REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURE (I)

CHAPTER TWO:
Basic Concepts Of Design
Structure

BY: TEKALIGN B.(Msc)

 General introduction
Design philosophies are employed
for designing structures that are safe,
economical and serviceable.
 Three basic methods using factors of safety to
achieve safe, workable structures have been
developed over many years; they are

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 Working Stress Method of Design
(WSM)
Design Philosophies

Ultimate Load Method of

Design(ULM)

Limit States Method of Design(LSM)

 WORKING STRESS METHOD (WSM)

Working Stress Method (WSM)/ Allowable Stress Method (ASM)

 Stress in the structure at working loads are not allowed to exceed a certain

portion of the yield stress of the construction material

 The working stress is obtained by dividing the characteristic value by a

unique factor of safety

allowable stress
Factor of safety(FS ) =
working stress
WORKING STRESS METHOD (WSM) CONT…

Assumption of WSM:
a. Plane section before bending will remain plane after bending

b. Bond b/n steel & concrete is perfect within elastic limit of steel

c. Steel & concrete behaves as linear elastic material

d. All tensile stress are taken by reinforcement & none by concrete

e. The stress in steel and concrete are related by factor called modular
ratio (n=280/σcbc)

f. The stress- strain relation ship of steel and concrete is a straight in under
working load
WORKING STRESS METHOD (WSM) CONT…
Advantages of WSM

i. Results in relatively large sections of structural members (compared to ULM)

ii. Resulting in better serviceability performance

 less deflections

 crack-widths, etc.) under the usual working loads.

iii. simple in concept and in application.

WORKING STRESS METHOD (WSM) CONT…
Disadvantages of WSM

i. Different types of load acting simultaneously have different degrees of

Uncertainties(SF, BM, Tors). This cannot be taken into account in WSM.

ii. The actual factor of safety is not known in this method of design(real strength not known)

iii. Does not consider the reserve strength beyond yield point & hence design is

Uneconomical(Large section)

iv. Main assumption of linear elastic behavior & control of stresses within

specially defined permissible stress are not found to be realistic due to:

 Creep, shrinkage and long - term effect

 effects of stress concentrations

 ULTIMATE LOAD METHOD (ULM)

Ultimate Load Method (ULM)/ Load Factor Method (LFM)

 The acting load is obtained by multiplying the working loads by a load factor

greater than the unity

 Structure is designed to resist ultimate loads/acting load

 load factor can be determined using:

A c ting load
load factor (LF) = and LF >1
Working load

 non-linear stress - strain curves of concrete and steel are use.

 ULTIMATE LOAD METHOD (ULM) CONT…

Assumption of ULM

i. Stress in reinforcement varies linearly with strain unto the specified yield strength. The

stress remain constant beyond this point as strains continue increasing. This implies that

the strain hardening of steel is ignored.

ii. Concrete sections are considered to have reached their flexural capacities when they

develop 0.003 strain in the extreme compression fiber

iii. Strain in reinforcement and concrete are directly proportional

to the distance from

neutral axis.

iv. Tensile strength of concrete is neglected

ULTIMATE LOAD METHOD (ULM) CONT…
Advantages of ULM Disadvantages of ULM

• Gives more slender sections → the satisfactory ‘strength’ performance at

 Obtain more economical designs of ultimate loads does not guarantee

satisfactory ‘serviceability’ performance

beams and columns (compared to
at the normal service loads.
WSM),

→ sometimes result excessive deflections

and crack-widths under service loads

DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES CONT…
Limit States Design Method (LSM)
 Limit state is the state/condition at which structure becomes unfit for use/ unserviceable
and the philosophy based on this concept is called limit state design method.
LSM
 Ensures safety at ultimate load and serviceability at working load

 Uses a multiple safety factor format which attempts to provide adequate safety at:

 ultimate loads for ultimate limit state

 service loads for serviceability limit state

 The selection of the various multiple safety factors is supposed to have a sound probabilistic basis,
involving the separate consideration of different :
 types of loads.

 types of materials
 Loss of Equilibrium

Progressive collapse

Ultimate Limit Rupture

States (ULS):
Formation of a plastic
mechanism
Limit States
Method
(LSM) Excessive deflections
Serviceability Limit
States (SLS)
Excessive crack widths
Abnormal
Special Limit conditions Undesirable vibrations
States (SLS) Abnormal
loadings
 Limit states
1. Ultimate Limit State
 This limit states are concerned with the failure of a
structural member or the whole structure.
 Such a failure should have a very low probability of
occurrence since it may lead to loss of human lives.
 It checks for:
 BM
 SF
 Torsion
 Axial force, etc..

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 Limit states
2. Serviceability limit state;
This include all types that affect the functional use of the structure
and can be classified as;
 Deflection: excessive deflections may be visually unacceptable
and may lead to walls or partitions damage.
 Cracking: excessive cracks may lead to leakage, corrosion of the
reinforcement and deterioration of concrete.
 Excessive vibration: vertical vibration of floors or roofs may
cause discomfort or alarm as well as damage. 15
 Limit states
The relative importance of each limit state will vary
according to the nature of the structure.
The usual procedure is to decide which is the crucial limit
state for a particular structure and base the design on this.
Except in special cases, such as water-retaining structures,
the ultimate limit state is generally critical for reinforced
concrete although subsequent serviceability checks may
affect some of the details of the design.
Pre-stressed concrete design, however, is generally based
on serviceability conditions with checks on the ultimate
limit state.
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DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES CONT…

Ultimate limit states (ULS): Serviceability limit states

(SLS):
 involve a structural collapse of part or

all of the structure.  Disruption of the functional use of

 Such a limit state should have a very the structure, but not collapse.
low probability of occurrence, because
 there is less danger of loss of life, a
it may lead to loss of life and major
higher probability of occurrence
financial losses.
 SLS can be tolerated than in the case of an
ultimate limit state.
DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES CONT…

Special limit states (SLS): involves damage or failure due to abnormal conditions

or abnormal loadings.

Special limit states (SLS) includes:

• Damage or collapse in extreme earthquakes

• Structural effects of fire, explosions, or vehicular collisions

• Structural effect of corrosion or deterioration

• Long – term physical or chemical instability

 Partial factors of safety

 In limit state method of design two factors of safety are used one to
account for uncertainty in material property and other for
uncertainty in loading. Hence the factor are called partial factor of
safety.
Partial factors of safety for materials (
design strength =

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 Partial factors of safety

The following factors are considered when selecting a suitable value for
1. The strength of the material in an actual member. This strength will
differ from that measured in a carefully prepared test specimen and it is
particularly true for concrete where placing, compaction and curing are
so important to the strength. Steel, on the other hand, is a relatively
consistent material requiring a small partial factor of safety.
2. The severity of the limit state being considered. Thus, higher values are
taken for the ultimate limit state than for the serviceability limit state.
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 Partial factors of safety
Partial factors of safety for materials (
Recommended values for are given in table below The values in the first two
columns should be used when the structure is being designed for persistent design
situations (anticipated normal usage) or transient design situations (temporary
situations such as may occur during construction). The values in the last two columns
should be used when the structure is being designed for exceptional accidental
design situations such as the effects of fire or explosion.

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 Partial factors of safety
Partial factors of safety for actions(load) (
Errors and inaccuracies may be due to a number of causes:
1. design assumptions and inaccuracy of calculation;
2. possible unusual increases in the magnitude of the actions;
3. unforeseen stress redistributions;
4. constructional inaccuracies
These cannot be ignored, and are taken into account by applying a partial factor of
safety () on the characteristic actions, so that

design value of action = characteristic action X partial factor of safety ()

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