Credit

The Economy of Endowments: the case of Roman associations,” In Koenraad Verboven, Katelijn Vandorpe and Véronique Chankowski-Sable (eds.), ‘Pistoi dia tèn technèn’. Bankers, loans and archives in the Ancient World. Studies in honour of Raymond Bogaert, Studia Hellenistica 44. Leuven, Peeters, 2008: 231-256. For reviews of the book, see, e.g., Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2010.05.02.

This study aimed at evaluating the impact of commercial banks' credit to agricultural sector under the Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme Fund in Nigeria. Until the mid-seventies, agriculture was the primary foreign exchange earner for Nigeria. Now it has lost its prime position to the mineral sector. Of these factors, inadequate capital is considered as the single most important factor affecting the performance of the sector. It therefore empirically examined the impact of Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme Fund, agricultural product prices, government fund allocation and commercial banks' credit to agricultural sector on agricultural productivity. The result revealed that Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme Fund and Government fund allocation to agriculture produced a significant positive effect on agricultural productivity, while the other variables produced a significant negative effect. It is recommended that farmers should be encouraged to be applying for loans from the participating banks to enhance their agricultural activities and productivity.

The development of financial systems is shaped by the high level of the global economy situation changeability indirectly influenced by interventionist economic policies as well as financial crisis and state of finances of a given country. The attempts undertaken by particular governments to activate economic growth indirectly contributed to the growth of investment and credit risk as well as to creating speculation bubbles in the capital markets stocks. The latest global financial crisis from 2008 was an effect of increasing discrepancy, mismatch between that fast growth of financial instruments including credit financial instruments and the matter of improvement of credit risk management process connected with concluding transactions based on those instruments. In this dissertation, there is a growth of the significance of the credit risk management improvement presented in the context of appearing temporarily financial crisis and thus undertaken interventionist anti-cyclic economic policy.

"Cooperative Finance in Developing Economies contains papers from notable members of the academia from four continents - Africa, Asia, Europe and North America. Specifically, twenty nine authors from nine countries namely Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Nigeria, Senegal, Spain, United Kingdom and Vietnam contributed to this work. The book covers both the theoretical and empirical research in different areas of Cooperative and Microfinance arrangement which include but not limited to the following: Capital formation and loan administration, Corporate governance, Country comparison and analysis, Financial intermediation and social capital, Financial sustainability, Impact assessment and evaluation, Integration into formal financial system, Management and members – relationship and conflict, Micro and small scale enterprise development, Poverty reduction and economic development, Products and services delivery models, Regulation, policy and control, Risk management and insurance, as well as Women empowerment and gender issues. This book makes significant contributions to current research in cooperative finance. It is also an attempt to celebrate year 2012 as the International Year of the Cooperatives as declared by the United Nations. "

Si la protection sociale semble reculer, l’ tat n’a pas pour
autant renonc    prot ger ses citoyens. De la r glementation
du compte en banque jusqu’  l’ ducation budg taire
en passant par l’inclusion bancaire ou la proc dure de surendettement,
cet ouvrage met en lumi re la part bancaire des
politiques sociales. Il analyse un p rim tre d’action publique
qui prend une importance croissante : les politiques publiques
de l’argent des m nages, destin es   prot ger l’argent des
citoyens et leurs capacit s de consommation, en m me temps
qu’  lutter contre la pauvret .
Mais parce que ces politiques publiques de protection ne
sont pas collectives et s’appuient sur des dispositifs et des
institutions marchandes, elles illustrent la transformation profonde
des modes de protection et de solidarit  des soci t s
contemporaines : il ne s’agit pas tant de diminuer les risques
que de pr parer les individus   les affronter. L’auteure montre
ainsi magistralement comment les pouvoirs publics tentent
de r duire la pauvret , non par la redistribution, mais en transformant
les usages de l’argent des citoyens.

Long before the Dana Gas Sukuk default highlighted how the legal complexity of Sukuk could be exploited in a default situation The  Investment Dar company of Kuwait tried the same strategy.

Did they succeed (like Dana Gas) or Fail? This paper looks in detail at the case and the various legal aspects.

In particular the author looks at the heart of the problem and the source of this 'Shariah  Compliance Risk' - form over substance compliance with Islamic non-interest-based investment principles.

The Six AAOIFI Sukuk principles highlighted by the esteemed and learned Sheikh Taqi Usmani also highlighted these structural issues and are covered here.

The Durkheimian divide between “belief” and “rite” remains a contested boundary in the study of religion. In response, this article takes up the concept of “credere,” the root of both belief and credit, to challenge the distinction between believing and practice. “Credere” further opens a new window for inquiry in religious studies: the role of the gift in finance capitalism. Based on two years of ethnographic fieldwork in Colombia, South America, this article challenges the disciplinary margins between political economy and religion. Relations between believing, practice, and finance capitalism are brought into new relief through a focus on gift-giving in a time of credit cards. In Colombia, the relationship between finance capitalism and Christianity reshapes the gift—from a gift based on social obligation to a gift based on credit.

Now a day's online transactions have become an important and necessary part of our lives. It is vital that credit card companies are able to identify fraudulent credit card transactions so that customers are not charged for items that they did not purchase. As frequency of transactions is increasing, number of fraudulent transactions are also increasing rapidly. Such problems can be tackled with Machine Learning with its algorithms. This project intends to illustrate the modelling of a data set using machine learning with Credit Card Fraud Detection. The Credit Card Fraud Detection Problem includes modelling past credit card transactions with the data of the ones that turned out to be fraud. This model is then used to recognize whether a new transaction is fraudulent or not. Our objective here is to detect 100% of the fraudulent transactions while minimizing the incorrect fraud classifications. Credit Card Fraud Detection is a typical sample of classification. In this process, we have focused on analyzing and preprocessing data sets as well as the deployment of multiple anomaly detection algorithms such as Local Outlier Factor and Isolation Forest algorithm on the PCA transformed Credit Card Transaction data.

Le crédit, en Suisse, est souvent décrié par les diverses associations de consommateurs : spirale de surendettement, impossibilité de régler ses dettes, faillite personnelle... Les banques sont-elles réellement des acteurs du surendettement dans le cas du crédit à la consommation ?

The MSEs contribution to the growth of the national economy continue to assume increasing significance especially in job creation. These enterprises are created to fulfill the primary needs of man and are formed under conditions of risk and considerable uncertainty.This sector is encumbered by many problems chief among them being financing. A number of organizations have stepped in to finance their operations and solve this problem and promote their business performance. Its in light of this that this study was carried out with the objective of conducting a study to determine the effect of credit available to MSEs on business performance in Kitale town. More specifically this research sought to establish the effect of credit on kinds of assets acquired, market share served, stock levels held in the business and number of employees added in business.. On the effect of credit available to MSEs on business performance by considering value of assets acquired on accessing credit, it was ...

O objetivo principal deste livro é compreender uma economia dita “de Antigo Regime” a partir do estudo das formas como o crédito era praticado na dinâmica das relações pessoais, tendo como pano de fundo uma sociedade católica, corporativa, com uma hierarquia social baseada na política que incluía, no seu devido lugar, capitães, brigadeiros, pardos, donas, pretos, tenentes e forras. O contexto para isso é uma rota mercantil que interligava as localidades de Viamão e Sorocaba, passando por diversos outros lugares, mais ou menos importantes, como Vacaria, Lages, Lapa, Castro e Itapetininga. Uma rota comercial de um produto único, praticamente: os animais, especialmente mulas, cavalos e reses. Nesse sentido, falar de uma economia de Antigo Regime não é fazer desta definição uma simples forma de rotulagem. É preciso, antes, tomá-la em suas especificidades, procurando entender a originalidade de suas formas. Este trabalho é sobre os homens que faziam a rota das tropas e seus negócios. Procura entender como funcionava o acesso ao crédito, o crédito financeiro, mas também o crédito como sinônimo de confiança. E aqui entram todos: capitães, índios, criminosos, brigadeiros, conselheiros ultramarinos e secretários de estado e ultramar.

Reflexión teórica a partir de los postulados schumpeterianos acerca del papel de la moneda, el crédito y el desarrollo en un contexto de inestabilidad financiera. Así, los postulados que se analizan en este capítulo fusionan elementos de la tradición del pensamiento económico-social latinoamericano sobre el (sub)desarrollo y la dependencia con aportaciones oriundas de la discusión monetaria moderna llevada a cabo por autores heterodoxos con inspiración en la obra de Schumpeter.

1 archivio di stato di firenze -d'ora in poi omesso -Catasto, 63, c. 644r. i due volumi editi di ser matteo di Biliotto -Ser Matteo di Biliotto notaio, Imbreviature. I. registro (anni 1294-1296), a cura di manila soffici e franek sznura, firenze, sismel, 2002; Ser Matteo di Biliotto notaio, Imbreviature. II. registro (anni 1300-1314, a cura di manila soffici, firenze, sismel, 2016 -saranno citati in forma abbreviata: Matteo di Biliotto, i e Matteo di Biliotto, ii, gli atti saranno indicati dal numero dell'imbreviatura corrispondente. tutte le date dei documenti citati nel testo e nelle note sono ricondotte allo stile moderno mentre gli originali possono essere inventariati nello stile dell'incarnazione fiorentina in alcuni fondi dell'archivio di stato di firenze, es. Diplomatico. il fondo Notarile antecosimiano dell'archivio di stato di firenze verrà citato con la sigla NA. 2 altri notai, come tommaso di ser Piero di angelo cioni, avevano invece come unica fonte di guadagno proprio lo «stare alla bottega alla prochureria» (Catasto, 47, c. 686r). Per più approfondite informazioni archivistiche sui notai citati in questo contributo vedi andreas meyer, «Felix et inciltus notarius». Studien zum italienischen Notariat vom 7. Bis zum 13. Jahrhundert, tübingen, niemeyer, 2000, pp. 186-187; franek sZnura, «Le scritte antiche de' ma-La Firenze dell'età di Dante negli atti di un notaio: Ser Matteo di Biliotto, 1294-1314, a cura di a. Barlucchi, f. franceschi, f. sznura, firenze, associazione di studi storici elio conti, 2020, pp. 21-96. isBn 978-88-97826-85-9 (edizione cartacea), isBn 978-88-942319-6-0 (edizione elettronica), http://www.asstor.it, http://dx.medra.org/10.23759/006.003 22

Pour financer un véhicule neuf, le futur acheteur et le choix entre essentiellement deux possibilités: le crédit auto, ou le leasing. Le crédit auto consiste en un crédit personnel dont la somme servira à acheter entièrement la voiture, alors que le leasing consistera, plus ou moins, en une "location longue durée", avec rachat de la valeur résiduelle du véhicule en fin de contrat.

Si les prestataires de crédit et leasings vantent chacun les mérites de leur solution à grand coups d'arguments marketing, qu'en est-il réellement? Quels sont les coûts exacts liés à l'acquisition d'une voiture via un crédit? Et via un leasing?

En partant des formules exactes des coûts du crédit et de ceux du leasing, il devient possible d'effectuer une comparaison entre les deux solutions. Si le coût final dépendra de nombreux paramètres, quelques éléments intéressant ressortent déjà!

The focus of this discussion is to examine the general business patterns associated with social entrepreneurial (SE) practice.  Social enterprises inherently build their infrastructure with social and environmental impacts in mind (Dees 2007), so it follows that double and triple bottom line reporting are suitable practices for them to implement for measuring these impacts.  Socially and environmentally driven (double/triple bottom line)  reporting is currently permeating the business world. Not only do large corporations have to update their social and environmental objectives and practices to adhere to stricter stakeholder standards, but triple bottom line (TBL) reporting is emerging as a screening tool used by investors to review potential social entrepreneurial, nonprofit and commercial clients (Epstein 2008; Estey 2009).

Este trabalho tem o objetivo de analisar a eficiência do modelo de credit scoring na ação de cross-selling para proporcionar uma maior rentabilidade alinhada ao risco do novo produto. O estudo resultou em 3 cenários de rentabilidade e desempenho. No Cenário 1 sem uso do escoramento apresentou rentabilidade de R$ 0,5 milhões e inadimplência de 16,1%. Nos demais cenários com uso de escores as rentabilidades ultrapassaram R$ 2,3 milhões e inadimplências abaixo de 9%. Os Cenários 2 e 3 apenas com escore de empresas Bureau. O Cenário 4 inclui o modelo Crédit Scoring desenvolvido neste trabalho, apresentou a melhor discriminação entre clientes bons e maus e a maior taxa de aprovação, sendo 75% contra 64% do melhor Bureau. Para isso, utilizou-se de dados fornecido por uma instituição financeira. Utilizando o SPSS e técnicas estatísticas, a análise de Risco Relativo, construção de dummies e a análise de correlação de Spearman, foi gerado o modelo de Regressão Logística Binária, validado com o teste Kolmogorov-Smirnov, a Curva ROC e outros. O modelo de Credit Scoring desenvolvido apresentou resultados satisfatórios quanto a seu poder de classificação dos clientes. A eficácia da Regressão Logística, como ferramenta de predição de performance de crédito, habilita a aplicação da utilização do modelo Credit Scoring pela instituição financeira provedora dos dados para melhorar a rentabilidade e a inadimplência da carteira de clientes com Cartão de Crédito oriundo da carteira de clientes do empréstimo Consignado.

Palavras-Chave: Credit Scoring. Cross-Selling. Risco de Crédito. Rentabilidade.

УДК 327.54 ББК 66.4(0) М62 Р е ц е н з е н т ы : д. ист. наук проф. И. В. Быстрова (ИРИ РАН) д. ист. наук проф. Н. А. Цветкова (СПбГУ) к. ист. наук доц. И. А. Аггеева (ИВИ РАН) Печатается по решению кафедры американских исследований Санкт-Петербургского государственного университета Минкова К. В. М62 Экономические истоки холодной войны: cоветско-американские отношения в 1943-1947 гг.-СПб.: Скифия-принт, 2021.-504 с.

Law of Credit and Security (2nd Edn) (Dublin: Round Hall, 2015)

The 2nd edition of the Law of Credit and Security provides a fully up-to-date analysis of all relevant aspects of law and regulation in respect of lending, security-taking and enforcement of loans in Ireland. In the ongoing aftermath of the financial crisis, this has remained one of the most fast-moving areas of law and this book provides a comprehensive treatment of the many developments since the publication of the first edition in 2011.

This edition
• Includes full coverage of the implications of the Companies Act 2014 for all aspects of corporate lending and borrowing
• Features detailed analysis of the Personal Insolvency Act 2012 and changes to bankruptcy law
• Addresses changes in regulatory requirements for credit providers, including the Central Bank (Supervision and Enforcement) Act 2013 and Credit Unions and Co-Operation with Overseas Regulators Act 2012
• Provides comprehensive coverage of consumer protection developments, including the Mortgages Directive (Directive 2014/17/ EU); the Code of Conduct on Mortgage Arrears 2013; the Consumer Protection Code 2012
• Includes fully up-to-date analysis of relevant case law on all aspects of credit and security since 2011
• Includes expanded coverage of the impact of insolvency and examinership on creditors
• Examines the operations of NAMA in the respect of the administration of acquired loans

Banking institutions encounter two broad types of risks in their everyday business – credit risk and market risk. Credit risk may be defined as the risk that borrowers might default on their obligations, whereas market risk reflects the variability in the value of their financial position due to changes in interest rates, exchange rates, etc. Over the last decade, rapid strides have been made in developing Value at Risk (VaR) models for managing market risks in a portfolio context. Such models have also been recognized for regulatory capital setting for market risks. However, a similar approach to measure credit risk in a portfolio context was found difficult on account of certain crucial differences between credit risk and market risk.
In the last few years, credit risk models, which attempt to measure risk in a “Portfolio” context, and compute VaR due to credit, have emerged in the market. While significant hurdles, especially relating to data limitation and model validation, still need to be addressed before a VaR type model for credit risk can be accepted as an alternative to the standardized approach to the measurement of capital, such modeling techniques have caught considerable attention amongst the community of bankers and banking supervisors. The present study explores ball-by ball description of credit risk modeling in reference to the Indian public sector bank

The official banking institutions for rural China are Rural Credit Cooperatives (RCCs). Although these co-ops are mandated to support agricultural development among farm households, since 1980 half of RCC loans have gone to small and medium-sized industrial enterprises located in, and managed by, townships and villages. These township and village enterprises have experienced highly uneven levels of success, and by the end of the 1990s, half of all RCC loans were in or close to default, forcing China's central bank to bail out RCCs. In Prosper or Perish, Lynette H. Ong examines the bias in RCC lending patterns, focusing on why the mobilization of rural savings has contributed to successful industrial development in some locales but not in others.
Interweaving insightful and theoretically informed discussions of rural credit, development, governance, and bank bailouts, Ong identifies various sources for China's uneven development. In the highly decentralized fiscal environment of the People's Republic, successful industrialization has significant implications for rural governance. Local governments depend on revenue from industrial output to provide public goods and services; unsuccessful enterprises starve local governments of revenue and result in radical cutbacks in services. High peasant burdens, land takings without adequate compensation by local governments, and other poor governance practices tend to be associated with unsuccessful industrialization. In light of the recent liberalization of the rural credit sector in China, Prosper or Perish makes a significant contribution to debates within political science, economic development, and international banking.

We present a simple adjustment to the single-factor credit capital model, which recognizes the diversification from a multi-factor model. We introduce the concept of a diversification factor at the portfolio level, and show that it can be expressed as a function of two parameters that broadly capture the size (sector) concentration and the average cross-sector correlation. The model further supports an intuitive capital allocation methodology through the definition of marginal diversification factors at the sector or obligor level. We estimate the diversification factor for a family of models, and show that it can be express in parametric form or tabulated for potential regulatory applications and risk management. As a risk management tool, it can be used to understand concentration risk, capital allocation and sensitivities, stress testing, as well as to compute "real-time" marginal risk. 4 The views expressed in this paper are solely those of the authors. The authors would like specially to thank Michael Pykhtin and Michael Gordy for many valuable discussions and suggestions on the methodology and the paper. Further thanks to Helmut Mausser, an anonymous reviewer, and the participants in the workshop "Concentration Risk in Credit Portfolios" (Eltville, November 2005) for their useful comments on earlier versions of the paper. Dan Rosen further acknowledges the kind support of the Fields Institute and Algorithmics Inc. 7 The following discussion also holds for VaR (by simply adding back EL at the end of the analysis).

This paper in trying to examine and understand the banking system in Bhutan, particularly its infrastructure and banking penetration, undertakes a cross-sectional review of dzongkhag-wise statistics of Bhutan. It presents four broad findings. First, in terms of its financial infrastructure vis-à-vis its population, Bhutan has sufficient infrastructure in place. The spread of its financial institution is comparatively much better than India, with at least 3 bank offices in place for each dzongkhag. Second, Bhutan Development Bank Ltd and Bank of Bhutan are two banks which have its bank offices in all of the dzongkhags and hence have the highest reach. These two banks also have the highest number of deposits and credit accounts. This could perhaps be attributed to their precedence in arrival, in the sector. Thirdly, it is observed that there is a huge disparity between deposit accounts and credit accounts. While some dzongkhags have a relatively good amount of deposit accounts, the figure for credit is largely still low. Fourth, and finally, it is observed that Thimphu has a very disproportionate share of financial banking services, especially in credit dissemination. This article concludes by highlighting the need to decentralize finance, primarily in terms of its accessibility.

This paper is prepared as a partial requirement of BBA Program, BRAC University. The objective of this paper is to provide detail information about the challenges of credit sanction and recovering process of Southeast Bank Limited. I have joined Mouchak Branch, Southeast Bank Limited as an intern on the month of May. Southeast Bank Limited is a private commercial bank. It has been founded on March 12, 1995 and the head office is in Dilkusha, Dhaka, Bangladesh. There are pros and cons of every approach to a report. However, this paper covers a very important aspect of Banking Industry (Credit management). The aim of this paper is to identify the challenges of Southeast Bank Limited while giving loans and to investigate those challenges for a depth insight into those challenges. Another important aim of this paper is to identify the challenges of Southeast bank limited while recovering the loan amounts and to recognize the importance of addressing those challenges. In the end of this paper, diagnose the steps that’s been taken to tackle those challenges & to point out the problems/ limitations associated with those steps.

The money creation based on credit has been the practice of human being for at least 5000 years. In the past 300 years of industrial age, the vast majority of money in the World is being created as credit in banking institutions by means of centralized banking regulations on a global scale. On the contrary of the common belief, the banks have not been intermediary bodies in money creation. Instead, they create money directly when they make loans. Bank loans create both credit and deposit directly out of thin air. Credits stay as mutual contracts between borrowers and banks until they get paid, while deposits circulate in economies as virtual money. Physical money has no direct relation to the credit creation and should not be confused with the reserve requirements which are just costs of credit creation. Despite this fact, money creation in some countries do happen on a peer-to-peer basis with a kind of analog chain. Turkey is unique in this sense with the way post-dated cheques being used in economy for several decades. Currently, at least 1/4 of economy in Turkey has been running on active use of post-dated cheques. The greatest global problem in post-dated cheques is bouncing, i.e. defaulting, or nonredemption. For example, the non-redemption rate has been around 3% in Turkey and 5% in India for the last decade after the 2008 financial crisis. Nonredemption rates tend to increase during financial crisis.
The way post-dated cheques are used in Turkey is actually an analog chain on papers. This study suggests a generic blockchain solution to nonredemption problem for peer-to-peer credits similar to  post-dated cheques. The blockchain maintains the smart contracts of so called Credit Loops depicting the analog blockchain of post-dated cheques. The Marmara name in blockchain comes from the Marmara region in Turkey, as being the region producing nearly half of GDP in Turkey. The system has been developed and proof of concept was tested on real blockchain based on trustless mode. The trust based version has been specified to solve the problem further towards a zero-nonredemption goal by introducing community layer to solution. The paper explores the common problems in post-dated cheques and how nonredemption problem could be solved through Marmara Credit Loops.

This study sought to establish how various credit risk management practices affect performance of commercial banks in Nyeri County in Kenya. Even though commercial banks face several types of risks, credit risk stands out as the most severe. Credit risk is the possibility of loss to the lender on non-performing loans. Financial practice as well as theory provides a scientific process of credit risk management in financial institutions. However, lenders still face loan default and consequently this study sought to find out how those practices affect the performance of commercial banks in Nyeri County, Kenya. A census study was conducted where a population of 86 respondents was targeted comprising of branch managers, credit managers and credit officers. The findings of the study were that all commercial banks had a well written credit policy which is strictly and consistently followed. Only few commercial banks conduct a quantitative credit scoring model. In all banks, initial screening is done by credit officer and approval done at different levels depending on the amount. Majority of the banks check post borrowing activities of the borrower. In conclusion, credit risk management has an effect on loan performance amongst commercial banks. Thus, managers should evaluate more accurately the ability to pay back of a customer since the better the screening the better the performance of commercial banks.

The purpose of this research is to analyze the database structure using object oriented. The advantage is to give the reusable data structure for developer team. The developer can reuse the objects if the business process need to be changed. This method uses data collection, analysis, and design. The result of this research is database structure that can be used by every application with different program languages using the object oriented method. In conclusion is using object oriented database makes the developer easier to develop database structure.

As with any financial institution, the biggest risk in bank is lending money and not getting it back. This study examined the impact of credit management and bank performance in Nigeria. The study adopted cross sectional survey design. The population of the study consisted of all management staffs of commercial banks operating in Nigeria. The sample sizes of eleven (11) select commercial banks were considered by systematic technique. The Purposive sampling technique was adopted; hence six respondents were administered questionnaire (Bank Manager and five senior staff) from each bank to make up a 66 respondents for the study. Multiple regression analysis was adopted for the study to determine the influence/impacts of credit management variables (Credit Appraisal, Credit Risk Control, and Collection policy) on bank performance. The study revealed that credit management has a significant impact on bank performance in Nigeria. The study also revealed that among the credit management variables considered, credit risk control has the highest driving force for bring about an effect financial performance of bank in Nigeria. It was recommended that financial institution should not only take credit management serious, but should recognised the role of credit risk section if they aim at increasing profitability.

In 1784 the ship Empress of China set sail for Canton and initiated the direct tea trade between China and the United States. The United States thereafter grew to be the second-largest importer of tea, known as “green gold,” from China in the nineteenth century. Carrying tea to America and continental Europe not only demonstrated U.S. cultural and political independence, but also allowed Americans to procure new lines of commercial credit from Netherlands and China, usually in the form of promissory notes, pieces of paper that represented gold and silver before English bills of exchange came into wide use in the China trade. By examining three types of credit extended from Chinese merchants to their American counterparts before 1815, this article challenges the understanding of the Old China trade as a strictly hard-money system and, at the same time, elaborates the power of credit in the early American economy. Handsome profits from the tea trade and new lines of credit from China enabled American businessmen to accumulate large amounts of capital within a short period. Furnished with “green gold” and “paper gold,” China traders in New England and the mid-Atlantic states helped reshape the U.S. economy and link the Pacific and Atlantic worlds.

The researchers focused on this topic for the reason that only few people have been
introduced and exposed to credit risk management and intend to evaluate the importance of credit
management in financial institutions. It also aims to assess the credit management employed by the
motorcycle dealers in Batangas City, Philippines. It intends to describe the demographic profile of
motorcycle dealers in terms of nature of business, initial capital investment, length of business operation
and product brand offered; to know how they manage their accounts receivables in terms of billing process,
collection policies, types of credit policies and penalties imposed; to know the problems and the proposed
solutions to those problems in relation to credit risk management. To obtain accurate data, come up with
concrete facts and eventually come up with adequate interpretation concerning the study the researchers
use a descriptive method of research design. After the significant findings thoroughly assessed and facts
have been presented, several invaluable conclusions were drawn. First, that majority of Motorcycle
Business in Batangas City are corporation, with investment that range from Php 5,000,001.00 and above
and operated for more than 15 years. Second that the customers prefer to be personally informed for billing
process while the dealers want to receive in advance cash payment. Also motorcycle dealers engaged strict
analysis of the risk and its strict collection for credit policy and the repossession of motorcycle is the top
priority in imposing penalties. Moreover, the top problem encountered by motorcycle dealers was that
customer does not pay on time.

{in Franck Mercier et Isabelle Rosé (éd.), Aux marges de l'hérésie. Inventions, formes et usages de l'accusation d'hérésie au Moyen Âge, Rennes, Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2017, p. 111-152} (La pagination est signalée entre crochets) En 1311, le concile de Vienne adopte un canon, le vingt-neuvième, connu sous le titre d'Ex gravi, par lequel il fustige le laxisme des gouvernements urbains vis-à-vis de l'usure. En conséquence, le concile ordonne aux inquisiteurs et aux évêques de poursuivre « comme ceux qui sont diffamés ou soupçonnés d'hérésie » et de punir « comme s'ils étaient des hérétiques » ceux qui « affirment obstinément que l'exercice de l'usure n'est pas un péché1 ». Avant cela aucun article de droit canonique n'a comparé aussi explicitement l'usure à l'hérésie, même si celle-ci est depuis longtemps décrite comme une pravitas et une infamie et même si, depuis des décennies, les inquisiteurs accusent parfois des hérétiques de pratiquer l'usure ou, du moins, d'en défendre le caractère licite2. L'interdiction de l'usure, notamment celle qui aurait été pratiquée par des clercs, remonte au moins aux premiers conciles et s'appuie sur des interdits vétéro-testamentaires (Dt 23, 19-20). Les conciles des XIIe-XIIIe siècles ont condamné sévèrement les usuriers en les menaçant de peines allant de la privation de sépulture à l'excommunication en passant par l'expropriation. La 1 CLÉMENT V, Ex gravi (1311), Clem. 5, 5, 1, éd. FRIEDBERG E., Corpus Iuris Canonici, t. 2. Decretalium collectiones, Leipzig, Tauchnitz, 1881 (réimpr. Graz, Akademische Druck, 1955), col. 1184 : Sane, si quis in illum errorem inciderit, ut pertinaciter affirmare praesumat, exercere usuras non esse peccatum : decernimus, eum velut haereticum puniendum, locorum nihilominus ordinariis et haereticae pravitatis inquisitoribus districtius iniungentes, ut contra eos, quos de errore huiusmodi diffamatos invenerint aut suspectos, tanquam contra diffamatos vel suspectos de haeresi procedere non omittant. 2 MOLLAT DU JOURDIN M., « Usure et hérésie : les 'Cahorsins' chez eux », Studi in memoria di Federigo Melis, Naples, Giannini, 1978, vol. 1, p. 269-278 ; GIANSANTE M., « Eretici e usurai. L'usura come eresia nella normativa e nella prassi inquisitoriale dei secoli XIII-XIV. Il caso di Bologna », Rivista di storia e letteratura religiosa, n°23/2, 1987, p. 193-221 ; OBERSTE J., « L'usurier, un hérétique ? La décrétale Ex gravi (1311/1312) et les mutations de la société citadine au XIIe et XIIIe siècle », HOAREAU-DODINAU J., TEXIER P., éd., Pouvoir, justice et société, Actes des 19ème journées d'histoire du droit

This book is a new paradigm for macroeconomics. It explains four pillars of economy. Money, capital, trade and credit are the chapters of this book.
The book argues that monetary system changes real economy in a fundamental way. And it explains how this process occurs.
It sheds light on many mysterious phenomena such as income inequality,  economic growth, and the values of goods and services.

This is a book about the psychological basis of concepts of credit, and how various different concepts of credit serve as the seed crystals around with cultures form. With this knowledge, it is possible to approach the definition of a cultural concept of credit with intent, and to design and account for such a purpose-designed credit concept. This is useful for creating a healthy culture and society.

This collection of essays  compare and discuss women’s participation and experiences in credit markets in early modern Europe and highlight the characteristics, common mechanisms, similarities, discrepancies, and differences across various periods of time and regions. The essays cover various regions in Europe in different time periods and at all levels of society. The emphasis is placed particularly on their role as creditors and debtors, a topic largely ignored in traditional historiography, but also and above all on the evolution of their roles across time. Were women able to enter the credit market, and how? In what proportion? What was then the meaning of their involvement in this market? What did their involvement mean for the community and for their household? Was credit a vector of female emancipation and empowerment? What were the changes that occurred for them in the transition to capitalism?