UNIT-5

Diagrams and Graphs

One of the most effective and interesting alternative ways to present statistical data is through
diagrams and graphs. There are several ways in which statistical data may be displayed
pictorially, such as different types of graphs and diagrams. The most commonly used diagrams
and graphs shall be discussed in subsequent posts, as listed below.

Types of Diagrams/Charts

1. Simple Bar Chart

2. Multiple Bar Chart or Cluster Chart
3. Stacked Bar Chart or Sub-Divided Bar Chart or Component Bar Chart
4. Simple Component Bar Chart
5. Percentage Component Bar Chart
6. Sub-Divided Rectangular Bar Chart
7. Pie Chart

Construction of Diagrams and Graphs

The following general rules should be observed while constructing diagrams:

1. Title: Every diagram must be given a suitable title. The title should convey in as few
a words as possible the main idea that the diagrams intent to portray.
2. Proportion between width and height: A proper proportion between the height and
width of the diagram should be maintained. If either the height and width is too short
or too long in proportion, the diagram would given an ugly look.
3. Selection of scale: The scale showing the values may be in even numbers or in
multiples of five or ten, eg. 25, 50, 75, or 20, 40, 60. Odd values like 1, 3, 5, 7 may
be avoided.
4. Footnotes: In order to clarify certain points about the diagram, footnote may be
given at the bottom of the diagram.
5. Index: An index illustrating different types of lines or different shades, colours
should be given so that the reader can easily make out the meaning of the diagram.
6. Neatness and cleanliness: Diagrams should be absolutely neat and clean.
7. Simplicity: Diagrams should be as simple as possible so that the reader can
understand their meaning clearly and easily.
 Significance of Diagrams and Graphs:
Diagrams and graphs are extremely useful because of the following reasons.

1. They are attractive and impressive.

2. They make data simple and intelligible.
3. They make comparison possible
4. They save time and labour.
5. They have universal utility.
6. They give more information.
7. They have a great memorizing effect.

Graphic representation
Graphic representation is another way of analyzing numerical data. A graph is a sort of chart
through which statistical data are represented in the form of lines or curves drawn across the
coordinated points plotted on its surface.

Graphs enable us in studying the cause and effect relationship between two variables. Graphs help to
measure the extent of change in one variable when another variable changes by a certain amount.

Graphs also enable us in studying both time series and frequency distribution as they give clear
account and precise picture of problem. Graphs are also easy to understand and eye catching.

 BAR CHART
A bar chart or bar graph is a chart or graph that presents categorical data with rectangular bars with
heights or lengths proportional to the values that they represent. The bars can be plotted vertically or
horizontally. A vertical bar chart is sometimes called a line graph.

A vertical bar graph is shown below:

Number of students went to different states for study:

The rectangular bars are separated by some distance in order to distinguish them from one
another. The bar graph shows comparison among the given categories.

Mostly, horizontal axis of the graph represents specific categories and vertical axis shows the
discrete numerical values.

 PIE CHART
A pie chart (or a circle chart) is a circular statistical graphic, which is divided into slices to
illustrate numerical proportion. In a pie chart, the arc length of each slice (and consequently its
central angle and area), is proportional to the quantity it represents. While it is named for its
resemblance to a pie which has been sliced, there are variations on the way it can be presented.

Pie charts are very widely used in the business world and the mass media

Fig. – Pie chart of populations of English native speakers

HISTOGRAM
Histogram is a non-cumulative frequency graph, it is drawn on a natural scale in which the
representative frequencies of the different class of values are represented through vertical
rectangles drawn closed to each other. Measure of central tendency, mode can be easily
determined with the help of this graph.

How to draw a Histogram?

Step—1

Represent the class intervals of the variables along the X axis and their frequencies along the Y-
axis on natural scale.

Step—2

Start X axis with the lower limit of the lowest class interval. When the lower limit happens to be
a distant score from the origin give a break in the X-axis n to indicate that the vertical axis has
been moved in for convenience.

Step—3

Now draw rectangular bars in parallel to Y axis above each of the class intervals with class units
as base: The areas of rectangles must be proportional to the frequencies of the corresponding
classes.
Solution

In this graph we shall take class intervals in the X axis and frequencies in the Y axis. Before
plotting the graph we have to convert the class into their exact limits.

Advantages of histogram

1. It is easy to draw and simple to understand.

2. It helps us to understand the distribution easily and quickly.
3. It is more precise than the polygene.

Limitations of histogram

1. It is not possible to plot more than one distribution on same axes as histogram.
2. Comparison of more than one frequency distribution on the same axes is not possible.
3. It is not possible to make it smooth.
 REPORT WRITING

Simple Report Sections

 Introduction, including aims and objectives

 Methodology
 Findings/results
 Discussion
 Conclusions and recommendations
 References

The Sections of a Simple Report (LAYOUT)-

(i) Introduction

State what your research/project/enquiry is about. What are you writing about, why and for
whom? What are your objectives? What are you trying to show or prove (your hypothesis)?

(ii) Methodology

State how you did your research/enquiry and the methods you used. How did you collect your
data? For example, if you conducted a survey, say how many people were included and how you
selected them. Say whether you used interviews or questionnaires and how you analyzed the data.

(iii) Findings/Results

Give the results of your research. Do not, at this stage, try to interpret the results – simply report
them. This section may include graphs, charts, diagrams etc. (clearly labelled). Be very careful
about copyright if you are using published charts, tables, illustrations etc.

(iv) Discussion

Interpret your findings. What do they show? Were they what you expected? Could your research
have been done in a better way?

(v) Conclusions and Recommendations

These should follow on logically from the Findings and Discussion sections. Summarise the key
points of your findings and show whether they prove or disprove your hypothesis. If you have
been asked to, you can make recommendations arising from your research.
 (vi) References

List all your sources in alphabetical order, using the appropriate University of Hull style. You
might find our referencing pages useful.

Preliminaries

 Title page
 Terms of reference, including scope of report
 Contents
 List of tables and diagrams
 Acknowledgements, i.e. thanks to those who helped with the report
 Summary, i.e. key points of the report

Main part

 Introduction
 Methodology
 Findings/results
 Discussion
 Conclusions and recommendations

Supplementary

 References/bibliography
 Appendices
 Glossary

 Types of Report
Type 1. Formal or Informal Reports

Formal reports are carefully structured; they stress objectivity and organization, contain much
detail, and are written in a style that tends to eliminate such elements as personal pronouns.
Informal reports are usually short messages with natural, casual use of language. The internal
memorandum can generally be described as an informal report.
Type 2. Short or Long Reports

This is a confusing classification. A one-page memorandum is obviously short, and a twenty page
report is clearly long. But where is the dividing line? Bear in mind that as a report becomes
longer (or what you determine as long), it takes on more characteristics of formal reports.

Type 3. Informational or Analytical Reports

Informational reports (annual reports, monthly financial reports, and reports on personnel
absenteeism) carry objective information from one area of an organization to another. Analytical
reports (scientific research, feasibility reports, and real-estate appraisals) present attempts to solve
problems.

Type 4. Proposal Report

The proposal is a variation of problem-solving reports. A proposal is a document prepared to

describe how one organization can meet the needs of another.

Type 5. Vertical or Lateral Reports

This classification refers to the direction a report travels. Reports that more upward or downward
the hierarchy are referred to as vertical reports; such reports contribute to management control.
Lateral reports, on the other hand, assist in coordination in the organization. A report traveling
between units of the same organization level (production and finance departments) is lateral.

Type 6. Internal or External Report

Internal reports travel within the organization. External reports, such as annual reports of
companies, are prepared for distribution outside the organization.

Type 7. Periodic Reports

Periodic reports are issued on regularly scheduled dates. They are generally upward directed and
serve management control. Preprinted forms and computer-generated data contribute to
uniformity of periodic reports.

Type 8. Functional Reports

This classification includes accounting reports, marketing reports, financial reports, and a variety
of other reports that take their designation from the ultimate use of the report. Almost all reports
could be included in most of these categories.
Mechanism of Report Writing
There are very definite and set rules which should be followed in the actual preparation of the
research report or paper.

The following points deserve mention so far as the mechanics of writing a report are concerned:

1. Size and physical design

2. Procedure
3. Layout
4. Treatment of Quotations

5. The footnotes

6. Documentation Style
7. Regarding Second-Hand Quotations Reference
8. Case of Multiple Authorship
9. Punctuation and abbreviations in footnotes
10. Use of statistics, charts and graphs
11. The final draft
12. Bibliography.
13. Preparation of the index
Precaution for Writing Report

Research report is a channel of communicating the research findings to the readers of the
report. A good research report is one which does this task efficiently and effectively. As such it
must be prepared keeping the following precautions in view:

1. While determining the length of the report (since research reports vary greatly in length),
one should keep in view the fact that it should be long enough to cover the subject but
short enough to maintain interest.
2. A research report should be such as to sustain reader’s interest.
3. Abstract terminology and technical jargon should be avoided in a research report.
4. The report should be able to convey the matter as simply as possible.
5. Readers are often interested in acquiring a quick knowledge of the main findings and as
such the report must provide a ready availability of the findings.
6. The layout of the report should be well thought out and must be appropriate and in
accordance with the objective of the research problem.
7. The reports should be free from grammatical mistakes
8. Must be prepared strictly in accordance with the techniques of composition of report-
writing such as the use of quotations, footnotes, documentation, proper punctuation and use
of abbreviations in footnotes and the like.
9. The report must present the logical analysis of the subject matter.
10. A research report should show originality
11. It must contribute to the solution of a problem and must add to the store of knowledge.
12. Towards the end, the report must also state the policy implications relating to the problem
under consideration.
13. Appendices should be enlisted in respect of all the technical data in the report.
14. Bibliography of sources consulted is a must for a good report and must necessarily be
given.
15. Index is also considered an essential part of a good report and as such must be prepared
and appended at the end.
16. Report must be attractive in appearance, neat and clean, whether typed or printed.