Lecture Notes

Fluid Mechanics

Lecture #02 – Fluid Statics and Pressure

Measurement

First Semester 2023

Dar es salaam Maritime Institute

Marine Engineering Department
By Eng. Anna Msongela (Msc.)
 Lecture Objectives
At the end of this Lecture students be able
to;
1. Explain fluid at rest

2.Explain different methods for measuring

pressure

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 Lecture Outline
2.1 Pressure of a liquid
2.2 Pressure head of a liquid
2.3 Pascal’s law
2.4 Absolute and gauge pressures
2.5 Measurement of pressure

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 2.1 Pressure of a Liquid
 When a fluid is contained in a vessel, it exerts force
at all points on the sides and bottom and top of the
container.
 The force per unit area is called pressure

Then intensity of pressure,

 The pressure of a fluid on a surface will always act

normal to the surface.

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 2.2 Pressure Head of a Liquid
 A liquid is subjected to pressure due to its own weight, this
pressure increases as the depth of the liquid increases.
 Consider a vessel containing liquid, as shown in Fig. 2.1.
 The liquid will exert pressure on all sides and bottom of
the vessel.
 Now, let cylinder be made to stand in the liquid, as shown
in the figure.

and,

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 2.2 Pressure Head of a Liquid

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 2.2 Pressure Head of a Liquid
Now, Total pressure force on the base of the cylinder =
Weight of liquid in the cylinder i.e.,

As , the intensity of pressure in a liquid due to its depth will vary

directly with depth.
• As the pressure at any point in a liquid depends on height of the
free surface above that point, it is sometimes convenient to
express a liquid pressure by the height of the free surface which
would cause the pressure, i.e.,

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 2.2 Pressure Head of a Liquid
 The height of the free surface above any point is known as
the static head at that point.
 In this case, static head is . Hence, the intensity of pressure
of a liquid may be expressed in the following two ways:
1. As a force per unit area (), and
2. As an equivalent static head (i.e., metres, mm or cm of
liquid).
Alternatively:
Pressure variation in fluid at rest:
In order to determine the pressure at any point in a fluid at
rest “hydrostatic law” is used; the law states as follows:
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 2.2 Pressure Head of a Liquid
“The rate of increase of pressure in a vertically downward
direction must be equal to the specific weight of the fluid at
that point.”

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 2.2 Pressure Head of a Liquid

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 2.2 Pressure Head of a Liquid

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 2.2 Pressure Head of a Liquid
 Eqn. (2.3.) states that rate of increase of pressure in a
vertical direction is equal to weight density of the fluid at
that point. This is “hydrostatic law”.
 On integrating the eqn. (2.3), we get:

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 2.2 Pressure Head of a Liquid
.

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 2.3 Pascal’s Law
 The Pascal’s law states as follows :
“The intensity of pressure at any point in a liquid at rest, is
the same in all directions”.
Proof.
Let us consider a very small wedge shaped element LMN of
a liquid, as shown in Fig. 2.3.

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 2.3 Pascal’s Law
.

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 2.3 Pascal’s Law
.

As the element of the liquid is at rest, therefore the sum of

horizontal and vertical components of the liquid pressures must
be equal to zero. Resolving the forces horizontally:

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 2.3 Pascal’s Law
.

Hence, at any point in a fluid at rest the intensity of pressure is

exerted equally in all directions, which is called Pascal’s law.

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 Example 2.3
The diameters of ram and plunger of an hydraulic press are
200 mm and 30 mm respectively.
Find the weight lifted by the hydraulic press when the force
applied at the plunger is 400 N.

Solution.
Diameter of the ram,
Diameter of the plunger, m
Force on the plunger, F = 400 N

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 Example 2.3
.

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 Example 2.3
.

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 Example 2.4
For the hydraulic jack shown in Fig. 2.5 find the load lifted
by the large piston when a force of 400 N is applied on the
small piston. Assume the specific weight of the liquid in the
jack is 9810 N/m3 .

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 Example 2.4
.

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 Example 2.4
.

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 2.4 Absolute and Gauge Pressures
Atmospheric pressure:
 The atmospheric air exerts a normal pressure upon all
surfaces with which it is in contact, and it is known as
atmospheric pressure.
 The atmospheric pressure is also known as ‘Barometric
pressure’. The atmospheric pressure at sea level (above
absolute zero) is called ‘Standard atmospheric pressure’.
 Note. The local atmospheric pressure may be a little
lower than these values if the place under question is
higher than sea level, and higher values if the place is
lower than sea level, due to the corresponding decrease or
increase of the column of air standing, respectively.
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 2.4 Absolute and Gauge Pressures
Gauge pressure:
 It is the pressure, measured with the help of pressure
measuring instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure
is taken as datum.
 The atmospheric pressure on the scale is marked as zero.
Gauges record pressure above or below the local
atmospheric pressure, since they measure the difference in
pressure of the liquid to which they are connected and that
of surrounding air.
 If the pressure of the liquid is below the local atmospheric
pressure, then the gauge is designated as ‘vacuum gauge’
and the recorded value indicates the amount by which the
pressure of the liquid is below local atmospheric pressure,
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i.e. negative pressure.
 2.4 Absolute and Gauge Pressures
 (Vacuum pressure is defined as the pressure below the
atmospheric pressure).
Absolute pressure:
 It is necessary to establish an absolute pressure scale
which is independent of the changes in atmospheric
pressure.
 A pressure of absolute zero can exist only in complete
vacuum. Any pressure measured above the absolute zero
of pressure is termed as an ‘absolute pressure’.
 A schematic diagram showing the gauge pressure, vacuum
pressure and the absolute pressure is given in Fig. 2.6

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2.4 Absolute and Gauge Pressures

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 2.4 Absolute and Gauge Pressures
Units for pressure:
 The fundamental S.I. unit of pressure is newton per square
metre ( ). This is also known as Pascal.
 Low pressures are often expressed in terms of mm of
water or mm of mercury.
 This is an abbreviated way of saying that the pressure is
such that will support a liquid column of stated height.
 Note. When the local atmospheric pressure is not given in
a problem, it is taken as or of water for simplicity of
calculations.

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 2.4 Absolute and Gauge Pressures
Standard atmospheric pressure has the following equivalent
values:

Example.
Given that:
Barometer reading = 740 mm of mercury;
Specific gravity of mercury = 13.6;
Intensity of pressure = 40 kPa.
Express the intensity of pressure in S.I. units, both gauge and absolute

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2.4 Absolute and Gauge Pressures

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2.4 Absolute and Gauge Pressures

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 Example 2.6
Calculate the pressure at a point 5 m below the free water
surface in a liquid that has a variable density given by
relation:

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 2.5 Measurement of Pressure
 The pressure of a fluid may be measured by the following
devices:
1. Manometers:
Manometers are defined as the devices used for measuring
the pressure at a point in a fluid by balancing the column of
fluid by the same or another column of liquid.
These are classified as follows:
(a) Simple manometers:
-(i) Piezometer, (ii) U-tube manometer, and (iii) Single
column manometer.
(b) Differential manometers.
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 2.5 Measurement of Pressure
 The pressure of a fluid may be measured by the following
devices:
1. Manometers:
Manometers are defined as the devices used for measuring
the pressure at a point in a fluid by balancing the column of
fluid by the same or another column of liquid.
These are classified as follows:
(a) Simple manometers:
-(i) Piezometer, (ii) U-tube manometer, and (iii) Single
column manometer.
(b) Differential manometers.
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 2.5 Measurement of Pressure
 2. Mechanical gauges:
These are the devices in which the pressure is measured by
balancing the fluid column by spring ( elastic element) or
dead weight.
 Generally these gauges are used for measuring high
pressure and where high precision is not required.
 Some commonly used mechanical gauges are:
(i) Bourdon tube pressure gauge,
(ii) Diaphragm pressure gauge,
(iii) Bellow pressure gauge, and
(iv) Dead-weight pressure gauge.
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 2.5 Measurement of Pressure
 2.5.1 Manometers
2.5.1.1. Simple manometers
 A “simple manometer” is one which consists of a glass
tube whose one end is connected to a point where pressure
is to be measured and the other end remains open to
atmosphere.
 Common types of simple manometers are discussed in the
next slide.

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 2.5 Measurement of Pressure
2.5.1.1. Simple manometers
1. Piezometer:
 A piezometer is the simplest form of manometer which
can be used for measuring moderate pressures of liquids.
 It consists of a glass tube (Fig 2.10) inserted in the wall
of a vessel or of a pipe, containing liquid whose pressure
is to be measured.
 The tube extends vertically upward to such a height that
liquid can freely rise in it without overflowing.
 The pressure at any point in the liquid is indicated by the
height of the liquid in the tube above that point, which can
be read on the scale attached to it.
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 2.5 Measurement of Pressure
 Thus if is the specific weight of the liquid, then the
pressure at point is given by:

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 2.5 Measurement of Pressure
 Piezometers measure gauge pressure only (at the surface
of the liquid), since the surface of the liquid in the tube is
subjected to atmospheric pressure.
 A piezometer tube is not suitable for measuring negative
pressure; as in such a case the air will enter in pipe
through the tube.

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 2.5 Measurement of Pressure
2. U-tube manometer:
 Piezometers cannot be employed when large pressures in
the lighter liquids are to be measured, since this would
require very long tubes, which cannot be handled
conveniently.
 Furthermore gas pressures cannot be measured by the
piezometers because a gas forms no free atmospheric
surface.
 These limitations can be overcome by the use of U-tube
manometers.

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 2.5 Measurement of Pressure
2. U-tube manometer:
 A U-tube manometer consists of a glass tube bent in U-
shape, one end of which is connected to a point at which
pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to
the atmosphere as shown in Fig. 2.11

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 2.5 Measurement of Pressure
2. U-tube manometer:

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 2.5 Measurement of Pressure
2. U-tube manometer:

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 2.5 Measurement of Pressure
2. U-tube manometer:

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 Example
In a pipeline water is flowing. A manometer is used to
measure the pressure drop for flow through the pipe. The
difference in level was found to be 20 cm. If the manometric
fluid is , find the pressure drop in S.I units (density of If the
manometric fluid is changed to mercury () what will be the
difference in level?

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 Example

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 Example 2.12.
U-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure of oil of
specific gravity 0.85 flowing in a pipe line. Its left end is
connected to the pipe and the right-limb is open to the
atmosphere. The centre of the pipe is 100 mm below the
level of mercury (specific gravity = 13.6) in the right limb. If
the difference of mercury level in the two limbs is 160 mm,
determine the absolute pressure of the oil in the pipe

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 Example 2.12.

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 Example 2.12.

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 2.5 Measurement of Pressure
3. Single column manometer (micro-manometer):
 The U-tube manometer described above usually requires
reading of fluid levels at two or more points since a
change in pressure causes a rise of liquid in one limb of
the manometer and a drop in the other.
 This difficulty is however overcome by using single
column manometers.
 A single column manometer is a modified form of a U-
tube manometer in which a shallow reservoir having a
large cross-sectional area (about 100 times) as compared
to the area of the tube is connected to one limb of the
manometer, as shown in Fig. 2.18
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 2.5 Measurement of Pressure
3. Single column manometer (micro-manometer):
 For any variation in pressure, the change in the liquid
level in the reservoir will be so small that it may be
neglected, and the pressure is indicated by the height of
the liquid in the other limb.
 As such only one reading in the narrow limb of the
manometer need be taken for all pressure measurements.
 The narrow limb may be vertical or inclined. Thus there
are two types of single column manometer as given
below:

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 2.5 Measurement of Pressure
3. Single column manometer (micro-manometer):

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 2.5 Measurement of Pressure
3. Single column manometer (micro-manometer):
(a) Vertical single column manometer, and (b) Inclined
single column manometer.
(b) Vertical single column manometer: Refer to Fig. 2.18
 Let X–X be the datum line in the reservoir when the
single column manometer is not connected to the pipe.
 Now consider that the manometer is connected to a pipe
containing light liquid under a very high pressure.
 The pressure in the pipe will force the light liquid to push
the heavy liquid in the reservoir downwards.
 As the area of the reservoir is very large, the fall of the
heavy liquid level will be very small.
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 2.5 Measurement of Pressure
This downward movement of the heavy liquid, in the
reservoir, will cause a considerable rise of the heavy liquid
in the right limb.
Let

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 2.5 Measurement of Pressure
We know that fall of heavy liquid in reservoir will cause a
rise of heavy liquid level in the right limb.

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 2.5 Measurement of Pressure
(b) Inclined single column manometer:
This type of manometer is useful for the measurement of
small pressures and is more sensitive than the vertical tube
type. Due to inclination the distance moved by the heavy
liquid in the right limb is more.

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 2.5 Measurement of Pressure
(b) Inclined single column manometer:
Let

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 2.5 Measurement of Pressure
2.5.1.2. Differential Manometers.
 A differential manometer is used to measure the difference
in pressures between two points in a pipe, or in two
different pipes.
 In its simplest form a differential manometer consists of a
U-tube, containing a heavy liquid, whose two ends are
connected to the points, whose difference of pressures is
required to be found out.
 Following are the most commonly used types of
differential manometers:
1. U-tube differential manometer.
2. Inverted U-tube differential manometer
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 2.5 Measurement of Pressure
2.5.1.2. Differential Manometers.
1. U-tube differential manometer:
A U-tube differential manometer is shown in Fig. 2.21.
Case I. Fig. 2.21 (a) shows a differential manometer whose
two ends are connected with two different points A and B at
the same level and containing same liquid.

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 2.5 Measurement of Pressure

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 2.5 Measurement of Pressure
2.5.1.2. Differential Manometers.

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 -End-

Thank You

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