CH 1 Introduction

Chapter 1: Introduction
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.1 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Objectives
 To describe the basic organization of computer systems

 To provide a grand tour of the major components of
operating systems
 To give an overview of the many types of computing
environments
 To explore several open-source operating systems
What is an Operating System?
 A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a

computer and the computer hardware
 Operating system goals:
 Execute user programs and make solving user problems
easier
 Make the computer system convenient to use
 Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner
Computer System Structure
 Computer system can be divided into four components:
 Hardware – provides basic computing resources
 CPU, memory, I/O devices
 Operating system
 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
 Application programs – define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the
users
 Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games
 Users
 People, machines, other computers
Four Components of a Computer System
What Operating Systems Do
 Depends on the point of view

 Users want convenience, ease of use and good performance
 Don’t care about resource utilization
 But shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer must
keep all users happy
 Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have dedicated
resources but frequently use shared resources from servers
 Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for usability
and battery life
 Some computers have little or no user interface, such as
embedded computers in devices and automobiles
Operating System Definition
 OS is a resource allocator
 Manages all resources
 With the management of the OS, a programmer is rid of
difficult hardware considerations. The primary way the OS
does this is through a general technique that we call
virtualization. That is, the OS takes a physical resource and
transforms it into a more general, powerful, and easy-to-use
virtual form of itself. Thus, we sometimes refer to the OS as a
virtual machine
 Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair
resource use
 OS is a control program
 Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and
improper use of the computer
Operating System Definition (Cont.)
 No universally accepted definition

 “Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating
system” is a good approximation
 But varies wildly
 “The one program running at all times on the computer” is the
kernel.
 Everything else is either
 a system program (ships with the operating system) , or
 an application program.
Computer Startup
 bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

 Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known
as firmware
 Initializes all aspects of system
 Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
Computer System Organization
 Computer-system operation
 One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common
bus providing access to shared memory
 Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for
memory cycles
Computer-System Operation
 I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

 Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type
 Each device controller has a local buffer
 CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
 I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller
 Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its
operation by causing an interrupt
Processors
 The ‘‘brain’’ of the computer is the CPU. It fetches

instructions from memory and executes them
 Each CPU has a specific set of instructions that it can
execute.
 general registers used to hold variables and temporary
results, most computers have several special registers that
are visible to the programmer. One of these is the program
counter,
 The OS must be fully aware of all the registers.
Types of Processors
 A single-core, processor is a microprocessor with a single

core on a chip, running a single thread computing thread at any
one time.
 Multithreaded and Multicore Chips.
Types of Processors
 Multiprocessor Systems
 Main advantages:
 Increased throughput
 Economy of scale
 Increased reliability
Common Functions of Interrupts
 Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine

generally, through the interrupt vector, which contains the
addresses of all the service routines
 Interrupt architecture must save the address of the
interrupted instruction
 A trap or exception is a software-generated interrupt
caused either by an error or a user request
 An operating system is interrupt driven
Interrupt Handling
 The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by

storing registers and the program counter
 Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
 polling
 vectored interrupt system
 Interrupt service routine: Separate segments of code
determine what action should be taken for each type of
interrupt
Interrupt Timeline
I/O Structure
 After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon I/O
completion
 Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt
 Wait loop (contention for memory access)
 At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no
simultaneous I/O processing
 After I/O starts, control returns to user program without waiting
for I/O completion
 System call – request to the OS to allow user to wait for
I/O completion
 Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device
indicating its type, address, and state
 OS indexes into I/O device table to determine device
status and to modify table entry to include interrupt
Two I/O Methods
Synchronous Asynchronous
Device-Status Table
Storage Definitions and Notation Review
The basic unit of computer storage is the bit. A bit can contain one of two
values, 0 and 1. All other storage in a computer is based on collections of bits.
Given enough bits, it is amazing how many things a computer can represent:
numbers, letters, images, movies, sounds, documents, and programs, to name a
few. A byte is 8 bits, and on most computers it is the smallest convenient chunk
of storage. For example, most computers don’t have an instruction to move a bit
but do have one to move a byte. A less common term is word, which is a given
computer architecture’s native unit of data. A word is made up of one or more
bytes. For example, a computer that has 64-bit registers and 64-bit memory
addressing typically has 64-bit (8-byte) words. A computer executes many
operations in its native word size rather than a byte at a time.
Computer storage, along with most computer throughput, is generally measured

and manipulated in bytes and collections of bytes.
A kilobyte, or KB, is 1,024 bytes
a megabyte, or MB, is 1,0242 bytes
a gigabyte, or GB, is 1,0243 bytes
a terabyte, or TB, is 1,0244 bytes
a petabyte, or PB, is 1,0245 bytes
Computer manufacturers often round off these numbers and say that a
megabyte is 1 million bytes and a gigabyte is 1 billion bytes. Networking
measurements are an exception to this general rule; they are given in bits
(because networks move data a bit at a time).
Storage Structure
 Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access
directly
 Random access
 Typically volatile
 Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity
 Hard disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic
recording material
 Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into
sectors
 The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device
and the computer
 Solid-state disks – faster than hard disks, nonvolatile
 Various technologies
 Becoming more popular
Storage Structure
• Solid-state disks have several variants but in general are
faster than magnetic disks and are nonvolatile.
• One type of solid-state disk stores data in a large DRAM
array during normal operation but also contains a
hidden magnetic hard disk and a battery for backup
power. If external power is interrupted, this solid-state
disk’s controller copies the data from RAM to the
magnetic disk. When external power is restored, the
controller copies the data back into RAM.
• Another form of solid-state disk is flash memory, which is
popular in cameras and personal digital assistants
(PDAs), in robots, and increasingly for storage on
general-purpose computers. Flash memory is slower
than DRAM but needs no power to retain its contents.
Moving-Head Disk Mechanism
Operating System Concepts Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.24
Storage Hierarchy
 Storage systems organized in hierarchy

 Speed
 Cost
 Volatility
 Caching – copying information into faster storage system;
main memory can be viewed as a cache for secondary
storage
 Device Driver for each device controller to manage I/O
 Provides uniform interface between controller and
kernel
Storage-Device Hierarchy
Caching
 Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer

(in hardware, operating system, software)
 Information in use copied from slower to faster storage
temporarily
 Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if
information is there
 If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
 If not, data copied to cache and used there
 Cache smaller than storage being cached
 Cache management important design problem
 Cache size and replacement policy
Direct Memory Access Structure
 Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit

information at close to memory speeds
 Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer
storage directly to main memory without CPU
intervention
 Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than
the one interrupt per byte
Performance of Various Levels of Storage
Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or implicit
Migration of data “A” from Disk to Register
 Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent

value, no matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy
 Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in

hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their
cache
Booting the Computer
 bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot
 Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known
as firmware
 Initializes all aspects of system
 Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
Operating System Structure
 Multiprogramming (Batch system) needed for efficiency
 Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
 Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to
execute
 A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory at the same time.
 One job selected and run via job scheduling
 When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job
 Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs

so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating
interactive computing
 Response time should be < 1 second
 Each user has at least one program executing in memory process
 If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling
 If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
 Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory
Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System
Operating-System Operations
 Interrupt driven (hardware and software)
 Hardware interrupt by one of the devices
 Software interrupt (exception or trap):
 Software error (e.g., division by zero)
 Request for operating system service
 Other process problems include infinite loop, processes
modifying each other or the operating system
Operating-System Operations (cont.)
 Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system
components
 User mode and kernel mode
 Mode bit provided by hardware
 Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user
code or kernel code
 Some instructions designated as privileged, only
executable in kernel mode
 System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets
it to user
 Increasingly CPUs support multi-mode operations
 i.e. virtual machine manager (VMM) mode for guest VMs
Transition from User to Kernel Mode
 Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
 Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time period
 Keep a counter that is decremented by the physical clock.
 Operating system set the counter (privileged instruction)
 When counter zero generate an interrupt
 Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate
program that exceeds allotted time
Types of Operating Systems
 Batch Operating System
 The users of a batch OS do not interact with the computer directly.
Each user prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards
and submits it to the computer operator
 Time-sharing Operating Systems
 Each task is given some time to execute, so that all the tasks work
smoothly. Each user gets time of CPU as they use single system.
These systems are also known as Multitasking Systems
 Network Operating System
 A network OS is an OS that provides features such as file,and
printers sharing across the network, along with a
communication scheme that allows different processes on
different computers to exchange messages.
 Real-Time Operating Systems
 These systems are characterized by having time as a key
parameter.
 For example, in industrial process-control systems, real-time
computers have to collect data about the production process and
use it to control machines in the factory
 Handheld Computer Operating Systems
 Is the OS that manages a handheld computer, originally known as
a PDA (Personal Digital Assistant), is a small computer that can be
held in your hand during operation, such as Google’s Android,
Apple’s iOS
 Embedded Operating Systems
 Embedded systems run on the computers that control devices that
are not generally thought of as computers and which do not accept
user-installed software,…
 Sensor-Node Operating Systems
 Networks of tiny sensor nodes are being deployed for numerous purposes.
These nodes are tiny computers that communicate with each other and with
a base station using wireless communication.
 Sensor networks are used to protect the perimeters of buildings, guard
national borders, detect fires in forests, measure temperature and
precipitation for weather forecasting, glean information about enemy
movements on battlefields, and much more.
 Smart Card Operating Systems
 The smallest OS run on smart cards, which are credit-card-sized devices
containing a CPU chip.
 Some are powered by contacts in the reader into which they are inserted.
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Chapter 1: Introduction

 To describe the basic organization of computer systems

 A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a

 Depends on the point of view

 No universally accepted definition

 bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

 I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

 The ‘‘brain’’ of the computer is the CPU. It fetches

 A single-core, processor is a microprocessor with a single

 Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine

 The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by

Computer storage, along with most computer throughput, is generally measured

Operating System Concepts Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013

 Storage systems organized in hierarchy

 Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer

 Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit

Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or implicit

 Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent

 Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in

 Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs

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