472910
PSSXXX10.1177/0956797612472910Xygalatas et al.Extreme Rituals Promote Prosociality
research-article2013
Psychological Science OnlineFirst, published on June 5, 2013 as doi:10.1177/0956797612472910
Short Report
Extreme Rituals Promote Prosociality
Psychological Science
XX(X) 1–4
© The Author(s) 2013
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DOI: 10.1177/0956797612472910
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Dimitris Xygalatas1,2,3, Panagiotis Mitkidis1,2,3, Ronald Fischer4,
Paul Reddish2,4, Joshua Skewes1,3, Armin W. Geertz1,3,
Andreas Roepstorff 1,3, and Joseph Bulbulia2,5
1
Department of Culture and Society, Aarhus University; 2LEVYNA Laboratory for the Experimental
Research of Religion, Masaryk University; 3Interactive Minds Centre, Aarhus University; 4School of
Psychology, Victoria University of Wellington; and 5School of Art History, Classics and Religious
Studies, Victoria University of Wellington
Received 8/22/12; Revision accepted 11/30/12
Extreme rituals entail excessive costs without apparent
benefits, which raises an evolutionary cost problem
(Irons, 2001). It is argued that such intense rituals enhance
social cohesion and promote cooperative behaviors
(Atran & Henrich, 2010; Durkheim, 1912). However,
direct evidence for the relation between ritual intensity
and prosociality is lacking. Using economic measures
of generosity and contextually relevant indicators of
group identity in a real-world setting, we evaluated prosocial effects from naturally occurring rituals that varied
in severity.
Our study took place in Mauritius, a multicultural
country where citizens frequently negotiate between
parochial ethnic-religious and inclusive national identities (Ng & Verkuyten, 2010). We examined two rituals
that were part of the annual Hindu festival of Thaipusam,
one of the most widely celebrated religious festivals the
world over: a low-ordeal ritual involving singing and collective prayer (Fig. 1a) and a high-ordeal ritual (Kavadi;
Fig. 1b) involving body piercing with multiple needles
and skewers, carrying heavy bamboo structures, and
dragging carts attached by hooks to the skin for over 4 hr
before climbing a mountain barefooted to reach the temple of Murugan.
On the basis of evolutionary perspectives on the social
functions of religious practices (Norenzayan & Shariff,
2008; Sosis, 2003) and recent evidence on extreme rituals
and empathic arousal (Konvalinka et al., 2011), we predicted that higher ritual intensity would lead to greater
generosity for both performers and observers. We also
predicted an effect of ritual intensity on social identification. Classical findings from psychology (Aronson & Mills,
1959; Festinger, 1957; Tajfel, Billig, Bundy, & Flament,
1971) and evolutionary perspectives on parochial altruism
(Choi & Bowles, 2007; Ginges, Hansen, & Norenzayan,
2009) suggest that ritual intensity is associated with subgroup identification. However, recent intergroup theories
(Gaertner & Dovidio, 2000; Hornsey & Hogg, 2000) suggest that in Hindu-dominated Mauritius, where Thaipusam
is celebrated on a national scale, the ritual of the majority
religious group affirms the inclusive nature of the superordinate Mauritian national identity.
Method
Participants were 86 males, all belonging to the same religious and social group: 19 were high-ordeal performers of
the Kavadi, 32 were high-ordeal observers (nonperforming participants who walked alongside performers), and
35 were low-ordeal performers who participated in a collective prayer 3 days earlier. Observers were typically
related to the performers and had previously performed
the Kavadi. All participants took part in both rituals,
although each was tested in only one, selected randomly
to avoid self-selection biases. Both rituals occurred at the
same venue and had similar durations and numbers of
attendants. Participants were recruited by local assistants
immediately after each ritual. Following the ritual, they
entered a room near the temple and answered a questionnaire before engaging in a donation task. The questionnaire was delivered on computer screens by Presentation
software (Version 0.70; NeuroBehavioral Systems, www
.neurobs.com). Participants used the arrow keys on a standard keyboard to move a cursor along unmarked sliding
scales anchored by verbal labels in the local Creole
language.
We operationalized prosociality in terms of behavior
(charity) and attitudes (social identification). Identity
was measured on a scale anchored by the parochial
Corresponding Author:
Dimitris Xygalatas, Department of Culture and Society, Aarhus
University, Building 1483, 3rd Floor, Aarhus 8000, Denmark
E-mail: xygalatas@mac.com
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2
Xygalatas et al.
a
Mauritian
d
–10
Low-Ordeal
Participants
High-Ordeal Participants
Low-Ordeal
Participants
High-Ordeal Participants
Observers Performers
200
Donation (MUR)
b
10
0
Hindu
Social Identity
c
100
0
e
Observers Performers
Donation (MUR)
200
100
0
1
2
3
4
Pain Quartile
Fig. 1. Photos from the annual Hindu festival of Thaipusam and results showing the effects of ritual intensity. Subjects were participants in
a low-ordeal ritual involving singing and collective prayer (a) and performers in or observers of a high-ordeal ritual involving body piercing
with multiple needles, hooks, and skewers (b). Mean ratings of social identity (parochial Hindu vs. inclusive Mauritian; c) are shown as a
function of group. Mean donations in Mauritian rupees (MUR) are shown both (d) as a function of group and (e) as a function of the highordeal group, collapsed across performers and observers (n = 51) and divided into quartiles based on participants’ pain ratings. Error bars
in (c) through (e) represent standard errors of the mean.
ethnic-religious Hindu identity at one end and by the
superordinate inclusive national Mauritian identity at the
other. Religiosity was measured in terms of belief and
temple attendance. These questions were adapted from
the World Values Survey (2012, Items V145 and V147) in
discussion with focus groups. Pain was measured on a
scale anchored by no pain at all and most painful thing
ever. The question “how painful is it to perform the
Kavadi?” allowed us to examine experienced pain for
performers and perceived pain for observers. After completing the questionnaire, participants were paid 200
rupees in coins of 20 rupees (approximately 2 days’ salary for an unskilled worker) for participating in the study.
On leaving, participants entered a booth, where they had
the opportunity to anonymously donate any part of this
money to the temple. A system of numbered envelopes
and questionnaires enabled us to track individual donations while maintaining anonymity.
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3
Extreme Rituals Promote Prosociality
Results and Discussion
Low-ordeal participants donated an average of 80.91
Mauritian rupees (SD = 69.18), high-ordeal observers
donated 161.25 rupees (SD = 65.04), and high-ordeal performers donated 132.63 rupees (SD = 72.79; Fig. 1d). An
analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed a main effect of
group on donation, F(2, 83) = 11.78, p < .001. The difference between charity in the low-ordeal group and highordeal group (performers and observers combined) was
significant, t(84) = −4.61, p < .001, whereas that between
high-ordeal performers and observers was not, t(49) =
1.45, p = .15; this finding suggests that the high-ordeal
ritual was associated with greater levels of generosity for
both performers and observers than the low-ordeal
ritual.
Focusing on the high-ordeal group (performers and
observers), we performed a bootstrapping analysis and
found that pain correlated with donations (r = .36, p <
.01). Notably, this effect held even after controlling for
age, religiosity, and temple attendance—95% confidence
interval (CI) = [.09, .66], p < .05. To further assess the
effect of perceived pain on donations, we divided the
high-ordeal group into four quartiles based on participants’ pain ratings. The overall difference among quartiles was significant, F(3, 46) = 3.34, p < .05. A linear
polynomial contrast on these quartiles was highly significant, F(1, 46) = 8.13, p < .01, which indicates that higher
levels of perceived pain were directly associated with
greater donations (Fig. 1e). There were no significant differences between experienced pain (performers) and
perceived pain (observers). The number of piercings did
not predict how much participants donated, which suggests that effects were driven by subjective experiences
of pain (Hadjistavropoulos et al., 2011). There were no
differences between groups in religiosity or temple attendance, which indicates that responses did not arise from
intrinsic differences in religiosity or familiarity effects but
rather from the ritual conditions.
In line with modern intergroup theories, low-ordeal
participants expressed the most parochial identities (M =
1.71, SD = 6.50), seeing themselves as more Hindu than
high-ordeal observers (M = 3.03, SD = 6.50) and highordeal performers (M = 7.13, SD = 3.46), who both
favored the more inclusive Mauritian identity (Fig. 1c). An
ANOVA showed a main effect of group on identity, F(2,
83) = 5.16, p < .01. The difference between participants
in the low-ordeal ritual and high-ordeal ritual (performers and observers combined) was significant, t(84) = 2.11,
p < .05, as was that between high-ordeal observers and
performers, t(49) = 2.54, p < .05; these findings suggest
that the intensity of the ordeal amplified the more inclusive social identity. A bootstrapping analysis revealed
that greater judgments of pain predicted more inclusive
identities (r = .28, 95% CI = [.01, .53], p < .05). However,
there was no correlation between self-identification and
donations, which suggests that the two were independent effects of ritual intensity.
These findings support long-standing anthropological
conjectures about the cooperative effects of intense rituals (Durkheim, 1912). We offer the first natural demonstration that suffering predicts prosociality by capitalizing
on intense, real-world stimuli that would be hard to
manipulate in the laboratory. Furthermore, our study
links recent experimental findings that perceived pain
increases prosociality (Olivola & Shafir, 2013) with field
experiments showing that extreme rituals promote
empathic arousal among observers of the ordeals of
actors (Konvalinka et al., 2011; Xygalatas, Konvalinka,
Roepstorff, & Bulbulia, 2011). These results suggest that
costly displays of group commitment (though apparently
wasteful) may be conserved because they intensify prosocial behaviors and attitudes among the wider community (Henrich, 2009; Sosis & Bressler, 2003).
Finally, we note that identity always functions in a
social context (Tajfel, 1984). In the context of a public
ritual that recognizes the Hindu majority group, situated
in a larger community whose members hold multiple
identities, ritual intensity enhanced the superordinate
national identity (also see Clingingsmith, Khwaja, &
Kremer, 2009). Overall, extreme rituals appear to amplify
prosocial attitudes and behaviors, and direct or empathic
experiences of pain may be the link connecting these
ordeals to prosociality.
Author Contributions
D. Xygalatas developed the study concept. D. Xygalatas, P.
Mitkidis, R. Fischer, P. Reddish, and J. Bulbulia designed the
experiment and collected the data. J. Skewes and D. Xygalatas
developed stimuli, and J. Skewes provided technical support.
D. Xygalatas, A. Roepstorff, R. Fischer, and J. Bulbulia analyzed
and interpreted the data and wrote the article. A. W. Geertz
contributed to revising the paper. All authors provided critical
revisions and approved the final version of the article for
submission.
Acknowledgments
Many thanks to Chris Frith and Uta Frith for commenting on the
manuscript, and the Kovil Montagne in Mauritius for practical
and ethical support of this study.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared that they had no conflicts of interest with
respect to their authorship or the publication of this article.
Funding
This research was supported by the Velux Foundation;
MINDLab, the Religion, Cognition and Culture Research
Unit, and the Interactive Minds Centre at Aarhus University;
LEVYNA Laboratory for the Experimental Research of Religion
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4
Xygalatas et al.
(CZ.1.07/2.3.00/20.0048) at Masaryk University; the Mauritian
Laboratory for Experimental Anthropology; and Victoria
University Research Fund Grant No. 8-3046-108855.
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