Islamic Epistemology

This insightful text examines the impact of Islamic schooling on Muslim youth in French-speaking Canada to consider how these institutions influence the formation of students’ cultural, national, ethnic, and religious identities, and their sense of belonging to Quebec and Canada.

Through close qualitative analysis of interviews conducted with first- and second-generation students, as well as parents, teachers, and leaders involved in Islamic high schools, this text explores how far institutions succeed in preparing young Muslims to participate in the broader secular society in Quebec and in English-speaking Canada. As well as investigating the historical and contemporary development of Islamic schooling in Canada, and addressing public perceptions of this educational sector, the volume foregrounds the voices of those directly involved in these schools to illustrate first-hand experiences, and the motivations and objectives of those choosing to support or engage in these schools. Overarching themes include citizenship, integration, and the complex interplay of Muslim, Quebecois, and Canadian values.

This book will be of great interest to graduate and postgraduate students, researcher scholars and academics in the fields of religion, education, Islamic studies, multicultural education curriculum studies, and faith-based teacher education.

Mullā Ṣadrāov ambiciozni pokušaj da definira znanje kao modalitet egzistencije omogućava mu da podvede noetiku pod ontologiju te sprječava da se njegova epistemologija stropošta na filozofiju subjektivizma. To Mullā Ṣadrā postiže čvrsto se držeći svoje gradacijske ontologije. On predstavlja znanje činom sudjelovanja radije negoli reprezentacijom, iskustvom posvjedočenja, a ne apstrakcijom. A to još jednom potvrđuje da nema fajde od epistemologije bez odgovarajuće ontologije.

Modern science dominated by idealism, rationalism, and empiricism has brought an acute humanity crisis. At the epistemology level, religion provides knowledge which guarantees human values, beyond ration and empirical findings. This paper aims at exploring texts of al-Qur'an as a source of knowledge. The methodology construction starts from seeing it as a paradigm-placing the holy text as an open corpus critically analyzed from linguistics, literary, and historical points of views. Abstrak: Sains modern yang dikuasai oleh idealisme, rasionalisme dan empirisme telah membawa krisis kemanusiaan yang akut. Pada ranah epistemologis, agama menyediakan pengetahuan yang tidak disediakan oleh rasio maupun temuan empirik yang menjamin adanya nilai-nilai kemanusiaan. Paper ini bertujuan mengeksplorasi peluang dijadikannya wahyu al-Qur'an sebagai sumber ilmu. Konstruksi metodologi ilmiah dimulai dengan mengubah cara pandang terhadap wahyu al-Qur'an sebagai paradigma yang berarti menempatkan al-Qur'an dalam hakekat ontologisnya sebagai teks kebahasaan yang terbuka terhadap kerangka analisis modern seperti lingusitik, kritik sastra dan analisis historis. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa teks suci al-Qur'an yang bersumber dari wahyu dapat dijadikan sumber ilmu dengan persyaratan kajian dengan metodologi yang ilmiah.

Da bi se razumjelo mjesto razuma i racionalnosti u Kur’anu te kasnijoj islamskoj intelektualnoj tradiciji, autor istražuje novu ontološku osnovu razuma i način promišljanja koji je u Kur’anu uveden i tako potaknut kroz kazivanja, dove, dedukcije, silogizme, naredbe, upozorenja, pohvale, obećanja o nagradi i kazni. Bogati popis logičkih dedukcija i moralnih podsticanja koje pronalazimo u Kur’anu i Hadisu imaju namjeru razbuditi nam svijest da bismo mogli početi koristiti svoje osjetilne i racionalne sposobnosti na način koji pristaje našem stanju egzistencije.

'Kitaab at-Tawheed' (‘The Book of Monotheism’) is the famous Sunni theologian Abu Mansoor al-Maturidi’s (d. 333/944) magnum opus: both the work and its author became the foundation of Sunni theological and philosophical thought until the present day. Its early provenance and originality as well as wide and enduring influence make this book essential for students of theology, philosophy, and the history of ideas. Yet despite the wide purported influence of and devotion to his ideas, Maturidi’s work has however been strangely neglected by Muslim and non-Muslim scholars alike. This book is the first of two volumes comprising the first ever English translation - with commentary - of ‘Kitaab at-Tawheed’.

This work is unique in that it provides a detailed and holistic approach to Islamic theology whilst also being its earliest extant comprehensive source. Maturidi presents the epistemological foundations of his teaching, provides detailed arguments in defence of monotheism - including his cosmological doctrines such as proofs that the universe is created and its ontological, temporal or infinite nature. He also focuses on God, his existence, the differences between God and created entities, and the names and attributes of God, analysing issues related to anthropomorphism and the speech and the vision of God.

Regardless of theological affiliation, this is an indispensable work for academics and laymen alike.

OTTOMAN INSCRIPTIONS IN SAUDI ARABIA: FIRST
CENTURY OF OTTOMAN RULE IN ARABIA (1509-1600)
XVII. Türk Tarih Kongresi, 15-17 Eylül 2014, Ankara (IV. Cilt-VI. Kısım)
Proceedıngs XVII Congress of Turkısh Hıstory )IV volumeö Part VI)
MEHMET TÜTÜNCÜ: Ottoman Inscriptions in Saudi Arabia: First Century of Ottoman Rule in Arabia (1509-1600)  2033
In this paper, we will look at the building activities in the holy cities
and on the Hajj route of the Ottoman Sultans. Our point of departure is the
inscriptions that were placed on the buildings. In 16th Century Ottoman Empire was governed by 5 Ottoman Rulers. Hereunder
is a list of of inscriptions in the name of this Sultans that is known to exist.
This information is based on my previous research which I have compiled in a Catalogue of Inscriptions in Arabia. Th e catalogue numbers are based on this
study.
Sultan Year AH Amount of Inscriptions
Bayezid II 886-918 2 inscriptions from Mecca and Medina
Selim I 918-926 1 Inscription from Mecca
Suleyman I 926-974 20 Inscriptions from Mecca, 6 from Medina
and 4 from the Hajj Route
Selim II 974-982 2 Inscriptions from Mecca
Murad III 982-1003 22 Inscriptions from Mecca and 2 from Medina
Th erefore, there are some 59 inscriptions that give evidence of the ottoman building activities in the Arabian Peninsula in 10th century AH / 16th Century AD.

Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī (543-606/1148-1209) observed in his voluminous exegesis Mafātīḥ al-ghayb ("Keys of the Unseen") that the Qurʾān has three axial themes: the Unicity of Allah Most High (tawḥīd), Messengership and Prophethood (risāla, nubuwwa), and Resurrection (maʿād) (Tafsīr, sub Q 2:21-22). All other themes emerge from these and can be subsumed under them. All three are constantly present throughout the Qurʾān and are specifically mentioned in numerous verses. The absolute Oneness of Allah Most High is the central theme of Sūrat al-Ikhlāṣ (Q 112), which enjoins the Prophet, upon him blessings and peace, to proclaim: Say: He, Allah, is One. Allah, the Eternally Self-Sufficient (al-Ṣamad). He begets not, nor is begotten. And none is like Him. The sura expounds, in condensed form and chiefly by negation, Divine Unicity; it "refutes in its four verses all [forms of] disbelief (kufr) and fancies (ahwāʾ)," Sahl al-Tustarī (d. 283/896) noted. "It is named Sūrat al-Ikhlāṣ ("the Sura of Sincerity") because it sweeps away all impurities foreign to the transcendence (tanzīh) of Allah, Exalted is He above all unbefitting Him" (Tustarī, Tafsīr, sub Q 112). According to the Qurʾān the Prophets are chosen human beings sent by God to guide humanity; the prophetic cycle started with the first human being, Ādam, upon him peace, and ended with the Prophet Muhammad, the Seal of the Prophets (khātam al-nabiyyīn): Muhammad is not the father of any of your men, but he is the Messenger of Allah, and the Seal of the Prophets, and Allah has full knowledge of all things (Q 33:40). Resurrection brings all creation to their final destination. The "worldview" (a term used as a calque for the German Weltanschauung) offered by the Qurʾān is anchored in the belief system which emerges from its three fundamental themes and is succinctly formulated in the five "pillars of Islam" (pronouncing and affirming the shahāda, performing the ṣalāt, paying zakāt, fasting during the month of Ramadan, and performing the Hajj once in a lifetime) and six articles of belief (belief in Allah, His Angels, His Books,

In this chapter, I elaborate an idealized type of Islamic philosophy of education and epistemology. Next, I examine the crisis that Islamic schools face in Western societies. This will occur on two fronts: (1) an analysis of the relationship (if any) between the philosophy of education, the aspirations of school administration, and the actual character and practice of Islamic schools; and (2) an analysis concerning the meaning of an Islamic curriculum. To the first issue, I argue that there exists a disjuncture between Islamic educational ideals (as expressed by Muslim philosophers of education), the aspirations of school administrators, and the manner in which Islamic schools operate in practice. Concerning the second item, I argue that Islamic schools, notwithstanding their own insistent claims, must struggle to define what an Islamic education entails that is uniquely distinctive to Islamic schools. Finally, I argue that Islamic educators need to encourage open-minded discussions concerning issues on which there is no settled opinion. I illumine this discussion by drawing upon minority Muslim voices that encourage further dialogue and debate. Above all else, this chapter is an attempt to highlight the challenges that Muslim educators in the West face as they aim to reconcile an idealized caricature of Islamic philosophy of education with the on-the-ground needs of Muslim children socialized in a non-Islamic society.

Murad’s Commentary on the Eleventh Contentions is a rare and profound book. It consists of 100 pithy aphorisms - termed "contentions" - on a diverse array of topics ranging through ethics, cosmology, metaphysics, theology, law and history. Each contention is a terse distillation of Murad's often exquisitely crafted ruminations on a given matter followed by his own compressed elucidation (the commentary).  Though sometimes abstruse and esoteric, the book weaves itself into a dense, multi-faceted tapestry of insights into a range of contemporary issues that concern the religious mind.

In reference to the philosophical theology of medieval Islamic theologian Ibn Taymiyya, this paper outlines a parallel between Taymiyyan thought and Alvin Plantinga’s thesis of ‘Reformed Epistemology’. In critiquing a previous attempt to build an account of ‘Islamic externalism’, the Taymiyyan model offers an account that can be seen as wholly ‘Plantingan’.

This is a review and examination of the Shukr’l-Waahib al-Mufeeda’l-Mawaahib (Showing Gratitude to the Benefactor for the Divine Overflowing Given to Those He Favors) by one of Black Africa’s leading mystics, Shaykh Abd’l-Qaadir ibn Mustafa (d. 1864 C.E.) In this work I attempt to explain the etymology of the exoteric and esoteric terms utilized by Shaykh Dan Tafa in his poem Shukr'l-Waahib. My commentary is based upon what I recieved from several of the shuyuukh with whom I read this text, Shaykh Muhammad Bello ibn Abdullahi, Shaykh Abu Bakr Basambu, Shaykh Umar Ahmad Zaruuk and Shaykh Bello Abd'r-Raaziq. From the time that I first recieved this poem in May of 1986 from one of the author's descendents, Shaykh Bello ibn Abd'r-Raaziq ibn Uthman ibn Abd'l-Qaadir ibn Mustafa, it was my intention of writing about it. It was not until arriving in China safely that I was able to begin this work. This was prompted by a study of three fundamental works by Wang Tai Yu, the foremost Muslim mystic and scholar of China, which I found in the library of Tsingwa University in Beijing, China. There was a clear parrallel between the mystical ideas of Imam Wang Tai Yu and Shaykh Dan Tafa which I found amazing especially in the light of the new Sino-African accord emerging at the time. It was on my repatriation to Africa that I was able to complete this study within the social environment from which it was originally produced.

Shaykh Muhammad Shareef bin Farid
Zawiyya Shehu Uthman ibn Fuduye`
Yirimadio, Bamako, the Republic of Mali

The SIIASI presents this work, the Asaaneed ‘l-Faqeer al-Mu`tarif bi’l-`Ajazi wa’t-Taqseer (The Chains of Authority of the Impoverished One Recognized by His Impotence and Deficiency) for the general public and as an ijaaza for the Umma of Muhammad. The text was composed on a Wednesday, the 28th of Jumad’l-Awwal, 1213 A.H. (November 7th, 1798 C.E).

It was composed at the time the Shehu was 45 years old and had already achieved the spiritual station of qutbaaniyya (spiritual pivot/pole or central point); had reached the level of ijtihaadiyya (independent judgment); and was recognized as the mujaddid (social reformer/renewer) of the 12th century hijra. It was during the reign of Nafata ibn Yaqubu ibn Baabari over the Gobir Habe` kingdom of Hausaland in the central Bilad ‘s-sudan. Because of the growing appeal of the Shehu and the growth of his jama`at, Nafata and his government, out of enmity and fear, repealed all of the concessions of the social contract that the Shehu had won for the Muslims of Gobir under one of the previous rulers named Bawa in 1205 A.H. (circa 1790 C.E.)


Thus, the text was composed as a form of historical consciousness in order to connect the growing Muslim population to an intergenerational line of authority that gave them a sense of centeredness and confidence in the face increased state repression. This kind is identity construct is extremely important today, in states where Muslims are the victims of systemic and sustained psychological warfare designed to undermine their belief, their customs and way of life. When at-Thawri asserted that the isnaad is the weapon of the believer, I believe he was talking about times like these where even a Muslim woman wearing her hijab is considered by western states as a form of passive resistance or defense. The fact that the NSA and DOD of the United States would define the wearing of a head scarf as ‘resistance’ and ‘defense’ gives evidence that the state is officially at war with Islam.
The Asaaneed’l-Faqeer is one of the many symbolic weapons and talismans designed to counter the psychological magic of the dominant culture.


The Shehu divided the Asaaneed’l-Faqeer into an introduction, ten chapters and a conclusion; making a total of twelve chapters. 

Chapter One: On the Sanad of al-Faatiha by way of the Jinn.

Chapter Two: On the Sanad of Qur’anic Recitation.

Chapter Three: On the Sanad of Tradition of Mercy Connected with first of narrations.

Chapter Four: On the Sanad of the Famous Books of Prophetic Traditions Among the Scholars of the Umma Which We Have Connected to Its Narrators.

Chapter Five: On the Chain of the Sanad of Jurisprudence (al-fiqh) and Spiritual Purification (at-tasawwuf).

Chapter Six: On the Sanad of the Handshake (al-musaafaha) by Way of the al-Mu`amareen.

Chapter Seven: On the Sanad of the Khirqa as-Suufiyya al-Qaadiriyya.

Chapter Eight: On the Sanad of the Initiation (talqeen) of the Words of the Shahada Based Upon the Tareeqa ‘l-Qaadiriyya, Khalwatiyya and Mahmudiyya.

Chapter Nine: On the Sanad of the Dala’il ‘l-Khayraat.

Chapter Ten: On the Sanad of the Litanies (Ahzaab) of the Qutb Abu’l-Hassan as-Shadhili, may Allah be pleased with him.

In his conclusion, the Shehu cites many scholars who permitted the giving of license in a general manner to as many people as possible. He followed this method because he believed that the asaaneed are [1] the weapon of the community of believers under state repression; [2] an intergenerational connection to the Prophet; [3] a continuation of the mark of distinction by which the Muslim Umma was set apart from other religious communities; and [4] an honor to our Beloved Prophet due to the persistence of his Way until the Day of Judgment.


I received a general, absolute and complete ijaaza in this work from my teacher Shaykh Muhammad al-Amin ibn Adam; who received it from his father Shaykh Adam Kari`angha ibn Muhammad Tukur; who received it from his teacher Shaykh Musa al-Muhajir; who received it from the perfected wali and completely unveiled gnostic Imam and Khateeb `Ali Dinbu ibn Abu Bakr Ma`lami; who received it from the light of the age, the reviver of the religion, the Amir’l-Mu’mineen Shehu Uthman ibn Fuduye`; and I give a general license (ijaaza `aama) to any Muslim who comes across this text, studies it and desires to be a part of the Golden Chain of the awliyya and `ulama cited in this seminal text; and who desire to share in the baraka of Shehu Uthman ibn Fuduye`.

I believe the Shehu wanted the ijaaza for his Asaaneed’l-Faqeer to be given to as many people as possible. I believe this is what the Shehu would have wanted for this Muslim Umma in these final decades of  the ‘Zaman’n-Nasaara’ (the Hour of the Christians).

Shaykh Muhammad Shareef bin Farid

The concise work on the biography of the scholars from which the Shaykh took knowledge was composed around 1812 C.E. while the Shaykh was located at his Gwandu capital of Bodinga. The text gives a precise picture of the extent of the epistemology of the Sokoto Caliphate and the kinds of books and subjects that a scholar had to master to qualify as a right acting scholar in 18th century Bilad's-Sudan.

This is an annotation and translation of the Shukr’l-Waahib al-Mufeeda’l-Mawaahib (Showing Gratitude to the Benefactor for the Divine Overflowing Given to Those He Favors) by one of Black Africa’s leading mystics, Shaykh Abd’l-Qaadir ibn Mustafa. I first came upon this metaphysically luxuriant poem in the month of Ramadan in the year 1406 A.H. (May 1986) while residing in the home of one of the author’s great grandchildren in Maiurno, Sennar, Sudan, my teacher Shaykh Muhammad Bello ibn Shaykh Abd’r-Raaziq ibn Shaykh Uthman ibn Shaykh Abd’l-Qaadir ibn Mustafa. He showed it to me one night after the tawaareeh prayers and requested that I read it. He said that his paternal uncle, Shaykh Abd’r-Rahman al-Ya`bana ibn Uthman told him that this poem was a summarization of all the exoteric and esoteric sciences which were bequeathed to the Fudiawa in general, and to his immediate family in particular as it reached its pinnacle with his great grandfather, the historian, the Amir, and mystic, Shaykh Abd’l-Qaadir ibn Mustafa. This divine overflowing (fayd ilaahiy), as the author called it, was bequeathed to him from his erudite and saintly mother Sayyidat Khadijatu bint Shehu Uthman ibn Fuduye`, and her brother, his maternal uncle the saintly Shaykh Muhammad Sanbu ibn Shehu Uthman ibn Fuduye`. It overflowed from these siblings from their spiritually magnetized mother, the mystical, pious and learned wife of the Shehu, Iyya Gharka A`ishatu Ghabindu bint Shaykh Muhammad Sa`d ibn Abdullahi ibn Muhammad ibn Sa`d ibn Muhammad Ladan ibn Idris ibn Maasiran, who received it from her husband, the Shaykh of all the Shaykhs Shehu Uthman ibn Fuduye`.
The Shukr'l-Waahib is a tantalizing glimpse of all the essential mediated and unmediated sciences bequeathed to humanity within the epistemology of Islam. The poem not only gives a depiction of the depth of erudition of African Islamic traditions but it also gives us an indication of the extent of the crime which was committed against the purveyors of these intellectual and esoteric traditions as a result of the trans Atlantic slave trade and European colonialism in Africa.

The Shukr’l-Waahib by the Shaykh Abd'l-Qaadir ibn Mustafa, is evidence that there was a conscious preservation and transmission of a canon of knowledge and metaphysics which constituted a collective and communicative memory that encompassed the broadest realm of Islamic epistemology and mysticism. This intergenerational historical consciousness consisted of three integral factors without which it could not and cannot persists: [1] knowledge (`ilm); [2] saintliness (wilaayat); and [3] sovereignty (khilaafa). Each of these factors supported one another in a symbiotic liaison which gave birth to a rearward and forward looking spiritual and secular government which saw itself as the herald and final link to the appearance of the Seal of the Muhammadan Saints (al-Mahdi) and the heavenly descent of the Seal of the Universal Saints (Jesus the son Mary).Shaykh Dan Tafa condensed all of these sciences into sixty seven verses. He divided the poem into seven sections: an introduction followed by six chapters:
Chapter One: Mentioning What I Recieved From the Shari`a Sciences
Chapter Two: Mentioning What I Recieved From the Elemental Sciences by Means of Textual Transmission and Other Than That
Chapter Three: Mentioning What I Recieved From the Sciences of Spiritual Realities
Chapter Four: Mentioning What I Recieved in the Sciences of the Awliyya Which Are the Sciences of Secrets According to the Path of the Sufis
Chapter Five: Mentioning What I Recieved in the Sciences of Secrets As Well. However, Outside of the Path of the Sufis

Chapter Six: Mentioning What I Recieved in the Sciences of Secretsthat I Have Recieved from the Sciences if the Greatest Unveiling Which No One Exept Us Have Craved for and Which None Will Disclose Except the Muhammadan Seal, who is the Mahdi, upon him be peace.
 
The Shukr’l-Waahib was composed as a form of praise and gratitude to Allah for this blessing, since continuity and persistence in all its domains are dependent upon giving thanks and praise. The author indicated this in a couplet which I believe is the secret (sirr) of the poem where he said: “So, all praises are due to Allah who by means of His praise * Has completed and perfected in us the righteousness of His divine support.” What this reveals is that the foundation of the three treasures: knowledge; saintliness and sovereignty that were given to the entire Fudiawa which would guarantee their persistence, revolves around being in a constant state of praise (al-hamd) and gratitude (as-shukr).
Allah ta`ala assisted me to compose a commentary upon this illuminating poem which I called `Ilaawat'l-Muttaalib fee Shukr'l-Waahib al-Mufeeda'l-Mawaahib (The Increase of the Aspirant in Gratitude of the Benefactor for the Divine Overflowing Given to Those He Favors)

al-hamdulillahi wa shukrulillah wa shukrulillah wa'l-hamdulillahi

Shaykh Muhammad Shareef bin Farid al-Qaadiri
Zawiyya Shehu Uthman ibn Fuduye`
Yirimadio, Bamako, the Republic of Mali

This text was composed during the period when Shehu Uthman ibn Fuduye` was in Sifawa, between the years 1810 to 1815. This period was reportedly the most explosive time for the Shehu intellectually and spiritually. He composed his most forward thinking and revolutionary ideas during this period. The Fat'hual-Basaa'ir is a complete mapping of Islamic epistemology. It is an assessment of the exoteric and esoteric sciences in Islam composed in ten chapters:
I.  On the Reality of the Divisions of the Muslims With Regard to Their Ranks in Insight in the Deen.
II. On the Reality of Outward Iman and Inward Iman.
III.On the Reality of the Proper Place of the Legal Judgement for the Sciences of the Religion which are Tawheed, Fiqh, and Tassawwuf.
IV.On the Reality of What is Fard'l-Ayaan and What is Fard'l-Kifaaya From These  Sciences of the Deen
V. On the Reality of the Domain of Truth
VI.On the Reality of the Domain of Falsehood
VII.On the Reality of the Domain of Supposition
VIII.On the Reality of the Totality of the Teachings of the Scholars and Their Legal  Judgement
IX. On the Reality that All the Individual Responsibilities Were Completed During the  Time of the Messenger, (may Allah  bless him and grant him peace).
X. On the Reality that the Different Opinions of a Legal Judgement in One Thing is Due to the Difference of the Procedures Concerning It.

Traduction, introduite et annotée, d'Ibn Taymiyya, « Kitāb al-Istiqāma », édition M. R. SĀLIM, t. I, p. 47-69, section (faṣl) dans laquelle l'auteur entend réfuter l'allégation de certains théologiens et autres que la théologie (kalām) est une science (‘ilm) alors que la jurisprudence (fiqh) relèverait tout au plus de l'opinion (ẓann).

This article seeks to serve as the necessary background and foundation to another article by the author which is to appear in the upcoming issue of this journal. It explains the identity of the Muslim community (ummah) within the framework of the qur'anic theory of multi-religious identities rooted in a common identity structure for all revealed religions and their respective communities. Tawhidic epistemology is central to the identity of the Muslim ummah. The essence of the ummah is a knowledge-community with its distinctive knowledge-culture founded on the qur'anic tawhid and the Muhammadan shariah. Tawhidic vision of knowledge upholds the categorical position that all true human knowledge ought to be ultimately related to the unity of God, since all things are ontologically related to their Divine Origin. Muslims today no longer possess the whole of tawhidic epistemology along with its accompanying exemplary thinking culture. The eclipse of tawhidic epistemology has resulted in deviations in thinking modes from established norms rooted in traditional Islamic intellectual culture. Only a sound epistemological order exemplified in tawhidic epistemology may guarantee a healthy thinking and knowledge-culture on which alone the strength of the Muslim ummatic identity depends.

This extensive review explores the nature of human individuality through a broad spectrum of themes which all relate in an unwavering manner back to the fundamental question of “Who Am I?” The paradox of being fully human is that it depends on transcending the human condition itself. Integral individuality exists at the intersection between the horizontal and the vertical or the human and the Divine. Modern psychology, especially humanistic and transpersonal psychology has, much to its credit, done a great deal to facilitate the rightful place of the human within the spiritual dimension; yet, to date, it has been unable to situate what human individuality is. In fact, modern psychology has grossly overlooked that each of the spiritual traditions of the world has its own corresponding and complete psychology or rather pneumatology (“science of the Spirit”). It is by turning to the integral psychology of the perennial philosophy that human identity can be recovered.

Abstract

Analytic philosophy triggered a methodological transformation in the study of the history of philosophy. This has led to a gradual adoption of philosophical approaches by the historians of medieval philosophy toward the history of medieval Latin philosophy, going beyond the previous historical approaches. However, a similar shift has not yet occurred in the historiography of medieval Islamic philosophy. The study of medieval Islamic philosophical works almost exclusively by historical approaches precludes these works from being better understood and some problems in this field from being fruitfully solved. One such problem is whether Avicenna’s epistemology is rationalist or empirical, which has created a longstanding debate among historians. I use the critical (rational) reconstruction approach to resolve this debate, and design my solution as a case study of applying this approach and showing its efficiency in solving the problems of the historiography of Islamic philosophy and gaining a deeper understanding of medieval Islamic philosophical works.

Bringing together an empirical perspective and analytic methodology, this approach enables us to notice the epistemological crisis in medieval Islamic thought. I argue that the debate on Avicenna’s epistemology is only one manifestation of this crisis. To resolve the debate, I first flesh out the basic theses and supplementary elements of rationalism and empiricism by using the resources of analytic philosophy, and I argue that empiricism provides better solutions to the problems of epistemology than rationalism does. I then investigate whether Avicenna is committed to any rationalist theses or elements. In the end, I find him to be a strong rationalist. Finally I propose two suggestions: (i) A research program should be created that does historiography of Islamic philosophy by using the philosophical approaches (the critical reconstruction approach in particular) to find out how much philosophical truth there is in medieval Islamic philosophical works. (ii) The epistemological crisis ongoing in contemporary Islamic thought can and should be solved by a move toward empiricism.

Keywords: Islamic philosophy, analytic philosophy, epistemological crisis, Avicenna’s epistemology, empiricism, rationalism

Özet

Analitik felsefenin felsefe tarihyazımı alanında tetiklediği metodolojik dönüşüm Ortaçağ Latin felsefe tarihinin tarihsel yaklaşımlardan ziyade gittikçe artan oranda felsefi yaklaşımlarla çalışılması sonucunu doğurmuştur. Ancak aynı dönüşüm İslam felsefe tarihyazımında henüz yaşanmamıştır. Ortaçağ Müslüman filozofların eserlerinin hala neredeyse tamamen tarihsel yaklaşımlarla incelenmesi onların daha iyi anlaşılmasını engellemekte ve bu alandaki bazı problemlerin çözülememesine neden olmaktadır. Tarihçiler arasında İbn Sina epistemolojisinin rasyonalist mi empirik mi olduğuna dair tartışma bu problemlerden biridir. Tartışmayı sonuca kavuşturmak için bu çalışmada eleştirel yeniden-inşa yaklaşımı kullanılmıştır. Böylece sözkonusu problemin çözümü bu yaklaşımın İslam felsefe tarihyazımının problemlerini çözme ve Ortaçağ Müslüman filozofların eserlerini daha iyi anlamada ne kadar başarılı olduğunu gösterecek bir vaka incelemesi olarak tasarlanmıştır.

Empirik perspektif ve analitik metodolojiyi birleştiren bu yaklaşım Ortaçağ İslam dünyasındaki epistemolojik krizi farketmemizi sağlar. Bu çalışmada sözkonusu tartışmanın bu krizin tek bir yansıması olduğu ileri sürülmüştür. Tartışmayı sonuca kavuşturmak için öncelikle analitik felsefenin kaynakları kullanılarak rasyonalizm ve empirizmin temel tezleri ve tamamlayıcı unsurları tespit edilmiş, empirizmin epistemolojinin temel problemlerine nispeten daha iyi çözümler sunduğu iddia edilmiştir. Sonra İbn Sina epistemolojisinde bu rasyonalist unsurların bulunup bulunmadığı araştırılmış ve nihayet İbn Sina’nın güçlü derecede rasyonalist olduğu saptanmıştır. En son bu bulgunun uzanımı olarak iki öneride bulunulmuştur: (i) Ortaçağlı Müslüman filozofların eserlerinde ne kadar felsefi doğru bulunduğunu tespit etmek için İslam felsefe tarihini felsefi yaklaşımlar (özellikle eleştirel yeniden-inşa yaklaşımı) ile inceleyen bir araştırma programı oluşturulmalıdır. (ii) Çağdaş İslam düşüncesinde devam etmekte olan epistemolojik kriz empirizm ile çözülebilir ve çözülmelidir.

Keywords: İslam felsefesi, analitik felsefe, epistemolojik kriz, İbn Sina epistemolojisi, empirizm, rasyonalizm

“This article will discuss the importance of knowing precisely between knowledge and science. Regarding this matter, the discussion would like to introduce two different points of view about Universe; from Scientists and Islamic perspective, because from which philosophers and Scientists formulate or synthesized their findings and results of their observations according to the preconscious Ideas. This is a preliminary effort to discuss on how the reality of sciences (haqa’iq al-‘ulum) and the knowledge (al-ma‘rifat) can help mankind knowing, establishing and acknowledging  Allah and His present and existence. By knowing these, we could learn the privilege of Islamic fundamentals and requirements for sciences and knowledge. Hence, they should entails upon Muslims especially or Non-Muslim in general into the ultimate truth and justice to the Knowledge and Science & Technology.
This is what is supposed to be in scientific and technological application in the worldly lives.”

Contemporary psychology is in a state of confusion, claims this perennialist author and mental health clinician, because it cannot identify the 'self' or 'the unity of the personality'. This is because it "attempts to study what is beyond its epistemological and ontological scope and trespasses upon the domain of metaphysics". Drawing attention to the materialistic biases in contemporary psychology, which focuses on the empirical ‘self’ and its pathology without the normative criterion of a 'healthy personality', the author contrasts contemporary psychology with traditional pneumatology, which acknowledges the transpersonal Self as the source of normative personality.

S arapskog preveo: Almir Fatić. Ovo je kratka El-Gazalijeva rasprava iz područja islamske epistemologije. El-Gazali u njoj govori o počasti znanja i njegovim vrstama, zatim metodama stjecanja znanja te suštini transcedentnog znanja i načinima njegovog dosezanja.

Lately, numerous parties have voiced out their concern about returning the function of the mosque as the main centre for developing the ummah. Numerous suggestions were adduced about expanding the functions of a mosque from solely being a house of worship. Among the suggestions was to assimilate the conventional management model into the present mosque management system. This suggestion intended to make the mosque a more dynamic centre of development for the Islamic ummah. The McKinsey 7S management framework founded by Peters and Waterman as well as the 4M management concept adduced by Ishikawa are among the management models suggested for adoption into the present mosque management.

In order to better cope with the pressures and stresses of the current day, modern psychology is anxiously seeking to find new therapies to address the increasing disorders within the human psyche. In the process new fields of research, such as humanistic and transpersonal psychology, curiously appear to borrow more and more from the wisdom of the ages. This volume, containing eighteen articles by noteworthy expositors of the perennial philosophy such as Huston Smith, Seyyed Hossein Nasr, and Frithjof Schuon, presents the spiritual psychology of the wisdom traditions as a much-needed antidote to the current impasse in modern psychology.

The discussions on epistemology are closely related to the source and methodology of obtaining knowledge. Today's modern scientific methodology which is driven by logical positivism philosophy lay too much importance on data that can be observed by the senses and is rational to the mind. Therefore, it have a few differences from the Islamic epistemological framework which are value driven in process. However, it was said that Ibn al-Haytham is one the earliest Muslim scholars to base his research on scientific methods. The question is how Ibn al-Haytham obtains scientific knowledge? Does it fit into Islamic epistemological framework? Hence, this article intends to identify the epistemological aspects of Ibn al-Haytham's scientific thoughts by using the content analysis method. The findings showed that Ibn al-Haytham's scientific epistemology is based on reflection on the verses of al-Qur'an, belief in God's law (sunnatullah) of nature, observation by the senses, cognitive reasoning, and intuition. Therefore, the source of knowledge pertaining to Ibn al-Haytham's scientific thoughts is integrated as what shown in the discussion of Islamic epistemology.

It seems that Muslims are able recite the Quran, but if we inquire if they know what they recite, not a few say “no.” Those who have memorised the Quran have accomplished a major feat. I recall attending a talk at the Islamic University of Malaysia by a revert to Islam from America. He was from Pakistan. Before his reversion, he said he “used to party, be a rapper, enjoy music, etc.” After he reverted to Islam, he went to Pakistan, where he memorized the Quran. He succeeded in nine months. After he finished memorizing the Quran, he asked his teacher: "Teacher, can you now teach me the meaning of what I memorized?" His question showed that he memorized the Quran without understanding it. The teacher gave an interesting response: "Be patient. Let me teach you a second method of recitation first." The teacher discouraged his pupil from learning the meaning of revelation. This should be of concern. It is not uncommon to meet among the Muslims even older people who say: "I know how to recite the Quran, but I do not understand it." How can someone “know how to recite” the Quran and “not understand it” at the same time? Is it possible to recite without comprehension? If a person can merely reproduce the sounds of a language without knowing what he is saying, what kind of knowledge does this person have? Mere reproduction of the sounds of a text without knowledge of the meaning is limited knowledge. In so far as the well-being of the Muslims depends on their knowledge of Islam, it is advisable to address the problem. It seems that teachers are placing emphasis on recitation and memorization at the expense of understanding the meaning of the text. This should be redressed. A methodology that does not complement the study of formal pronunciation with the study of meaning does not facilitate the reader’s access to the message of the text. A methodology that effectively separates the study of tajweed (pronunciation) from the study of meaning does little to help Muslims attain knowledge of revelation for the purpose of guidance. Islam is indeed a much-misunderstood religion. It is not well understood even by a significant number of Muslims themselves. This incomplete understanding of Islam has serious consequences. In an environment of ignorance, fanaticism will thrive. The best antidote to ignorance is knowledge, the true knowledge of the teaching of Islam, gained first of all from the knowledge of revelation.

This article examines Said Nursi’s idea on reconciliation of science and Islam. He offers an epistemological approach which integrate Islam and science. By using of Ian Barbour’s theory, that is of four possibilities as science meets religion: conflict, independence, dialogue, and integration, this article delves into Nursi’s thought on his attempt to integrate science and Islam. In line with Barbour’s theory, his first step is to get rid of philosophy of materialism since the philosophy is to impass processes of the integration. His second step is to make his own understanding on the universe through Islamic perspective and in light with the Qur’an in which he differs between ismi and harfi. Ismi is the empirical existence, while harfi is human understanding of nature which begin with a self-perception constantly aware of its contingency and dependence on God. He also emphasizes on science as a prescription for developing new civilization in Muslim communities in compete to the advanced modernity of European countries. Being a Muslim thinker of twentieth century his thought is of no different to other thinkers of the time which put the Qur’an in the center of Islamic revivalism. So did Nursi. His thought is that the Qur’an is in the very heart of the prescription which lead him to compile his magnum opus Risale-i Nur.

For the first time, Muslims are faced with a worldwide positivism which is working to use knowledge, the sciences ‎and their discoveries and achievements in a manner which severs the relationship between the Creator, the created ‎universe and man, thereby disregarding the world of the unseen and driving a wedge between science and values.‎
Lacking even the most modest store of vital Islamic doctrine on the intellectual level, university students and ‎researchers in the Islamic world are confronted with doctrines and philosophies which are presented to them ‎together with a flimsy, miserable defense of Islam. There is not a single academic institution in the Islamic world in ‎which Islamic thought is taught and in which the Islamic vision is given a deep-rooted foundation with the same ‎force and persuasiveness with which Western ideas and the Western vision are taught to students in the West, in a ‎coherent, comprehensive manner accompanied by seriousness and commitment on the part of all. The books argues ‎that this approach is diametrically opposed to the Islamic perspective and that we must disengage human scientific ‎achievement from positivistic philosophical premises and reemploy these sciences within a systematic ‎epistemological framework based on divine revelation, conferring honor upon all forms of knowledge, as having ‎been bestowed upon man by their Creator.‎

Autor pokušava u obrisima prikazati tijesnu isprepletenost vjere i (spo)zna(va)nja, spregnutost znanja i odnosa prema Bogu, zatim suzdržavanje od grijehâ i strastî da bi se došlo do ispravnog vjerujućeg znanja, pritom imajući u vidu da spoznavanje nije odsječeno od Objave, to jeste Objavitelja – Izvora znanja. Također, prikazuju se primjeri na praktičnom nivou koji se tiču naročitog pristupa spoznavanju. Između redaka se pomalja zaključak kako vjer(ov)a(nje) ne smije voditi intelektualnoj lijenosti u kojoj će se vjernici osjećati sigurni ne bivajući angažirani u pravom i korisnom smjeru. Sigurna vjera je nezamisliva bez znanja, kao što je ispravno znanje nezamislivo bez vjere. Ovo ne samo da pripisuje znanju vjersku ulogu, već i drži da su vjerske dužnosti prožete spoznajnom vrijednošću.

Veći dio ove knjige razvija implikacije o razlici između dva načina spoznavanja koji su temeljni za velike religije pod različitom nomenklaturom, iako se obično ignoriraju u raspravama o savremenim pitanjima. Islamski izvori govore o tome na razne načine. Ovdje se usredsređujem na standardnu diferencijaciju načinjenu između prenesenog – ‘naqlī’ i intelektualnog – ‘‘aqlī’. Odlika prenesenog znanja je da se prenosi s generacije na generaciju. Jedini mogući način da se nauči jeste stjecanjem od nekog drugog. Nasuprot tome, intelektualno znanje se ne može prenijeti, ali su potrebni učitelji za napućivanje u pravom smjeru. Način da se ono postigne jeste naći ga u sebi usavršavanjem uma ili, kako mnogi tekstovi govore, “glačanjem srca”. Bez raskrivanja takvog znanja kroz samootkrivanje bit ćemo ovisni o drugima u svemu što znamo.