Introduction to Qualitative

Research
Methods, Design, & Data
Analysis
 ‫دکتر محمد کمالی‬
‫استاديار دانشکده علوم توانبخشی‬
‫دانشگاه علوم پزشکی ايران‬

‫‪www.mkamali.com‬‬
‫‪kamali@mkamali.com‬‬
‫تهران ‪ -‬صندوق پستی ‪17445-183‬‬
Qualitative Research

“You can learn a lot

just by watching”
Origins of Qualitative Approaches

• Developed as a reaction to positivist

philosophy which had overrun all sciences,
even philosophy itself
• Recognition that the lived world of
humanity requires a different research
approach to the natural world
MAKING SENSE OF OTHERS’
REALITY
 scientific paradigms
• Quantitative and qualitative research may largely
be seen as existing within two separate scientific
paradigms.
• Quantitative Research is rooted in the Positivist
paradigm.
• Qualitative Research is rooted in the Interpretive
paradigm.
 BASIC CONCEPTS
• A scientific paradigm connects and categorises a variety of
research techniques through underlying philosophical assumptions
surrounding appropriate research practice.

• Within each paradigm the nature of knowledge is assumed to be

different.

• Epistemology is the philosophical debate about the nature of

knowledge.

• Methodology – specifies how the researcher may go about

practically studying whatever he or she believes can be known
(the theory informing the practice of research).
 THE POSITIVIST PARADIGM
• Positivism argues that research should act “… as an
organised method …” surrounding precise empirical
observations of individual behaviour in order to discover
and confirm a set of probabilistic causal laws that can be
used to predict general patterns of human activity”
(Neuman, 1997: 63)

• Empiricism argues that only that which can be

experienced through the senses may be known to be real.

• Positivist research gained dominance in the natural

sciences and was later adopted in social sciences.
 THE INTERPRETIVE PARADIGM
• The interpretive approach argues that research should
explore “…socially meaningful action through the
direct detailed observation of people in natural settings
in order to arrive at understandings and
interpretations of how people create and maintain their
social worlds” (Neuman, 1997:68).

• We use “… methods that try to describe and interpret

people’s feelings and experiences in human terms
rather than through quantification and measurement”
(Terre Blanche & Kelly, 1999: 123).
 POSITIVIST INTERPRETIVE

Discovery of universal laws Discovery of how people

governing social world. make sense of their social
worlds.
A fixed social reality exists Many social realities exist
that may be measured and due to varying human
described. experience.
Human behaviour is both Human behaviour is context
rational and predictable. bound and variable.

Positivist science is capable Common sense provides

of uncovering ‘truth’. insight into social realities.
POSITIVIST INTERPRETIVE
Discovery of social fact Understanding of social
is achieved through reality is achieved
reason. through rich contextual
description.
Empirical observation Contextual understanding
serve to illuminate social exposes a social reality.
facts.

Objective, value-free Recognition of

study is crucial in social subjectivity in social
research. research is important.
 Elements of the Research Process

DEDUCTIVE & INDUCTIVE REASONING

Deductive thinking (Quantitative)

THEORY

HYPOTHESIS

OBSERVATION

CONFIRMATION
 Elements of the Research Process (Cont.)

Inductive thinking (Qualitative)

OBSERVATION

PATTERNS

HYPOTHESIS

THEORY
QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE

Research process is Research process is

deductive. inductive.
Measure objective facts. Social reality, meaning is
constructed.
Focus on variables. Focus on in-depth
meaning.
Value-free research. Values are present &
explicit (empathy).
Independent of context. Contextual importance.
Many cases, subjects. Few cases, participants.
QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE

Statistical analysis Thematic analysis

Objective instruments of Researcher as the central

data collection. tool for data collection.

Highly structured Loosely structured

research process. research process.

Researcher is detached Researcher is immersed

(outsider). (insider).
(Adapted from Neuman, 1997: 14)
QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE

result oriented process oriented

particularistic and holistic perspective

analytical

objective “outsider view” subjective “insider view”

distant from data and closeness to data

generalized by population generalization by comparison

of properties and contexts
membership
of individual organism
• Although positivist approach attempts to
understand social phenomena through largely
quantitative means, and the interpretive
approach mainly through qualitative techniques.
• it is important not overemphasise the difference
between these methods.
 Qualitative research...

• Commonly called “interpretive research”

…its methods rely heavily on “thick” verbal

descriptions of a particular social context
being studied
 Qualitative research...

• It is useful for describing or answering

questions about particular, localized
occurrences or contexts and the perspectives
of a participant group toward events, beliefs,
or practices
…a helpful process for exploring a complex
research area about which little is known
 Qualitative research...
• Interpretation, as the core of qualitative research
focuses on the meaning of human experience.

• The focus is on understanding human experience

rather than explaining and predicting behaviour.

• It is acknowledged that meaning and behaviour

occurs within particular social, cultural and
historical contexts.
 “Qualitative Research”
a definition by Van Maanen (1979)

“An umbrella term covering an array of

interpretive techniques which seek to
describe, decode, translate, and otherwise
come to terms with the meaning, not the
frequency, of certain naturally occurring
phenomena in the social world” (p. 520)
 “Qualitative Research”
a definition by (Banister et al., 1994)

Qualitative research is “…the interpretive

study of a specified issue or problem in
which the researcher is central to the sense
that is made”
 “Qualitative Research”
a definition by (Banister et al., 1994)

“The goal of qualitative research is the

development of concepts which help us to
understand social phenomena in natural
(rather than experimental) settings, giving due
emphasis to the meanings, experiences, and
views of all the participants.”
Pope & Mays.
BMJ 1995; 311: 42-45.
 Essential Characteristics of
Qualitative Research
• concerned with understanding a phenomenon
• assumes multiple realities
• data is in the form of rich verbal descriptions
• researcher is immersed and in direct contact
during the data collection
• the data collection is highly interactive
• data collection methodology evolves and is
flexible; a “tentative” approach to the
methodology
 Essential Characteristics of
Qualitative Research
• emphasizes the holistic perspective
• research is context sensitive
• illuminate the invisibility of everyday life; “make the
familiar strange”
• construct meaning from the participant’s point of
view (“informants” rather than “subjects”)
• explores open questions rather than testing
hypothesis
• employs purposive sampling and “gate keepers”
 Appropriateness of
Qualitative Research
• When variables cannot be quantified
• When variables are best understood in their
natural settings
• When variables are studied over time
• When studying roles, processes, and groups
• When the paramount objective is “understanding”
 What to Observe or Study

• Behaviors or practices
• Episodes, common events (death, birth, etc.)
• Encounters –when groups or people interact
• Roles
• Relationship roles – mother/daughter;
wife/husband, Therapist/disabled,… etc.
 Qualifications of Investigators
(Kuh & Andreas, 1991)

• Must have requisite knowledge and skills about

methodology, setting and nature of the issue.
• Must be familiar with own biases, assumptions,
expectations, and values.
• Must be empathic, intelligent, energetic, and
interested in listening
• Must be open to embracing multiple realities.
• Must be prepared to produce detailed,
comprehensive, and sometimes lengthy reports.
The Qualitative Research Design
“a rough working frame” --(Whitt, 1991)

• An initial focus (problem, phenomenon,

question)
• Phases of the study (background, entry,
exploration, closure)
• Plan for identifying setting and data sources
• Plan and logistics for data collection and
analysis
• Plan for ensuring trustworthiness
 Phases in Qualitative
Research
Conceptualize and plan study
Use literature,formulate study
purpose or question, identify Start study with concurrent
study site,settings where/how data collection and analysis.
data collection will occur, Analysis focused on
participants and entrée to identifying themes and
setting categories-- similarities in
data. Question or purpose
Goal: Access the may emerge and be refined.
participants world & Data collection strategies
may change
meanings.
Researcher is the
instrument

Sampling and data collection determined by

theoretical saturation. Analysis based on narrative
description
 Selecting participants...

• The goal is to get the deepest possible

understanding of the setting being studied
• Requires identifying participants who can
provide information about the particular
topic and setting being studied
 Selecting participants...

• It is fraught with difficulties in identifying

and selecting an appropriate number of
participants who can provide useful
information about the particular topic and
setting being studied
• Utilizes purposive sampling
Differences Between Random &
Purposeful Sampling
Random “Quantitative” Sampling
Select Representative individuals
To generalize from sample to population
To make claims about the population
To build/test “theories” that explain the pop’n

Purposeful “Qualitative” Sampling

Select people/sites who can best help us
understand our phenomenon
To develop detailed understanding
That might be “useful: information
That might help people “learn” about the phenomenon
That might give voice to “silenced” people
 Sampling in Qualitative Studies
• Sample size is always determined by the analysis. It is part
of the design and so is influenced by the nature of the
inquiry, quality of the informants, the quality of the data.

• The researcher is looking for saturation—the point at

which there is no new cases coming from each new
participant and redundant information keeps coming up.

• This must be differentiated from participant saturation

where the researcher cannot drag anything new out of the
umpteenth interview with that particular person.
Types of Data Collection
(or “fieldwork”)

Observation

Interviewing

Focus Groups

Document Analysis
The Three-Interview Series
(Seidman, 1998)

Interview One: Life History

Interview Two: Details of the Experience

Interview Three: Reflection on the Meaning

 Qualitative Research Methods:
Triangulation
• Method to enhance the
validity & reliability
of qualitative research
• Enhances accuracy of
interpretation
• Confirms that the data
collected is not due to
chance or circum-
stances
 Qualitative Research Methods:
Triangulation
For example:
 Collect data from  May interview teachers,
multiple sources principals & parents
 Collect data in  May interview &
multiple ways from observe students
subjects
 Collect different  May review student
kinds of data in records, interview
multiple ways from teachers, observe
multiple subjects students
 Qualitative Research Methods:
Triangulation
Multiple data
collection strategies

Kinds of data

Subjects Data collection

Multiple kinds (data sources) strategies Multiple data
of data sources
 Resources
(Kuh & Andreas, 1991)

• Recording devices
• Transcribing equipment
• Software packages for analyzing
• Member checks participants
• Space
• Time
 Qualitative Research:
Data Analysis
The Data Analysis
Generally collected in • Some form of
the form of… analysis usually
field notes, takes place at the
same time data is
diaries
being collected
audio & video tapes, •
Researcher seeks
copies of documents, to identify patterns
narrative descriptions or trends
 Qualitative Research:
Data Analysis

Qualitative data may be analyzed by a 3-

part strategy:
reducing the data
coding the data
synthesizing the data
 Qualitative Research:
Data Analysis

• Read and re-read data, become engrossed in it.

• Identify themes: common, conflicting, minority
• Test themes across the data set, where are they common,
under what circumstances are they found, not found. This
sets the parameters on the interpretation and generalisation
of data
• Get more than one person to analyse the data
independently then together
• Demonstrate trustworthiness in data analysis
 Common Qualitative
Research Approaches
• Case study
• Ethnography
• Grounded theory
• Phenomenology
• Historical
• Action Research