
Annual growth : 15-20%
USA : 11-13 billion US $
Japan : 350-450 m US $
Europe : 10-11 billion US $
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Potential products
Rice, cereals products, pulses, honey, canesugar, jaggery, fruits (juices,

concentrates and nectars), herbs and spices and peanuts.
19.7 Advantage India
• Conducive agro-climatic conditions
• Prevailing traditional farming
• Many areas are not yet exposed to chemicals
• Progressive farmers
• Availability of manpower
• Government initiatives
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Weed Management in Horticultural Crops

Aim: To know weed definitions and their characteristics

1 All rights are reserved with Dr. YSPUH&F Solan @ 2012.

 . Weeds are often self-compatible but self-pollination is not obligatory.

 If a weed is cross pollinated, this is accomplished by non- specified flower visitors or by

2 All rights are reserved with Dr. YSPUH&F Solan @ 2012.

 Weeds resist control, including herbicides.

3 All rights are reserved with Dr. YSPUH&F Solan @ 2012.

RELEVANCE OF ORGANIC FARMING

ii) Fertilizers can gradually be reduced

2.2 Consequences of the use of High Yielding Varieties (HYV)

2.3 Characteristics of indigenous varieties

Seeds: No chemical fert.&

2.4 Ill effects of Green Revolution

Effects of excess use of endosulfan on health in Kasaragod

Aim: To discuss about different classifications of weeds.

I. Based on life span

1 All rights are reserved with Dr. YSPUH&F Solan @ 2012.

b. Garden land weeds (Irrigated lands)

III. Based on soil type (Edaphic)

IV. Based on place of occurrence

3 All rights are reserved with Dr. YSPUH&F Solan @ 2012.

4 All rights are reserved with Dr. YSPUH&F Solan @ 2012.

5 All rights are reserved with Dr. YSPUH&F Solan @ 2012.

Lecture No.3 & 4

CONCEPT OF ORGANIC FARMING

3.1 Often debated issues

3.2 Significance of OF for Indian farmer

700 mt of rural and urban biomass, 2000 mt of animal and human

Africa: South Africa

3.4 Status of OF in India

Lecture 4 CONCEPT OF ORGANIC FARMING

4.1 Export of organic food from India (2002)

4.2 Concept of Organic Farming

4.3 Ethics of OF: Chemicalisation, excess irrigation, depletion of soil moisture,

According to IFOAM: The role of organic agriculture whether in farming,

a) Ecologically sound, b) Economically feasible and c)

4.4 Objectives of OF (as per IFOAM)

Increasing crop and animal diversity in the form of polycultures, agroforestry

Aim: To study different methods of propagation and dissemination of weeds

1 All rights are reserved with Dr. YSPUH&F Solan @ 2012.

DISSEMINATION / DISPERSAL OF WEEDS

2 All rights are reserved with Dr. YSPUH&F Solan @ 2012.

There are two ways of looking at weed seed dispersal:

4 All rights are reserved with Dr. YSPUH&F Solan @ 2012.

(e) Dispersal by machinery

(f) Intercontinental movement of weeds

(g) Crop mimicry dispersal

5 All rights are reserved with Dr. YSPUH&F Solan @ 2012.

ORGANIC PRODUCTION REQUIREMENTS

5.1 Components of OF:

5.2 Nutrient management in OF

5.3 Limiting nutrient losses

5.4 Organic manures

5.5 Farm Yard Manure (FYM)

5.5.1 Factors influencing the quality of FYM

5.5.2 Enrichment of FYM

6.1 Principles of composting

6.2 Organic resources available for composting

6.3 Essential requirements for composting