Marine Conservation

This dissertation examines multiple scales of Indigenous history on the Northwest Coast from the disciplinary perspective of archaeology. I focus on cultural lifeways archaeologically represented in two key domains of human existence: food and settlement. The dissertation consists of six individual case studies that demonstrate the utility of applying multiple spatial and temporal scales to refine archaeological understanding of cultural and historical variability on the Northwest Coast over the Mid-to-Late Holocene (ca. 5,000-200 BP). The first of three regionally scaled analyses presents a coast-wide examination of fisheries data indicating that Pacific herring (Clupea pallasii) exhibit a pervasive and previously under-recognized importance in Northwest Coast Indigenous subsistence practices. Next, I use zooarchaeological data from the southern British Columbia coast to identify a pattern of regional coherence in Coast Salish and Nuu-chah-nulth hunting traditions reflecting the scale of intergenerational cultural practice. The third study re-calibrates the settlement history of a small and historically significant locality in Coast Tsimshian territory (Prince Rupert Harbour) to clarify the temporal resolution of existing radiocarbon datasets and test inferences about social and political change. Following this regional exploration of scale, I document site-specific temporal variability in archaeological fisheries data from a Nuu-chah-nulth ‘big-house’ reflecting climatic and socio-economic change. I examine Indigenous oral histories and archaeological datasets to evaluate these parallel records of settlement in the neighbouring territory of an autonomous Nuu-chah-nulth polity before and during the occupation of a large defensive fortress. Finally, I demonstrate how everyday foodways are archaeologically expressed and reflect ecological differences and active management strategies within several spatially associated sites over millennial timescales. These linked case studies offer new clarity into long-standing debates concerning archaeologically relevant scales of cultural-historical variability on the NWC. They collectively demonstrate an enduring regional and temporal coherence for key aspects of Indigenous resource use and settlement and a historical dynamism at finer scales. I argue this has cultural, historical, and archaeological significance as well as relevance for contemporary understandings of the Northwest Coast environment. I conclude that a focus on the pervasive aspects of the everyday over millennia offers insight into individual actions across broader patterns of history.

The status of sea-floors is increasingly being recognized as a pertinent factor of healthy marine ecosystems and intact coastlines. Globally and at fast pace sea-floors are subjected to multiple marine and land-based stressors and altered by a significant expansion of activities. In this submission we argue that existing international and national management policies and laws governing sea-floor activities do not yet allow for a sustainable exploitation of marine resources, particularly with a view to rational coastline management. Briefly outlining the scale and the environmental impacts of current sea-floor activities as well as existing and emerging regimes governing them, we conclude that sea-floor management has to be understood as an integral part of the larger effort to effectively and sustainably handle human activities in the marine environment. Based on our inquiry, we propose some core elements of a possible future sea-floor management regime that would allow for a more sustainable exploitation of marine resources.

The trophic position and the predator–prey relationship between the sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus and the jumbo squid Dosidicus gigas were examined by measuring stable isotope ratios of carbon and nitrogen. Skin samples of sperm whales and muscle samples of small and large jumbo squid were collected between 1996 and 1999 in the Gulf of California. Gender determination through molecular analysis and field identification of size were used to identify adult male, female and immature male sperm whales. The stable isotope ratios of C and N of females and immature males were significantly different from those of adult male sperm whales; however, between females and immature males they did not differ significantly. The δ13C and δ15N values of females and immature males were higher than large jumbo squid by 1.1‰ and 2.7‰ respectively, suggesting a predator–prey relationship between them. A low isotopic interannual variation among the years 1997 to 1999 was observed in the isotopic sign...

The bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) of Dusky Sound, Fiordland, New Zealand are a little‐studied group at the southern limit of the species range. Conducting a photo‐identification census and capture‐recapture analyses, we estimated there were 102 (CV = 0.9%) bottlenose dolphins in Dusky Sound during summer 2007/08, the first abundance estimate for this population. We did not encounter individuals from Doubtful Sound in Dusky Sound, suggesting little or no interchange between these neighbouring populations. Using a sex‐prediction model derived from laser‐metric photographs of dolphins in Doubtful Sound, we predicted the sexes of 79 individuals (98–99% of adults and sub‐adults) in Dusky Sound. Our predictions provided a sex ratio of 35 males to 44 females, not significantly different to a 1:1 ratio (G = 1.02, P > 0.05). High resighting rates of individual dolphins suggest the population may be resident, with dolphins observed throughout the entire fiord system.

Urban vegetation, particularly trees provides a wide spectrum of ecosystem services which include upgradation of air quality, stabilizing
temperature, reduction in ultraviolet radiation, oxygen generation, carbon sequestration, habitat of several flora and fauna (enhancement of
biodiversity) aesthetic beauty etc. Oxygen production is one of the most commonly cited benefits of urban trees. The purpose of this article is
to estimate the oxygen production by the dominant trees in the urban area of Konnagar, compare it with the estimated oxygen consumption by
the population of the area and illustrate why oxygen production by urban trees is an important ecosystem service

Numerous globally abundant species are exposed to human impacts that threaten the viability of regional populations. Assessing and characterising the risks faced by these populations can have significant implications for biodiversity conservation, given the ecological importance of many such species. To address these risks, the IUCN is starting to conduct assessments of regional populations in addition to species-level assessments of conservation status. Here, we demonstrate a threat assessment process that is robust to uncertainty, applying the IUCN criteria to a regional population of bottlenose dolphins in Fiordland, New Zealand. We compiled available population-specific information to assess the population under the five Red List criteria. We estimated there were 205 Fiordland bottlenose dolphins (CV = 3.5%), using current estimates of abundance for two sub-populations and stochastic modelling of an earlier estimate for the third sub-population. Population trajectory and extinction risk were assessed using stochastic age-structured Leslie matrix population models. The majority of model runs met the criteria for classification as critically endangered (C1: 67.6% of runs) given the number of mature individuals (123; CV = 6.7%) and the predicted rate of population decline (average decline: 31.4% over one generation). The evidence of isolation of the population confirms this was an appropriate regional classification. This approach provided an assessment that was robust to uncertainty.

The Antillean manatee (Trichechus manatus manatus) is considered endangered in Mexico. Local extinctions have been documented in the northern Gulf of Mexico, and the only remaining population with a northern distribution is found in the Alvarado Lagoon System (ALS). The objective of this study was to determine manatee distribution in ALS. The system covers an area of 267,010 ha and includes hundreds of lagoons, floodable areas, and dozens of rivers. To detect manatees, systematic line transects were done in a boat 7.6 m in length, totaling 332.6 h of search effort with an average of 7.38 h d–1 in 45 surveys. There was a total of 13 manatee sightings: seven direct sightings, five with hydrophones, and one with a side-scan sonar. For each record the geographical coordinates were taken and integrated in a geographical information system to analyze their distribution. Manatee distribution was not uniform throughout the study area. Manatees were sighted in very specific areas of ALS cons...

This chapter considers opportunities for Arctic states to manage and conserve biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction in the High Arctic and reviews the positions of China and the EU in relation to such potential frameworks.

As the Arctic Ocean coastal states have adopted in 2014 significant steps towards the management of High Arctic marine living resources, the role of third states with regards to these development needs to be considered. Indeed, the international legal regime applicable to the High Seas provides very limited prerogatives for coastal states to restrain the rights of third states for the sake of marine conservation.

The chapter first introduces the global legal regime applicable to biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction as well as relevant ongoing processes meant to further define this regulatory framework. The initiatives undertaken by the Arctic states to protect the Arctic marine environment are then reviewed. The chapter concludes by considering the positions on this issue of two major non-Arctic actors having expressed strong interest in the region: China and the European Union.

This study highlights that China and EU are likely to have different positions on the conservation of marine biodiversity in the High Arctic. The Arctic states will thus need to accommodate the diverging perspectives of non-Arctic states if they decide to establish a regional arrangement to conserve high seas living resources in the Arctic.

Following the development of urban and industrial centres petrochemical products have become a widespread class of contaminants. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of petrochemical contamination in wild populations of mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) along the NW Atlantic coast of Portugal by applying antioxidant and energetic metabolism parameters as biomarkers. For that, mussels were collected at five sampling sites presenting different petrochemical contamination levels. To evaluate the mussels’ antioxidant status, enzymatic activities of catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase, glutathione S-transferases, as well as glutathione redox status were evaluated in gills and digestive glands of mussels collected from the selected sites. Lipid peroxidation was determined in the same tissues to quantify cellular oxidative damage. Furthermore, to investigate how energetic processes may respond to these contaminants, the activity of NADP+-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase was determined in mussels’ digestive glands, and octopine dehydrogenase was determined in mussels’ posterior adductor muscle. Furthermore, the concentrations of aliphatic hydrocarbons, unresolved complex mixture and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were quantified in mussels’ tissue, and abiotic parameters were quantified in water samples collected at each site. Several biomarkers showed statistically significant differences among sampling sites. The redundancy analysis (RDA) used to perform the integrated analysis of the data showed a clear separation of the sampling sites in three different assemblages, which are in agreement with the PAHs levels found in mussels tissues. In addition, the RDA indicated that some of the selected biomarkers may be influenced by abiotic parameters (e.g. salinity, pH, nitrates and ammonia). The approach selected for this study seems to be suitable for monitoring petrochemical contamination.

1. Every manager must assess and prioritize anthropogenic impacts to their management area from a long list of threats, but data which allow comparison of the relative ecological impacts of threats for decision-making is often unavailable.
2. This study employed a systematic and standardized method to collect and quantitatively synthesize expert opinion on the ecological effects of anthropogenic threats to the world’s largest marine protected area: the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (MNM) in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI).
3. In contrast to most threat ranking exercises, the method provides detail on the reasons behind a particular ranking of threats to an ecozone and why the ranking may vary across the ecological landscape.
4. Survey results from 25 experts allowed the comparison of the vulnerability of eight NWHI ecozones to 24 anthropogenic threats in a quantitative manner.
5. Ecozones tended to have distinct top threats: sea level rise was identified as the top threat to rocky intertidal, beach and terrestrial ecozones; sea temperature rise was the top threat to the coral reef ecozones; bottom fishing was the top threat to the deep reef/bank ecozone; and pelagic fishing in the wider Pacific was the top threat to the pelagic ecozone due to impacts on bird, turtle and fish fauna that forage outside the Papahānaumokuākea MNM boundaries.
6. Many of these top threats are difficult for local managers to control because they arise from activities outside the Papahānaumokuākea MNM boundaries, indicating additional work is needed to preserve the NWHI despite its highly protected status. The analysis indicates where inter-agency cooperation in removing and mitigating threats should be focused.

1. Detailed research into the ecological impacts of inter-basin water transfers (IBTs) is virtually nonexistent on a global scale. However, a growing awareness of the serious nature of such impacts—for example, the loss of biogeographical integrity, the loss of endemic biotas, the frequent introduction of alien and often invasive aquatic and terrestrial plants and animals, the genetic intermixing of once separated populations, the implications for water quality, the frequently drastic alteration of hydrological regimes, the implications for marine and estuarine processes, climatic effects, and the spread of disease vectors, amongst many others—demands a most urgent and world-wide appraisal of all current planning and research strategies.2. This paper first defines the types of extant IBTs, and details some case studies for three widely separated regions of the world, namely: south-eastern Australia, southern Africa, and the central and south-western parts of the United States of America. In doing so, it highlights the chronic paucity of ecological data on their impacts, while simultaneously emphasising their extreme complexities.3. Finally, we call for an international meeting on such schemes, as a matter of priority and extreme urgency, in order to assess the extent of IBTs, their geographical distribution, and their ecological and sociological impacts and implications.

Seascape Ecology provides a comprehensive look at the state-of-the-science in the application of landscape ecology to the seas and provides guidance for future research priorities. The first book devoted exclusively to this rapidly emerging and increasingly important discipline, it is comprised of contributions from researchers at the forefront of seascape ecology working around the world. It presents the principles, concepts, methodology, and techniques informing seascape ecology and reports on the latest developments in the application of the approach to marine ecology and management.
A growing number of marine scientists, geographers, and marine managers are asking questions about the marine environment that are best addressed with a landscape ecology perspective. Seascape Ecology represents the first serious effort to fill the gap in the literature on the subject. Key topics and features of interest include:
 The origins and history of seascape ecology and various approaches to spatial patterning in the sea
 The links between seascape patterns and ecological processes, with special attention paid to the roles played by seagrasses and salt marshes and animal movements through seascapes
 Human influences on seascape ecology—includes models for assessing human-seascape interactions
 A special epilogue in which three eminent scientists who have been instrumental in shaping the course of landscape ecology offer their insights and perspectives
Seascape Ecology is a must-read for researchers and professionals in an array of disciplines, including marine biology, environmental science, marine management, and environmental protection. It is also an excellent supplementary text for university courses in those fields.

The ocean is a vast series of diverse yet interconnected ecosystems.  Ocean waters cover the majority of the planet and are home to countless varieties of life.  The volume of living space provided by the seas is 168 times greater than that of land-based habitats; 90 percent of earth’s living biomass is in the sea (Clark 2006). Despite this opulence, ocean life is in peril, but unlike other threatened ecosystems, the impending oceanic crisis is largely unseen and largely unmentioned even among environmentalists.  While animal advocates and environmentalists rally on behalf of dolphins, seals, and whales, neither group seems too worried about Chinook salmon or Atlantic halibut—but they ought to be.

The mangrove forest in four sampling sites in Ormoc Bay, namely; Benabaye, Calunagan, Puerto Bello and Tahusan Islet, was reassessed ten years after the implementation of the Fisheries Sector Program. The density ha-1 and the species diversity decreased by 50% or more; in addition, the basal areas were greatly reduced indicating that there was excessive harvesting of large mangrove trees since 1992. More than 50% of the different mangrove genera exhibited high regenerative capacities. Avicennia and Rhizophora have high regenerative capacities in all sampling sites; in contrast the regenerative capacities of Nypa and Sonneratia in four, of Ceprios in three and of Aegiceras and Bruguiera in two sampling sites were way below 50%. The mangroves in all sampling sites do not exhibit a distinct species zonation pattern; almost all the species overlap with each other.

The mangrove forest is highly utilized by the local communities. People gather different mangrove species and a variety of edible invertebrates both for household consumption and for economic gains by selling them to the market. The resource, however, is seriously threatened by human-induced stresses, such as, over-exploitation, conversion of mangrove areas to fishponds, and soil erosion due to the denuded forest cover in the uplands. Recommendations to prevent further degradation of the mangrove resource are given.

This report provides an overview as to scale, sources, and negative impacts of marine plastic pollution, with a particular focus on marine plastic pollution resulting from the increased use of personal protective equipment (PPE) resulting from COVID-19. The number of masks entering the environment on a monthly basis as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic is
staggering. From a global production projection of 52 billion masks for 2020, we estimate that 1.56 billion masks will enter our oceans in 2020, amounting to between 4,680 and 6,240 metric tonnes of plastic pollution. These masks will take as long as 450 years to break down and all the while serve as a source of micro plastic and negatively impact marine wildlife and ecosystems.

Diatoms play a central role in biofouling by attracting microscopic reproductive propagules of macroorganisms.
This study reports on the seasonal variation of fouling diatoms in waters of the South
Andaman Sea and evaluation of their inhibition by spinal extracts of the sea urchin Diadema setosum on
glass slides. Pennate diatoms were more abundant than centric diatoms in the fouling film. The genera
Navicula and Amphora were dominant throughout the study. Apart from that, an abundance of the genera
Cocconeis and Thalassiosira was observed during the pre-monsoon period; Nitzschia was abundant during
the monsoon period and Achnanthes and Thalassiosira during the post-monsoon period. Two separate
fractions were extracted from the spines using ethanol and distilled water as solvents. The ethanol
extract fraction showed inhibition against eight major fouling diatoms. The ethanol extract exhibited
a higher inhibitory effect than the aqueous extract against biofilm formation, confirming that the organic
fraction has microfouling inhibitory compounds.

Documento de evaluación y determinación del ámbito geográfico de la zona marino costera de Piura para su gestión. Piura se encuentran en el Norte de Perú. La franja costera de Piura se extiende a lo largo de casi 400 Km (entre los 4°08’ –
6°38’), donde se asientan importantes ciudades, balnearios turísticos, puertos y caletas de pescadores. Frente a sus costas, se unen la corriente de aguas frías de la Corriente Peruana o "Humboldt", con la de aguas calientes conocida como Corriente Ecuatorial del Sur o "del Niño". Esta transición ocasiona que la
diversidad biológica frente a Piura sea muy alta, considerada la más importante del país.

The Blue Economy (BE) is a resonant theme among Bay of Bengal states. Despite recent efforts by governments in the region to promote blue growth, however, there is yet no comprehensive, region-wide agenda for marine governance. This brief looks at ways in which Bay states can harmonise their BE approaches to develop an integrated strategy. By collectively investing in technology, innovation, and governance systems, the governments of these littoral states can find the balance between the need for environmental sustainability and development imperatives.