Corrosion of

Reinforced Concrete
Handbook of Corrosion Engineering , Third Edition
Pierre R. Roberge Ph.D.

Prepared by Glaysa Asilo

 TOPIC
S
 Condition Assessment of Reinforced Concrete
Structures
 Other Forms of Concrete
Degradation
 Degradation of Reinforced
Concrete
 Remedial Measures
Degradation of Reinforced
Concrete
 The main causes of corrosion of steel in
concrete are chloride attack and
carbonation.
These two mechanisms are unusual in that
they do not attack the integrity of the
concrete.
Instead, aggressive chemical species pass
through the pores in the concrete and attack
the steel.
This is unlike normal deterioration
processes due to chemical attack on concrete.
INITIATION AND PROPAGATION OF
CORROSION DAMAGE Most problems associated with corrosion
of steel in concrete are not due to the
direct loss of steel but to the growth of the
corrosion oxide products that eventually
can lead to cracking and spalling of the
concrete cover It has been suggested that
less than 100 μm of steel section loss are
needed to start cracking and spalling the
concrete. The actual amount needed will
depend on the geometry in terms of cover,
proximity to corners, rebar spacing, bar
diameter, and the rate of corrosion.
 CHLORIDE
 Chlorides can come ATTACK
from several sources. They can be cast into the
concrete or they can diffuse in from the outside.

 Deliberate addition of chloride set accelerators (calcium chloride was

widely used until the mid-1970s)

 Contaminated aggregates (usually sea-dredged aggregates that

were unwashed or inadequately washed)

 Use of seawater in the mix

 Chloride Attack Mechanism
and Chloride Threshold
Chlorides act as a catalyst to promote
corrosion when there is sufficient
concentration at the rebar surface to break
down the passive layer. These chlorides are
not consumed in the corrosion processes.
Chlorides in concrete exist as either free
chlorides or as bound chlorides. The former
are mobile chlorides dissolved in the pore
solution, while the latter type represents
relatively immobile chloride ions that can
react by chemical binding or by adsorption
with the cement paste.
 Macrocell Formation
In the case of chloride attack, the corrosion processes
are often well separated with areas of rusting adjacent
to areas of
"clean" steel. This is known as the macrocell
phenomenon. Chloride-induced corrosion is
particularly prone to macrocell
formation when high levels of water are present to
carry chlorides into the concrete. The presence of
water in the pores
increases the electrical conductivity of the concrete.
The higher conductivity allows the separation of anode
and cathode as
ions can move more freely through the water-
impregnated pores.
Remedial Measures
 A number of fundamental measures
can be taken to address the problem of
reinforcing steel corrosion. However, an
important distinction has to be made in
the applicability of remedial measures
between new and existing structures.
 Repair Techniques
The major scale of the concrete infrastructure deterioration
by Corrosion process prevents many organizations to be
proactive in the matter, simply because these organizations
are fully busy maintaining the functionality of existing
structures.

Repair Procedures thus create three different material zone

• Old Chloride contaminated or carbonated concrete
• New Concrete
• The interface between the old and new concrete
 Electrochemical techniques

Cathodic protection is one of the few

techniques that can be applied to control
corrosion on existing structures. Impressed
current cathodic protection of conventional
rebar, as opposed to pre- and posttensioned
systems, is well established with application
dating back over 25 years.
 Galvanic Cathodic Protection

One Alternative to impressed

current cathodic protection is galvanic
or sacrificial anode cathodic protection.
This technique uses a metal more
susceptible to corrosion then steel in
order to generate the galvanic current
needed to protect the steel.
 Stainless Steel Rebar
• Corrosion resistance is integral to the material
• No coatings are involved that could chip, crack or
degrade
• Able to withstand shipping, handling, and bending
• No “exposed” ends to cover or coat
• Good Ductility, strength, and weldability
• Magnetic or nonmagnetic, depending on grade
Condition Assessment of
Reinforced Concrete
Structures
 Techniques that can provide an early
warning of critical corrosion problems
can be particularly helpful. Once rebar
corrosion has proceeded to an
advanced state as being visually
apparent on external surfaces, it is
usually too late to implement effective
corrosion control measures and high
repair or replacement costs are
inevitable.
 Half-Cell Potential Mapping

Half-cell potential mapping has proved to be a very useful,

nondestructive means to locate areas of corrosion for
monitoring and condition assessment as well as in
determining the effectiveness of repair work. Used as an
early warning system, this technique can detect corrosion
long before it becomes visible at the concrete surface. Based
on potential mapping, other destructive and laboratory
analyses and corrosion rate measurements can be performed
more rationally. In addition, the amount of concrete removal
in repair works may be minimized because the corrosion sites
can be located precisely.
 Chloride Content
Samples for determining the chloride level in
concrete are collected in the form of powder produced
by drilling or by the extraction of cores, sections of
which are subsequently crushed. This latter method
can provide an accurate chloride concentration depth
profile. The chloride ion concentration is subsequently
determined by potentiometric titration. Two
distinctions are made in chloride ion concentration
testing: acid-soluble chloride content (ASTM C114)
refers to the total chloride ion content, while the
water-soluble content represents a lower value.
 Permeability Tests
Permeability tests are either based on ponding core
samples in chloride solution with subsequent chloride
content analysis or on "forced" migration of chloride ions
under the influence of an external electric field. The
application of the electrical field accelerates chloride ion
migration and hence reduces the testing time.
Other Forms of Concrete Degradation
 Alkali-Aggregate Reaction
Alkali-aggregate reaction refers to chemical reactions
between certain reactive aggregates and the highly
alkaline concrete pore solution. Reactive silica is known
for such reactions and the term "alkali-silica" reaction is
often used. The damage is associated with an internal
volume increase, producing cracking and spalling of the
concrete. The expansion of aggregate particles and the
formation of hygroscopic gels that swell are thought to
produce internal stresses. The cracking and spalling of
alkali-aggregate reaction damage can make the underlying
steel more susceptible to further corrosion attack.
 Freeze-Thaw Damage
Scaling of concrete surfaces is closely related to
freeze-thaw damage. Repetitive freeze and thaw cycles
can cause concrete surfaces to scale, leading to a pitted
surface morphology. Freeze-thaw damages are related
to the porous nature of concrete. If the solution
trapped in the pores freezes, a volume expansion can
occur when the solution freezes and result in increased
tensile stresses followed by cracking and spalling of the
concrete. Concrete with high moisture content is most
susceptible to this damage mechanism.
 Sulfate Attack
Soluble sulfate species can cause deterioration of concrete due to
expansion during the reaction between sulfate and calcium
aluminates in the cement paste. Sulfate ions are ubiquitous; they
are found in soils, seawater, groundwater, and effluent
solutions. Use of cement with low C A content is beneficial for
reducing the severity of this type of attack. Alternatively, the
use of cement replacement material such as ground-granulated
blast furnace slag can produce a high-quality chloride and
sulfate-resistant concrete ideal for marine tidal and splash zone
applications.
 QUESTIONS :
 How does steel in concrete normally behave ?

 What are the effects of of corrosion

?
 What is the appearance of corrosion
in the active state ?
  How does steel in concrete normally
behave ?
Concrete-embeded steel is widely believed to be
in a passive state with such a low corrosion rate
that, provided passivity is preserved, structures
can be expected to have an unlimited durability.
 What are the effects of of corrosion ?

Corrosion of RC structure is visible in the form

of rust spots, carcks in the concrete cover and
spalling. Occasionally, however, cover spalling in
structural elements occurs before any other sign of
detorioration at the concrete surface is apparent.
 What is the appearance of corrosion in the active
state ?
The pH decrease accompanying the progress of
carbonation fronts in concrete results in general corrosion,
which is not the case with chloride ions. Even if the the
attack of chloride ions is started locally, as pits, over the
course of time it may eventually affect large, widely-
corroded zones over which shallow pits also develop.
Experimental results suggest that, after ddepassivation, the
chloride concentration in iodic areas increases to balance the
excess positive charge due to Fe 2+ ions. The corrosion rate
is increases as a result of the chloride enrichment, the
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