Archeometallurgy

In 2009, an exceptional discovery was made in west-central Poland. At the Late Bronze Age necropolis in Wartosław, tools used in metalworking were unearthed from a mass grave belonging to the Lusatian people that can be dated to 1100-900 BCE. Twelve out of over 70 ceramic vessels from the burial pit were identified as urns that contained the ashes of at least eight deceased individuals, including two adult men, one young woman, one unspecified adult, and at least four children. Metallographic, chemical, and petrographic investigations of mortuary goods were used to determine their provenance and use in metalworking. The results of these investigations were used as a proxy to analyze the mass grave according to the ritual and social strategies of the era, including the status and organization of Lusatian metalworkers, and to consider the possibility of identifying their burials in the archeological record.

[1] It is generally accepted that Alexandria ad Aegyptum was founded ex nihilo in 331 BC by Alexander the Great, rapidly growing into one of antiquity's most opulent economic and intellectual centers. However, ancient texts by Strabo (17.1.6) and Pliny (NH 5.11.62) suggest the existence of a pre-Hellenistic settlement named Rhakotis. This literary evidence has fuelled contentious scholarly debate for decades. Here we present new geochemical data from Alexandria's ancient bay sediments, elucidating unequivocal proof for pollutant lead (Pb) input into the harbor during the Egyptian Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC). A second contamination peak is detected during the Iron Age (1000–800 BC), at the end of the prosperous Ramesses reigns. These findings evidence thriving pre-Hellenistic settlements in Alexandria. During the Greek and Roman periods, we expound the largest Pb pollution ever encountered in ancient city sediments with Pb levels twice as high as those measured in contemporary industrialized estuaries.

An archaeological excavation has been carried out at Pisa (Italy), unearthing an ancient metallurgical workshop. Since archaeological burnt materials provide important records of direction and intensity of the Earth's magnetic field in the past and they can be used to better improve geomagnetic secular variation curves (SVCs), an archaeomagnetic study has been performed. This small copper-alloy furnace presents a circular concave shape covered with a thin layer of mortar, with some traces of heated clay surrounding the feature that confirms the high temperature reached inside it. Archaeological context dating points to the last firing of the furnace between the last quarter of the 13th century and the first quarter of 14th century AD, when then the metallurgical workshop was transformed in a warehouse. Archaeomagnetic sampling has been performed using the modified Thellier method, by collecting several, large and independently oriented aliquots of heated clay, forming the bottom part of the circular wall of the structure. Laboratory treatments have been conducted at the IGG-CNR ARCHEO_LAB (Pisa, Italy) and at St. Maur Palaeomagnetic laboratory (Paris, France). Analytical measurements of the thermo-remanent magnetization index acquired from the samples have been performed using a large cell induction magnetometer for large samples, and the characteristic remanent magnetization (ChRM) has been successfully isolated after an alternate field demagnetization cleaning procedure for each sample. The final mean archaeomagnetic direction has been calculated at sampling site (D = 6.9°; I = 52.8°; N = 9; k = 305; α95 = 2.6°) following the Fisher Statistics, and it exhibits a perfect agreement with some coeval already published directions obtained from Mt. Arso lava flows, these latter being an important anchor point in the preliminary Italian secular variation curve. Comparison with the preliminary Italian SVC, the French SVC and the SCHA.DIF.3K archaeomagnetic regional model have permitted to define an archaeomagnetic absolute age confirming the conventional archaeological age, underlining the importance of this result into the Italian archaeomagnetic data set.

The ability of baked clay-elaborated objects to record the temporal variations of both direction and intensity of the geomagnetic field at the time of their elaboration or last use has been widely used during the last decades to fill the gaps left by available time-discrete volcanic-rock logs for a better knowledge of the evolution of the geomagnetic field. Further refinement of the secular variation curves has motivated the search for alternative non-conventional materials as attractive targets for archeomagnetic studies. Both clay and copper have been used since pre-Hispanic times for the elaboration of a wide variety of ornamental and utilitarian objects in Mesoamerica. Previous studies carried out in Europe and Israel have shown the usefulness of copper slags as one of these non-conventional materials. We present the results of an integrated study carried out on ten copper slags from seven ancient metallurgical sites of Michoacán. The analysis included a series of rock magnetism experiments, scanning electron microscope analysis, archeointensity determinations following the Thellier-Coe method and their corresponding dating. Based on the results obtained the slag-set analyzed can be divided in two main groups: low Fe concentrations (associated with high Cu concentrations) for slags comprising the first group, and high Fe concentrations (associated with low Cu concentrations) for slags from second group. Slags from the first group are characterized by almost reversible thermomagnetic curves, while those corresponding to the second group show a quite irreversible behavior. A crystalline (vitreous) structure within the massive surface of the slags is observed for those coming from the second (first) group. J. Morales et al. ii Stud. Geophys. Geod., 61 (2017) These striking features could reflect significant differences in the metallurgical process followed at these sites, which according to archeological and historical evidences correspond to Colonial and pre-Hispanic usage metallurgical sites; first and second group, respectively. The good experimental behavior exhibited by these materials demonstrates the suitability of copper slag to obtaining absolute archeointensity data which can be used to improve the existing Mesoamerican archeomagnetic record. This in turn, can be used both for geomagnetic field modelling purposes and archeomagnetic dating. K e y w o r d s : pre-Hispanic metallurgy, non-conventional archeological materials, copper slags

Iron slag : chemistry and mineralogy
Iron ores in switzerland
Iron production line : mining - smelting - smithing
Description of slags and metallurgical sites from : Mont Salève (France), Mormont (La Sarraz - Ferreyres) VD, Moncherand VD, Avenches VD, Vidy VD, Fribourg FR

Copper-base artefacts from Bronze Age Luristan have been analysed for their chemical composition and the isotopic composition of their lead. We find no significant systematic differences between a group of objects recovered in the Pusht-i Kuh region in the course of controlled excavations during the Belgian Archaeological Mission in Iran (BAMI) and a second group of artefacts from the Louvre Museum which were acquired on the art market. According to these material features the objects from the art market are made of genuine “Luristan” metal which does not exclude the possibility that the artefacts are recent forgeries made of “old” metal. The data suggest a large fraction of the artefacts, copper and bronze, to derive from copper ores as they are available in the eastern part of the central Zagros Mountains from where also tin ores have been reported. Bronzes with high 206Pb-normalized abundance ratios, conspicuous in contemporary Mesopotamia, are missing in Luristan. We have no satisfactory explanation to offer why the manifold cultural and material connections between Mesopotamia and Luristan should have excluded the trade in bronzes with such exceptional lead isotopy.

The different processes of lost-wax casting are described according to the technique used to form the wax model. The current assessments of the early history of the technique are discussed. The evidence from early literature, the moulds and metal artefacts are described and lead to the conclusion that lost-wax casting was a common process in much of the ancient world from the time that copper metallurgy was first developed. The development of the process begins with solid wax models in the late 5th millennium and ends with skin of wax models for life-size statuary formed by the ‘sloshing’ method in the classical period. Its origins are therefore much older than previously thought and its geographical spread is broader. The moulds show that lost-wax casting was often used for simple prosaic tools and ornaments and complexity of shape is not a determining feature of the process. In the ceramic cultures of the ancient world, lost-wax casting was not an exotic process used for complicated and prestigious items; in fact, the opposite seems to be the case. The construction of heterogeneous moulds with a gradation of clay coarseness aimed at preserving details on the wax model begins during the 3rd millennium BC and mould fragments displaying this variable fabric may be expected in the archaeological record.

A failure analysis of superheater tube supports of the primary reformer in a local fertilizer factor is presented. A number of tube supports failed at approximately half of their designed service life. Following the failure, the factory was visited, and relevant information and samples were collected. The samples were investigated in the laboratory by chemical analysis, macro- and microhardness measurements, macro-and micrometallographic examinations, and X-ray diffractometry. The analysis showed the supports were fabricated from HH-type heat-resisting alloy and that the failure mode was high-temperature creep. The microstructure of the alloy showed the presence of massive intergranular as well as intragranular σ-phase and intragranular needle-shaped M 23C 6 carbides. It was also concluded from the formation of massive σ-phase in the tube that the failure was hastened because the supports were operating at approximately 800 °C. The alloy composition led to the formation of σ-phase under the operating conditions of the reformer, and the use of an alloy with a higher concentration of austenite-stabilizing element(s) could have avoided the failure.

http://link.springer.com/article/10.1361/15477020523473

""Résumé :
Cette étude est consacrée aux monnaies d’or et d’argent lagides comme moyen de l’action des rois d’Alexandrie entre l’avènement de Ptolémée V en 204 et la mort de Ptolémée IX en 81. Ce grand deuxième siècle est habituellement considéré comme un temps de crise profonde du pouvoir royal, alors aux prises avec des révoltes en Égypte, des luttes dynastiques et affaibli par la perte de la plupart des territoires extérieurs hormis Chypre et Cyrène. Dans ce contexte, la place et le rôle des émissions ptolémaïques dans la gestion du royaume par les Ptolémées peuvent être questionnés.
Pour cela, nous avons répertorié 6 413 pièces au sein d’un catalogue dans le but de collecter un maximum d’informations ainsi que pour réaliser une étude des niveaux de production tout au long de la période. A cela s’ajoute l’établissement d’un catalogue des trésors et trouvailles isolées remis à jour.
Une deuxième partie est dédiée à l’importance ainsi qu’aux classements de ces émissions qui sont discutés et parfois révisés au regard des informations réunies. Pour cela, les 380 analyses élémentaires de monnaies d’or et d’argent réalisées à l’IRAMAT fournissent une somme d’informations inédites.
Enfin, nous tentons d’insérer les nouvelles données produites dans les connaissances générales de l’histoire du royaume des Ptolémées au IIe siècle. L’enjeu est de déterminer dans quelle mesure l’usage de la monnaie peut être un révélateur des politiques royales. Il convient également de définir l’importance de ce moyen de paiement et dans quels cas il est employé.
Ainsi, le témoignage des monnaies permet d’analyser certains aspects de la réaction du pouvoir royal lagide face aux difficultés rencontrées au IIe siècle.
Mots clés : Ptolémées, IIe siècle avant J.-C., monnaies d’or et d’argent, pouvoir royal, analyses élémentaires.

Abstract:
This study is dedicated to the Ptolemaic gold and silver coins as means of action of kings of Alexandria from the advent of Ptolemy V in 204 until the death of Ptolemy IX in 81. This expanded second century is usually considered as a time of deep crisis of the royal power, then battling against internal revolts in Egypt, dynastic fights and weakened by the loss of most of the foreign territories except Cyprus and Cyrene. In this context, the place and the role of the Ptolemaic issues in the management of the kingdom by the Ptolemies can be questioned.
We listed 6 413 coins within a catalog to collect a maximum of information there as well as to realize a study of the levels of production throughout the all period. Then, an updated catalog of hoards and isolated finds is added.
The second part is dedicated to the whole importance as well as to the classifications of these broadcast issues which are discussed and sometimes revised with regards to the information gathered. For that purpose, the contribution of 380 elemental analysis of gold and silver coins achieved in the IRAMAT laboratory supplies a sum of new information.
Finally, we try to insert the new data produced into the general knowledge of the history of the Ptolemaic kingdom in the second century. The stake is to determine to what degree the use of coins can reflect the royal policies. It is also advisable to define the importance of this means of payment and in which cases it is used.
In the end, the testimony of coinage allows us to analyze certain aspects of the reaction of the Ptolemaic royal power confronting difficulties met in the second century.
Keywords: Ptolemies, second century B.C., gold and silver coins, royal power, elemental analysis.""

Le bouclier d’Énée : lecture métallurgique d’un passage virgilien Résumé : Nous essayons, à travers cet article, de comprendre les connaissances que les hommes de l’Antiquité pouvaient avoir en matière de techniques, et notamment en métallurgie  L’étude des textes anciens nous permet de mieux appréhender cette connaissance des techniques, leur évolution, leur progrès et leur transmission  Les textes poétiques, comme l’Énéide de Virgile, sont des sources de première valeur  Le passage concernant la fabrication du bouclier d’Énée par Vulcain nous propose de mieux connaître les savoir-faire des forgerons romains, confirmant ainsi que les œuvres virgiliennes appartiennent à la poésie didactique .

Mots-clés :  Virgile, Énéide, Poésie, Métallurgie, Histoire des techniques, Forgeron romain, Antiquité Aenaeas’s Shield: a Metallurgic Reading of a Passage in Virgil Abstract: In this article, I try to elucidate the technological knowledge available to men of Antiquity, especially as regards metallurgy  The study of ancient texts allows us to better comprehend their knowledge in terms of technologies and how these evolved, progressed, and were transmitted  Poetic texts, such as Virgil’s Aeneid, are invaluable sources  The passage concerning the manufacturing of Aeneas’s shield by Vulcan gives us an opportunity to improve our knowledge of the know-how of Roman blacksmiths, thereby confirming that Virgil’s oeuvre belongs to the genre of didactic poetry

Keywords:  Virgil, Aeneid, Metallurgy, Poetry, History of Technique, Roman Blacksmith, Antiquity

This article is of the earliest metal daggers, which in some cases are hardly distinguishable from knives, is compiled in the area between southern Bulgaria (Rohdope mountains), the western Ukraine and Upper Austria (Mondsee). They can be dated to the so called transitional phase between the Eneolithic and the Early Bronze Age according to current Bulgarian terminology. The oldest examples can be placed in the earlier part of the 4th millennium B. C. and are associated with the Bodrogkeresztur Culture. An analysis of the formal aspects of these daggers allows them to be divided into 12 types (with variants), which only partially show genetic connections. The distributions of the individual dagger types do not necessarily correspond to the areas occupied by archaeological cultures defined by pottery. Groupings based on spectral analysis result two main geographic concentrations. Daggers made with arsenic alloys are found in the western Pontic area where as west Carpathian and central Danubian examples show no arsenic inclusions. Interestingly, some Bodrogkeresztur type daggers in Transylvania are made with arsenic alloys, others are not (Arıuşd, Mereşti and Mastacän). Therefore we assume that the daggers first spread from west to east and later dispersed in the opposite direction. The earliest dagger horizon dealt with here, is seen as being a fundamental part of the deep seated changes which lead to the formation of the Early Bronze Age after Aegean terminology.

"The aim of this thesis has been to investigate and interpret late Iron Age and Early Medieval traces of non-ferrous metalworking on the island Gotland, Sweden. Gotland was not, based on the archaeological record, an integrated part of the common Scandinavian culture. Instead a local, endemic cultural expression had developed; a seclusion which lasted for centuries despite the islands central position in the Baltic Sea. In the past, key elements for the understanding of local settlement- and burial practices as well as the local material culture were mainly recovered and reported by local farmers. A specific category of such finds – so-called ‘bronze slag’ is discussed and partly reinterpreted in the first study of this thesis. Two further studies treat different aspects of metalworking and metalworkers – one discusses common archaeological notions of Scandinavian workshops, production sites and metalworkers from a critical perspective while the other mainly focuses on the Gotlandic finds from metal-detector surveys carried out over the last 35 years. Based on where and to which extent, both from a quantitative and a qualitative point of view, these finds occur a hierarchical classification into four sub groups is presented – ordinary farm sites with traces of non-ferrous metalworking, workshop sites, potential workshop sites and last, extrovert harbour settlements. A fourth study presents an attempt to evaluate the usefulness of magnetometry in delimiting extant traces of high-temperature crafts, such as metalworking. The last study of the thesis presents an attempt to use trace elements analysis of skeletal lead in human bone to identify potential non-ferrous metalworkers.
As the wearing of endemic Gotlandic jewellery appears to have been central in the manifestation of the local identity it is argued that the metalworking artisans played a crucial role in defining how this identity was signalled and displayed via the jewellery and dress-related metal objects. It is further suggested that these artisans might have played an important role in upholding the local economy before the advent of local minting."

"Finds from 11th century Sigtuna have supplied archaeological research with a range of different types of refractory ceramics, of which some have been rather recently identified. One example is melting bowls, i.e. clay packaging material emerging from the brazing of iron weights. These were found in vast numbers in the mint of King Olof Eriksson Skötkonung (late 10th to early 11th centuries). In order to supervise trade, the King probably had to verify the old means of payment by weighing silver, as well as his owh coinage. Another category of ceramic objects found in the mint and in several other parts of town, are heating trays. The paper interprets them as assaying trays, of vital importance for testing silver connected with payment. A short review is made of finds of assaying trays from Nothern Europe, and of analyses showing their characteristic surface composition of lead and copper oxides.

A small experimental series of assaying was made, in order to attain a comparative material for use in the interpretation of the trays from Sigtuna. It is suggested that heating trays used outside the mint could possibly tell the same story as the presence of waste from the manufacture of weights in the mint. The old means of payment and the monetary system, introduced by the King, existed side by side. In the silver economy, the methods for testing purity were probably as important as the equipment for weighing it."

This work aims to bring new elements for a more current interpretation of the ancient economic processes of Morocco from proto-history to the pre-Roman era. This study was carried out through the analysis of numerous remains of pyrometallurgical processing, found near the mining areas and focused on contexts unrelated to the area traditionally considered to be of Punic influence. The research project therefore utilized information collected on the basis of new archaeological investigation perspectives with the contribution of data obtained by using scientific technologies applied to the chemical and physical analyses on residual materials related with archaeometallurgical activities.
This study takes in consideration either slag coming from the prospected ancient mines, both analytical data reported in the bibliography concerning metal artefacts of Punic production and imitation, found in the sites near the considered mining areas.
The samples have been analysed by scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersion microanalysis (SEM-EDS), by X-ray diffractometry (XRD) and by micro-Raman spectroscopy.
The articulation of archaeological data lead to experiment for the first time, through a GIS processing, the possibility of connecting in a georeferenced system all the topographical registration information of the archaeological records to those derived from the analytical results.
The integration of archaeological, scientific and territorial data has allowed a knowledge of economic practices in pre-Roman times totally new with respect to the theories in force, giving a concrete evidence and a relevant value to the importance of the autochthonous component before, during and after, the contribution of Punic culture.

Tra i mesi di giugno e ottobre 2012, è stata eseguita una campagna di indagini archeologiche su un piccolo
pianoro del versante occidentale della Valcava, tributaria della Valle del Fersina (o Valle dei Mocheni/
Bernstol) , a circa 1600 metri di quota sul livello del mare, all'interno del territorio comunale di Fierozzo
(TN) (Fig.1).
Val Cava era già stata segnalata da Preuschen in relazione ad antiche coltivazioni minerarie, tuttavia solo
l'intervento del 2012 ha permesso di portare in luce e documentare i depositi di abbandono di un sito per
la riduzione del rame pertinente all'età del bronzo recente - finale.
La stratigrafia relativa ai livelli d'uso degli apparati fusori non è stata asportata, ma esclusivamente messa
in luce e documentata a seguito dello scavo dei livelli di abbandono. L'area interessata da strutture piro-
tecnologiche, strati carboniosi, piani d'uso e fosse in fase con le strutture descritte, occupa una superficie
pari a circa 900 mq, mentre l’area che ha restituito le tracce di forni (sondaggi 1-3) si estende per circa 200
mq. Apparentemente i 3 forni individuati (di cui due in coppia) sembrano far parte di una batteria. Indizio
di ciò è il comune orientamento NW-SE, con lato privo di muratura a NE ossia verso valle, e l’accertata
appartenenza alla stessa fase dei forni 1 e 2 (Fig.12), mentre non è possibile affermarlo con sicurezza per
il forno 3.
L’area dei forni 1 e 2 è quella meglio esplorata e per la quale è possibile proporre una sequenza stratigrafica
che, a partire dai depositi più antichi, può essere così sintetizzata:
- deposito naturale ghiaioso misto a sabbia, blocchi e ciottoli (US 36);
- livello di frequentazione sul quale si impostano le strutture, costituito da ghiaia mista a sabbia e limo con
ciottoli e blocchi sparsi, al cui interno sono evidenti tracce, anche in concentrazione, di residui carboniosi
(US 35);
- fase di attività delle strutture fusorie 1 e 2. In fase con questi forni sono anche lo strato di terreno rubefatto
immediatamente a valle degli stessi (US 26), esito delle lavorazioni, e le piccole buche a monte (UUSS 17
e 20) e le più profonde buche di palo a valle (UUSS 7 e 22) di cui si può ipotizzare la funzione di sostegno
per una copertura all'area di lavoro;
- fase di abbandono dei forni 1 e 2 (collasso delle strutture)
- fase post-abbandono dei forni 1 e 2 segnata dal dislocamento delle strutture produttive in altra zona,
(deposito di sabbia di scorie US 2).

En este trabajo se presentan los resultados de los análisis efectuados por medio de SEM-EDAX (Dispersión de Energía de Rayos X), con un equipo Jeol JSM - 6460 LV, a dos objetos metálicos, un tumi y una lámina, hallados en contextos inkaicos en el sitio La Huerta, Quebrada de Humahuaca, Jujuy, Argentina. Este estudio posibilitó conocer la composición química elemental de los objetos. Por un lado, el tumi fue confeccionado en bronce estannífero, mientras que la lámina fue producto de una aleación de oro y plata. Esta lámina, en la que predomina la  presencia de oro, representaría, de acuerdo a los antecedentes regionales, el primer elemento confeccionado en este metal conocido para tiempos inkas en la Quebrada de Humahuaca.

Archaeological native copper finds pertaining to Neolithic sites in Finland and Russian Karelia were analysed using a multi-method approach comprising portable X-ray fluorescence spectrom-etry (pXRF), electron-probe microanalysis (EPMA), metallography and the Vickers hardness test of microhardness. The results indicate how the processing of this exotic raw material took place in several ways. Native copper nuggets show evidence of annealing. Small copper sheets and strips have been produced by both cold hammering and hot working, while the making of some artefacts has involved smelting and casting. Some finds previously interpreted as possible Neolithic native copper objects are shown to be made of copper alloys or other metals and dated to later periods. The use of float copper of local or regional origin, or even the utilization of copper ore, instead of or alongside native copper are also briefly discussed.

The shipwreck codenamed ANG-003 was located in Caldeira Island, within the group of islands known as “Ilhas Primeiras”, in Angoche, Province of Nampula, Republic of Mozambique, in 2003 following information from fishermen. The nature of the artefacts observed at the site as well as the typology of the artillery reportedly recovered from there, point to an unknown Portuguese Indiaman of the second or third quarter of the 16th century. The copper ingots found at the wreck carried marks which were tentatively identified as the trademark of the Fugger family during the same time period and archaeometallurgical analyses place their origin at the mining areas of Neusohl and other ore deposits of Slovakia.

quasi 30 anni di distanza si porta a conoscenza il contesto insediativo individuato presso il settore settentrionale della via Umberto, nell’abitato di San Sperate (SU) ed emerso durante le indagini archeologiche operate nei primi mesi del 1976. Gli scavi eseguiti dall’allora Soprintendenza Archeologica per le Province di Cagliari ed Oristano, misero in evidenza diverse unità abitative d’età protostorica riferibili in massima parte ad una fase avanzata del Bronzo Finale e al Primo Ferro su cui andarono a sovrapporsi parzialmente strutture d’età punica, della fine del IV e degli inizi del III sec. a.C. Lo scopo di questo contributo è illustrare in maniera approfondita elementi di cultura materiale sinora inediti, provenienti da questo settore dell’abitato campidanese.

Nearly 30 years after its identification, the settlement discovered in the northern area of via Umberto in San Sperate (SU), during the archaeological investigations realized in 1976, is descripted in this contribution.The archaeological excavations carried out by the then Soprintendenza Archeologica per le Province di Cagliari and Oristano brought to light several housing facilities dated to the Protohistoric Age, which can be mostly be attributable to the advanced stage of the Final Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age. Above these structures, some constructions of the Punic Age (by the end of the IV and the III century BC) are partially superimposed. The main purpose of this paper is to throughly illustrate the material culture elements, so far unpublished, of this sector of the plain of Campidano.

El próximo coloquio internacional de la AFEAF (Asociación Francesa para el Estudio de la Edad de Hierro) tendrá lugar en Gijón (Asturias, España) del 13 al 15 de mayo de 2021.
El plazo límite para el envío de los resúmenes es el 30 de septiembre de 2020.
Por favor, envíe su propuesta a la dirección siguiente: afeaf.gijon@gmail.com