Sport sponsorship

Competitive cycling has always been particularly popular in the Benelux, France and Italy, but has spread first continetally and then globally in recent decades. But how global is actually competitive cycling today? In this article we analyze the globalization of road cycling for men. 
 
Wielrennen is van oudsher vooral populair in de Benelux, Frankrijk en Italië. Vanuit deze landen verspreidde de wielersport zich over de wereld. Maar hoe mondiaal is de wielersport vandaag de dag eigenlijk? In dit artikel analyseren wij de mondialisering van het wegwielrennen voor mannen.

Purpose – The purpose of this study is to single out the key variables in the sport sponsorship relationship, and more specifically to examine the impact of Team Achievement, Sponsor Recognition and Sponsor Altruism on two major behavioural outcomes, fans’ purchase intention and word of mouth communication. Design/methodology/approach – A quantitative method was adopted for the scope of this research and questionnaires were collected from fans of a prominent Greek basketball team. A total of 801 questionnaires were collected and interpreted by means of SPSS. Findings – The proposed model was supported by the empirical evidence. All (with the exception of one) research hypotheses were confirmed, either fully or partially (all or some of the distinct dimensions of our independent variables have a significant effect on all or some of the distinct dimensions of the dependent variables). Research limitations/implications –The sample used was predominantly individuals highly involved in t...

Zgodnie z przyjętą przez Autorów koncepcją, struktura monografii przedstawia się następująco. Monografia składa się z pięciu rozdziałów .
W pierwszym rozdziale opisano płaszczyzny funkcjonowania rynku sportu odnosząc się do kwestii polityczno – prawnych, ekonomicznych, społecznych i technologicznych.
Rozdział drugi stanowi o rynku sportu w Polsce, jego rozwoju i kształcie. Omówiono aspekt biznesowy w ujęciu sportu profesjonalnego rynku sportu w odniesieniu do najważniejszych podmiotów - interesariuszy rynku sportu.
W rozdziale trzecim Autorzy koncentrują się na sponsoringu sportowym, przedstawiają zarówno tradycyjne, jak i nowe ujęcie sponsoringu. Choć samo narzędzie szczególnie na rynkach zachodnim oraz amerykańskim jest stosowane powszechnie już od ponad półwiecza, to jednak w Polsce prawdziwy jego początek przypada na lata dziewięćdziesiąte ubiegłego stulecia , a rozwój to dopiero początek obecnego stulecia. Poza opisaniem istoty sponsoringu sportowego  zostały opisane jego cele, strategia działań, najważniejsi interesariusze, prawa w sponsoringu, jego komunikacja oraz sposoby oceny działań. Sponsoring sportowy został w tej części publikacji opisany od strony jego celów. 
Czwarty rozdział poświęcony jest źródłom finansowania sportu w Polsce oraz wartości rynku sponsoringowego. Uwzględniono to zarówno sposoby finansowania związków sportowych, jak i wsparcie rynku przez Spółki Skarbu Państwa. Choć sposobów finansowania sportu jest wiele, to jednak praktycznie wszyscy zgadzają się, że sport polski jest niedofinansowany.
Ostatni rozdział przedstawia perspektywę funkcjonowania rynku sponsoringu sportowego w Polsce. W dużej mierze zmiany determinowana są tym co dzieje się na innych bardziej rozwiniętych rynkach. Do najważniejszych zaliczają się tu zmiany technologiczne, szczególnie w zakresie percepcji mediów. Na to nakładają się zmiany pokoleniowe i inna konsumpcja zarówno mediów, jak i samego sportu. Coraz większe znaczenie kobiet dla sportu  jest również wyzwaniem zarówno dla organizatorów imprez sportowych, jak i sponsorów oraz reklamodawców działających na tym rynku. Sam sport zmienia się nabierając cech sportowej rozrywki, która wkracza już nie tylko do niszowych dyscyplin ,ale jest elementem najważniejszych rozgrywek, dyscyplin czy wydarzeń sportowych. 


ENGLISH VERSION

According to the concept adopted by the authors, the structure of monographs is as follows. The monograph consists of five chapters.
The first chapter describes the functioning of the sports market by referring to political and legal, economic, social and technological issues.
The second chapter determines the sports market in Poland, its development and shape. The business aspect of the professional sport of the sports market is discussed in relation to the most important entities - stakeholders of the sports market.
In the third chapter, the authors focus on sport sponsoring, presenting both traditional and new approaches to sponsoring. Although the tool itself, especially on the Western and American markets, has been widely used for over half a century, its real beginning in Poland dates back to the nineties of the last century, and its development is only the beginning of the present century. Apart from describing the essence of sports sponsoring, its objectives, strategy, key stakeholders, rights in sponsoring, its communication and methods of evaluation of activities are described. In this part of the publication, sports sponsorship is described from the point of view of its objectives. 
The fourth chapter is devoted to the sources of financing for sport in Poland and the value of the sponsoring market. This includes both the methods of financing sports unions and market support by State Treasury companies. Although there are many ways of financing sport, practically everyone agrees that Polish sport is underfunded.
The last chapter presents the perspective of the functioning of the sports sponsoring market in Poland. To a large extent, the changes are determined by what is happening on other more developed markets. The most important are technological changes, especially in the field of media perception. This is superimposed on generational changes and different consumption of both the media and sport itself. The growing importance of women for sport is also a challenge for both sports event organisers, as well as sponsors and advertisers operating on this market. Sport itself is changing, acquiring the features of sports entertainment, which enters not only into niche disciplines, but is also an element of the most important competitions, disciplines or sporting events.

Sport is a lucrative and universal form of popular culture, transcending international and social boundaries (Andrews & Jackson, 2001) providing sports men and women with increasingly lucrative financial opportunities through involvement in sponsorship and endorsement deals (Colapinto & Benecchi, 2014). Whilst sport celebrities have long been used in marketing communication and sponsorship campaigns to increase levels of consumer interest and attention (Gupta 2009; McCracken 1989; Van der Veen & Song, 2001), what is not well researched, is the role that electronic word-of-mouth communications plays in the transmission of potentially negative effects on consumer attitudes towards the sport celebrity brand image when a transgression occurs. Not only does electronic word-of-mouth communication make the transmission of a transgression immediate and widely disseminated, it also provides numerous opportunities for celebrities themselves to share information about themselves and their lives sometimes resulting in a " too much " , " too soon " and " too often " nexus. With the removal of a social privacy filter common with many of the younger generation, this TMI (too much information) state or increased self-disclosure (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010) makes managing the brand image of sport celebrities by their managers and their sponsors an increasingly difficult problem. Research conducted in the sponsorship and celebrity brand image literature to date has largely been situated in the context of traditional media. This is in contrast to the experiences of modern sport and brand marketers who have to contend with rapidly expanding digital technologies and electronic communications. These transformative technologies have changed the relationships between sport consumers and sports people; and they have even impacted sport cultures. New media, social networks and electronic word-of-mouth communications have resulted in more intimate, more immediate, more scalable but less controllable interactions in the sport fan arena (Cheung & Thadani, 2012; Colapinto & Benecchi, 2014). Social networking sites alone have significantly transformed the ways people interact with their peers, with companies and with celebrities with an open, 'many-to-many', global communication style being practiced (Chu & Choi, 2011; Colapinto & Benecchi, 2014). This communication style has particularly impacted the strategic implementation of celebrity endorsements due to the heightened sense of perceived intimacy it allows.

Publisher: 2016 Global Marketing Conference at Hong Kong held at Conrad Hong Kong, Hong Kong July 21st-24th, 2016.

SOMMARIO 1. I contratti commerciali di comunicazione e sfruttamento dell'immagine: sponsorizzazio-ne e pubblicità. Inquadramento generale.-1.1. I contratti di pubblicità.-1.2. Sponsorizza-zione e diritto all'immagine.-1.3. Sponsorizzazione e contratti di pubblicità a confronto.-1.4. Sponsorizzazione e figure affini.-1.5. I contratti di sponsorizzazione sportiva: i di-versi modelli contrattuali.-1.6. La disciplina e gli elementi tipici dei contratti di sponso-rizzazione sportiva.-1.7. Le clausole più ricorrenti nella prassi: clausola di esclusiva, dirit-to di prelazione e la previa approvazione delle campagne marketing dello sponsor.-1.8. (Segue) Il problema delle morality clauses.-1.9. La risoluzione per inadempimento. Clau-sola risolutiva espressa e clausola penale.-1.10. La responsabilità dello sponsor.-2. Il merchandising.-2.1. Inquadramento e natura giuridica.-2.2. La disciplina e gli elementi tipici dei contratti di merchandising.-2.3. Il merchandising in ambito sportivo.-2.4. Il merchandising e figure affini: il licensing.

There is strong evidence that athletes have approached the improvement of their performance with intelligence and creativity from the very beginnings of formal competition. This has involved the evolution of training methods, the development of equipment and experimentation with diet. However, the introduction of significant prizes in events such as the ancient Olympics quickly corrupted the noble goals of seeking athletic perfection for itself or as a tribute to the Gods. Certainly in the ancient Olympic Games competitors used a variety of herbs and funguses as stimulants and hallucinogenics. Philostratus, a 3rd-2nd Century BC sophist, reveals that doctors helped athletes prepare for their events at Olympia and advised cooks in the preparation of concoctions containing such ingredients as the juice of the opium poppy to deaden pain. However evidence is hard to come by as they carefully hid their efforts from the Hellanodikai, the judges, as athletes continue to do (König, 2008; Papagelopoulos, Mavrogenis, and Soucacos, 2004). It is possible that the English word ‘doping’ originates in the Dutch word dop, a viscous opium juice, probably similar to that used by the ancient Greeks (Bowers, 1998).

Grassroot organizations are largely dependent on sponsorship, often derived from the local communities and companies (Appendices, ‘Interview with Leif Gjørtz Christensen’). However, the challenge of attracting corporate sponsorships is a common problem for most commercially limited sports clubs in Denmark as sponsorships are crucial financially for the survival of many of these (Appendices, ‘Summaries of Intake Interviews’). As a basis for this paper we agreed to cooperate with local football club VSK Aarhus. The club wishes to appear more interesting and expressed a need to improve their ability to generate revenue, especially from sponsors (Appendices, ‘Interview with Michael Lynge and Karl Ove Pedersen’).
The purpose of this paper is to analyze and discuss the motives and benefits from sponsorship, and sports sponsorship in particular, amounting to a strategic communication plan for VSK Aarhus. Thus, answering the research question:
• How can VSK Aarhus best appeal to sponsors utilizing a communicative approach?
With the following sub-questions in mind:
• What do sponsors look for in a sponsorship?
• Why do companies engage particularly in sports sponsorship?
• How can prospective sponsors most effectively be approached?
The literature review consists of theories within communication theory and communication planning, the concept of marketing communications and sponsorship, and the notion of sponsorships particularly within sports. Accordingly, Vos, Otte & Linders (2003) and Windahl & Igniter (2009) supplied the theoretical framework on setting up a communication plan, while Windahl & Signitzer (2009) and Littlejohn & Foss (2011) provided the theoretical background regarding communication theories. These areas were supported by a marketing perspective on communication by including Verhage’s (2014) and Fill’s (2013) notions on marketing communications and sponsorship compared to other studies on the subjects. Lastly, sports sponsorship was conceptualized by looking at the thoughts of a number of scholars who had investigated the field.
Regarding research methods, the philosophy of science that steers this paper is structural Interpretivism. Meaning the production of knowledge is developed from individual perspectives on the social world while acknowledging the basic structures constituting it (Kuada, 2014, p. 79). Thus, to answer the research question and sub questions, a qualitative study based on five individual semi-structured interviews was conducted (Daymon & Holloway, 2011, pp. 220-228). The data collection was then analyzed with the principles of Braun
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Anders Pardi Nielsen Aarhus University Spring 2017 David Stylsvig Madsen BA MMC 6th semester
& Clarke’s (2006, p. 79) thematic analysis to identify, analyze and report themes through a process of codifying and categorizing it. The analysis consisted of several codes that was merged into categories from which themes subsequently emerged.
In the analysis, significant themes revealed in the analysis are; strategy, returns, and strategy. In terms of the theme strategy, the respondents generally regarded local engagement and affiliation, placement, and presence to be salient elements within a sponsorship although the companies differed with regard to choosing sponsorships as some relied on their gut feeling while others had a standardized approach. Regarding the theme returns, the interviewees considered increased exposure, recognizability, visibility, sales, and goodwill amongst other features as reasons for why they engage in sponsorships. Finally, relations emerged as a significant theme in the data where the facilitation of networks, activation of sponsorships, and passion was essential in consideration to the choice of organization to sponsor.
The discussion is rooted in the paper’s three sub-questions and explores the theoretical and practical implications of this paper. Firstly, it revolved around the essentials of attracting sponsors regarding what companies look for in a sponsorship. Secondly, the implications of engaging in sports sponsorship was considered while distinguishing between elite and grassroot sports. Thirdly, the notions on strategically approaching prospective sponsors was considered comparing the derived implications. Ultimately, the discussion was founded on insights gained from comparing the analysis and reviewed literature.
In conclusion, and as derived from the previous sections, VSK Aarhus should incorporate the essential elements considered by prospective sponsors in their communication strategy such as exposure, relations, sales and goodwill to name a few. Furthermore, sports were considered to have a wide appeal in terms of segmentation for prospective sponsors and should, therefore, be considered in relation to a message strategy for the club. Finally, a sponsorship proposal was often seen as a business inquiry by the prospective sponsors and should, therefore, contain the most important information regarding potential sponsorship returns and instruction for sponsor activation in a well-arranged manner. The suggested solutions and practical implications can be found in the communication plan (Appendices, ‘Communication Plan’).

The business model of motorsports has evolved to prominently feature corporate sponsorship as a B2B exchange mechanism in both the supply and marketing channels. As a result, racing series managers and teams are often simultaneously positioned as a buyer and seller in relation to their corporate sponsors. The sustainability of this business model rests with the propensity for motorsports organizations to consistently deliver value to both B2C and B2B firms and minimize potential role conflicts. This research highlights how actors in Formula One and NASCAR serve as channel facilitators to connect buyers and sellers within the motorsports sponsorship network.

Modern anlamda sponsorluk uygulamalarının, 19. yy sonlarında ve 20 yy baslarında ortaya çıktığı görülmektedir. 1896 ve 1928 Olimpiyat Oyunları, 1861 Avustralya turu, 1898 İngiltere Nottingham Forest futbol takımına (40, 49) yapılan sponsorluklarla başladığı ifade edilmektedir (Çotuk, 2007).
Geniş kitleleri etkisi altına alıp kendini kabul ettiren spor faaliyetleri, zaten
amacı kendini geniş kitlelere tanıtmak olan firmaların desteğini kazanmış, spor sponsorluğu faaliyeti yaygınlaşmaya ve tanınmaya başlamıştır. Büyük kitlelere ulaşabilmek, marka adını uzun soluklu duyurabilmek, marka imajını genişletmek vb. nedenlerle spor sponsorluğu firmaların vazgeçilmez unsuru olmaktadır. Bu amaçla firmalar, yerel, ulusal ya da uluslararası bir organizasyonu, kulübü, grubu, sporcuyu ya da bir televizyon programını, maddi, malzeme ya da farklı hizmet türleri ile desteklemektedirler. Aynı zamanda desteğin kitle iletişim araçlarında yer alması, marka adının daha fazla duyulması, görünmesi ve tanınırlığın artmasına neden olmaktadır.(Çotuk, 2007).
Spor sponsorluğu ve alt türleri araştırmamızın temelini oluşturduğundan, bu konu aşağıda detaylı olarak işlenmektedir.

Accessing and exploiting organizational resources are essential capabilities for competitive sport organizations, particularly those engaged in motorsports, where teams lacking resources frequently dissolve. Corporate sponsorship represents a common method for resource acquisition. Yet, not all sponsorships equally benefit the sponsored organization. Sponsorship utility can be dependent on institutional dynamics such as league governance that produces competitive disparities. Through this study we extend the resource-based view to assert that sponsorships vary in their propensity to contribute to team survival, warranting prioritization in sponsorship strategy based on access to different sponsor resources. To empirically investigate the influence of a variety of sponsorships, survival analysis modeling was utilized to examine 40 years of corporate sponsorship of F1 racing teams. One finding from the longitudinal analysis was that sponsorships offering financial or performance-based resources enhance team survival to a greater degree than operational sponsorships. However, such prioritization is subject to team experience, changes in institutional monetary allocation, and diminishing returns.

There is an unprecedented growth of sponsorship spending in many international marketing budgets and it is thus expected from sponsorship to bring some tangible and measurable branding results. Undoubtedly event sponsorship has an enormous influence on building brand exposure and driving brand imagery. The objective of this article is to build a conceptual framework (based on the most recent empirical studies from foreign literature) that examines the influence of brand-event fit on sponsorship effects, including brand identification (brand recall and brand recognition), brand attitude, and brand image. This article also points to the most noteworthy inconsistencies in research methodologies and to those fields that require empirical examination and further comparisons.

The aim of this study is to explore the relationship between McDonald’s and its sponsorship of The Olympics by testing how the consumer has been influenced.

H1 = Attributes associated with sporting events are transferred to sponsoring brands.

H2 = Brand image is transferred from the event to the sponsoring brand, not from the sponsoring brand to the event.

The hypotheses this study aimed to research are drawn from the research done by Gwinner, K. & Eaton, J. (1999); ‘Event sponsorship as a value creating strategy for brands’ and also Donahay, B. & Rosenberger, P, (2007); ‘Effectiveness of Image Transfer in Formula One Racing’. The study explores the image transfer process from The Olympic games to McDonald’s and whether the process can happen to the contrary though the sponsorship relationship.

The concluding findings were in favour of the hypotheses tested. Brand transfer does in fact occur from event to brand through the intervention of sponsorship. Further more the transfer can also be transferred from brand to event, as was found in the case of McDonald’s.  Negativity associated with the McDonald’s brand was found to be associated with The Olympic Games post sponsorship. However, certain restrictions to the parameters of the study have influenced validity greatly, regarding the overall significance of the data analysis.

The conclusions established should be of particular interest to corporations looking to streamline marketing communications strategies in the UK. Being of particular relevance for companies and corporations within the UK during and emerging from an economic downturn, as well as a platform for further study in the future.

Since its creation in 1903, the Tour de France has remained the biggest of all professional cycling events. This chapter aims to present three aspects of the economic history of the Tour de France and what they tell us about the economic history of sport. First, the Tour has always been owned by private newspaper and media companies. This is why I analyze the level and composition of these companies’ turnover, their business strategies and the reasons for their overall success. Second, Tour riders have always been professionals. This is why I analyze riders’ incomes and prize money and their distribution, which shows clear “winner-takes-all” aspects. Third, the demand for sport shows by Tour spectators reveals broad trends in Europe’s economic history since the early 20th century: the diffusion of bicycles, newspapers and mass consumption, the increase in leisure time, and the advent of the mass media.

Due to its beauty, since the first half of the 19th century that football makes millions of fans follow this show passionately, making it the most popular sport in the world nowadays (Sawe, 2018). After more than a hundred and fifty years, can be said that apart from the 22 players and the ball on the pitch, everything else had changed. Football nowadays is more than a simple sport, football means politics, social - but mainly - economic interests to society. The influence that this sport can create has made brands and companies from the most different industries and countries paying multimillionaire sponsorship contracts to ensure that these companies have some space for their logos on the football stadium, during the break time, or in some place of the team kit. The main objective of this dissertation is to (dis)prove that the shirt sponsorships values received by the football teams are only related to their sportive performance; if not, what are the variables that influence the income paid by the sponsors to the clubs.

It is our contention that the 2019 esports industry’s revenue size is massively undervalued at $1.1B USD within the literature. This paper provides a more accurate sizing of the esports landscape, incorporating into the analysis six major sectors of the esports industry: 1) teams, professional players, and streamers, 2) game publishers, 3) streaming platforms, 4) physical products, 5) leagues and tournaments, and 6) digital tools. Each sector is discussed separately, with descriptions of the business models and corresponding revenue equations that drive each sector’s revenue estimates. Overall, we purport that $24.9B USD is a more accurate estimation of the “true” market size of esports for 2019.

While the benefits sought by engaging in non-traditional marketing tactics such as sponsorship are well-documented, determining return-on-investment (ROI) remains an evolving science.  To advance ROI analysis in sponsorship, we utilize data on sponsorship prices and the televised exposure of sponsors in Formula One motor racing.  Results validate a strong link between sponsored team performance and both sponsors’ realized brand exposure and price paid.  Price is also influenced by sponsorship level, functional congruence, and at the lowest level of sponsorship, shared nationality.  Positive ROI is more likely for sponsors of better performing teams, sponsors that affiliate at a high level and sponsors outside the automotive industry.

The globalization of media content has encouraged the growth of cross-cultural promotional channels; yet empirical evaluations of advertising strategies at an international level are sparse. This paper advances research in this emerging area by analyzing the global financial markets’ valuation of commercial sponsorships in Formula One (F1) motor racing. While previous research indicates U.S. markets approve of similar promotional investments, the results of this international event study demonstrate the market value of firms entering into F1 sponsorships decline upon announcement. The level of investment and nationality congruence of the sponsorship appear to enhance the probability for negative returns in shareholder value.

Why did cycling become professional as early as the late nineteenth century, while other sports (such as rugby) and other sport events (such as the Olympic Games) remained amateur until the 1980s? Why are the organizers of the most important bicycle races private companies, while in other sports such as soccer the main event organizer is a nonprofit organization? To what extent have bicycle races changed since the late nineteenth century? And how does cycling reflect long-term economic changes? The history of professional road cycling helps answer these questions and understand many related phenomena. This chapter provides a long-term, historical perspective on (1) professional road cycling’s economic agents, i.e., the public, race organizers, team sponsors and riders, and the relationships amongst them; (2) cycling’s governing body, the International Cycling Union; and (3) professional cycling’s final product, i.e., the show of bicycle races. More precisely, the chapter mostly focuses on the history of male professional road cycling in Western Europe since the late nineteenth century. It is founded on both an analysis of quantitative time series on the Grand Tours (and, to some extent, the classics) and a review of the existing literature on the history of professional cycling, whether economic history, institutional history, cultural history, or sport history.

Sponsorship fit is frequently mentioned and empirically examined as a success factor of sponsorship. While sponsorship fit has been considered as a determinant of sponsorship success, little knowledge exists about the antecedents of sponsorship fit. The present paper attempts to close this gap in the sponsorship literature by assessing determinants and consequences of sponsorship fit. Results show that sponsorship fit is strongly related to attitudinal and intentional consequences. Sponsors can improve sponsorship fit by a clear communication of benefits and by demonstrating their regional identification. Additionally, sponsors that are perceived as sincere and to be engaged in other related sponsorships benefit from a more favourable perception of sponsorship fit.

Developing technology and the widespread use of the Internet have changed many habits in our daily lives. In this period, when daily work is done over the Internet, the number of users of social media platforms has increased, and traditional television broadcasting has begun to leave its place to internet television; live video streaming platforms have also started to attract attention. Especially during the pandemic period when people have to stay at home, the interest in online media has reached a great extent. It has attracted attention by increasing the number of viewers on Twitch Tv, one of the live video streaming platforms, and primarily broadcasts eSports. This increase in the number of viewers attracted the attention of brands, and they started to sponsor broadcasters on Twitch TV. Since it is a new and developing sector, no study has been conducted on the sectors in which the sponsoring brands operate in this field. This study was carried out to determine the areas of activity of the existing brands, provide information to the brands that will be sponsors in the future, and shed light on the subsequent studies. In this study, the channels of the 50 most-watched Turkish Broadcasters on Twitch TV were examined. In the examination, the videos on the media owned by the broadcasters were watched. The brands that took place as sponsors in these videos and the sponsor brands in the "about" section of the channel was determined. These identified brands are grouped according to their fields of activity. These grouped data provide Twitch Tv with information about which brands are sponsored. According to the data obtained, 0.84% of the sponsoring brands are Betting, 29.41% are Computer and Computer Components Sales, 1.68% Cloud Gaming Service, 1.68% eSports League, 2.52% Finance, % 0.84 Airline, 0.84% Online Shopping Site, 4.2% Online Food Order, 5.04% Games, 42.02% Game and Game Products Sales, 1.68% Design, 5.04% Technology Company, it operates in the fields of textile 2.52% and telecommunication 1.68%. According to these results, it has been seen that the businesses that sponsor the broadcasters on Twitch TV operate in many different areas.

Theorists have emphasized brand differentiation in achieving a competitive advantage through sponsorship, and managers of sports sponsorships have recognized product category exclusivity as among the most valued rights afforded sponsoring firms. Yet the proliferation of sponsorships in the sports marketplace poses a challenge to sponsors attempting to establish a unique brand position apart from the clutter. The competition between corporate rivals for sponsorship exclusivity in the world's highest profile sporting arenas has begun to spill into the courtroom. The purpose of this paper is to review the cases of MasterCard versus FIFA, and AT&T versus NASCAR, and discuss the relevance of these contract disputes to sponsorship scholars and practitioners. Specifically, the courts’ finding of irreparable harm faced by the excluded sponsor offers an intriguing legal recognition of the theorized goodwill and inimitability of corporate affiliation with a specific sponsored enterprise. The cases also contribute an opposing view of best practices, where legal ramifications arise from treating sponsorship as a property-based resource and neglecting the relational dimensions of collaborative communication, trust, and commitment emphasized by contemporary sponsorship theory.

Purpose – Existing research on sponsorship effects shows that the congruence (i.e. fit) between sponsor and sponsored cause is critical for a change in brand image. Congruence between sponsor and sponsored cause is seen as static in nature. From a dynamic perspective it is unclear why congruence should be seen as constant, and why it is critical for sponsorship effects. This paper aims to address this issue.

Design/methodology/approach – This paper analyzes effects of sponsorship evaluative congruence on brand image over time using individual difference measures. Individual level data were obtained from two surveys before and after the 2006 FIFA World Cup™, including 268 respondents who participated in both surveys.

Findings – Findings show significant positive effects of learning and remembering of a sponsorship stimulus on brand image over time. In contrast to existing literature, positive incongruence of brand image (i.e. sponsor) and event image (i.e. sponsored cause) in the pre-analysis results in a significant increase of brand image over time. Moreover, a change in event image over time has a positive effect on the change in brand image.

Research limitations/implications – Further research should replicate this study in different contexts, including event- and brand-related contexts. Future studies should use a more detailed scale to measure brand (event) image, which would allow a more rigorous assessment of image transfer on an attribute level. A replication of the relationship between event image and brand image over time would be especially interesting in a setting, in which event image is negative or a negative ? event image could be expected.

Practical implications – Linking explanatory variables such as (?) event image and ? brand image over time is important for a reliable assessment of the positive (negative) consequences of sponsorship activities. A sponsorship that might have been positively incongruent in the beginning can turn out to be congruent over time. Hence, the current view that incongruent sponsorships are less promising might be misleading.

Originality/value – In experimental studies, congruence between sponsor and sponsored event is seen as static in nature. From a dynamic perspective, this viewpoint can be challenged. Both sponsor and event image are subject to change over time. Hence, this study determines the impact of event image change over time on brand image.

""The titular sponsorship as the way of financing sports facilities".

The purpose of the paper is to present the essence of the titular sponsorship (naming rights) and possibilities, which it is creating in the scope of earning incomes by administrators of sports facilities. In the context of presented considerations a scope of using the titular sponsorship in Poland was determined, as well as in chosen European countries.

In this research the questions “What are critical success factors in sport sponsorship deals?” and “How are sponsorship deals in esport beneficial for the sponsor?” are answered through a literature review on sports sponsorship and a discussion of the main themes that emerged.
The literature review showed models and theories that cover different phases of sport sponsorships, which helped answering the questions eventually.
It was concluded that several key success factors in various phases in sponsorships determine outcomes. However, they are dynamic and complex in nature which makes sponsorships very context specific.
It was furthermore found that the sponsor benefit from sport sponsorships in terms of sales, market share, brand equity, image transfer, and competitive advantage.

Environmental stimuli in the form of marketing inducements to gamble money on sports have increased in recent years. The purpose of the present paper is to tackle the extended definition of the gamblification of sport using sponsorship and partnership deals of gambling, forex trading, and fantasy gaming as a proxy for assessing its environmental impact. Using data about sponsorship deals from English Football Premier League, the paper builds on the evidence of English football's gamblification process to discuss the impact that the volume, penetration, and marketing strategies of sports betting might have on public health and well-being. Findings demonstrate that gambling marketing has become firmly embedded in the financial practices of many Premiership football clubs. It is argued that such associations are not trivial, and that the symbolic linkage of sport and newer gambling forms can become an issue of public health, especially affecting vulnerable groups such as minors and problem gamblers. The present study is the first to explore in-depth the relationship and potential consequences and psychosocial impacts of sports-related marketing, particularly in relation to football.

"Purpose – While various scholars have identified relationship marketing objectives as a rationale for sports sponsorship engagement, analytic investigations of the implications of a relational approach to the corporate sponsorship network have been slow to materialize. The purpose of this paper is to advance the discussion of sponsorship as a means of industrial sports marketing towards a network conceptualization, which can be dissected from both the perspective of the sponsoring firms and that of the sponsored enterprise.

Design/methodology/approach – This paper employs an illustrative case-based approach to the application of network analysis tools as a means of exploring the relationship marketing dynamics of corporate sponsorship portfolios.

Findings – Several research propositions and applicable network analytics are presented within the context of Formula One racing team sponsorship portfolios. The concepts of network range, density, power, growth, and social capital are explored in regards to their influence on network actors and prospective actors.

Practical implications – Though often neglected in sponsorship research, B2B relational objectives are the focus of this paper, where various evaluative methods are suggested and their dynamic implications illustrated.

Originality/value – By utilizing an international contextual case and explicating several analytic network measures, this research extends the investigation of sports sponsorship beyond the image and awareness-based objectives that have dominated this area of research. This application of social network analysis to the study of inter-organizational networks in sport builds on the discussion of sponsorship as a bilateral relationship and advances the dialog towards a broader exploration of corporate sponsors and sport enterprises as network partners."

While discussion and media coverage of esports (i.e., organized competitive video gaming) has dramatically increased since 2016, the use of esports by established consumer brands has not been emphasized in the sport marketing and sponsorship literature. Though appearing in limited sport management research, esports is a non-traditional sport form that generated just under $1.2 billion in revenue as an industry in 2019. However, many non-endemic traditional consumer brands have resisted capitalizing on esports brand-building opportunities. This paper provides a literature review of the past and current esports and sport marketing literature, resulting in the creation of a figure depicting the esports endemic and non-endemic company evolution of esports brand utilization. The evolution of the competitive video game market details how endemic companies are more apt to establish themselves in the esports space before non-endemic companies because of the way that the industry moves and h...

This research aims to examine football fans’ awareness of their team sponsors and to compare sponsorship awareness  between season ticket holders and casual spectators. Data was collected from among fans of a professional football team and results revealed that spectators recall ‘top of mind’ those sponsors with their logo displayed on the team shirts. Thus, being visible from the stadium stands is important to ensure recall rates. Fans are typically able to properly recognise sponsors and non-sponsors of their team. However, some competitor brands engaged in football sponsorship are incorrectly recognised as sponsors of a team. Finally, the number of brands recalled and recognised correctly by season ticket holders is significantly higher than for casual spectators. The research findings, managerial implications, limitations and future research directions are discussed.

The purpose of this study was to assess brand equity in professional soccer teams. Through a preliminary analysis and further adaptation of the Spectator-Based Brand Equity (SBBE) scale, a refined model was tested among soccer fans. Results gathered from a confirmatory factor analysis indicated an acceptable fit of the model to the data and confirmed the relationship between Internalization, a single first-order construct, and Brand Associations, a second-order construct with ten dimensions. Review of the psychometric properties indicated all constructs had good internal consistency, convergent validity, and discriminant validity. A multi-group analysis showed the cross validity of the model, and a structural equation model revealed its predictive validity, indicating the proposed model as a valid tool for assessing brand equity in professional soccer teams. Managerial implications of these results are discussed, and some guidelines are suggested for future research.

This is a study concerning the result of sports sponsorship where the research focuses on how would a specific construct of Brand Equity would correlate with the sponsorship outcome. The study takes one of the forerunners of professional football (soccer) club as the object. Persib (Persatuan Sepakbola Indonesia Bandung), a football club which resides in Bandung. Persib has proven to be one of the most prominent football clubs in terms of business, fans, and professionalism. Each home game are watched by a minimum number of 40,000 spectators, and the company itself, PT. PBB (Persib Bandung Bermartabat, Inc.) has managed to generate a yearly income of approx. 12 Billion Rupiahs, income which is considered as the largest from a professional football club in Indonesia.The study is aimed to discover how the construct of BETS (Brand Equity of Team Sports) would influence the Sponsorship Outcome. Questionnaires were distributed to 403 fans of Persib Bandung, whom are ssociated with Viking community. The study modifies the concept of Bauer, et al. (2005) that applies the concept of Consumer Based Brand Equity from Keller (1993), and also the concept of Sponsorship Outcome (SO) from Gwinner and Swanson (2003). BETS is divided into four dimension; Awareness, Product-Related Attributes, Non Product-Related Attributes, and Brand Benefits. For the football context, each dimension is measured according to the characteristics of a football club. Product-related attributes consists of Athletic success, star player(s), coach, and management. Sponsorship Outcome is measured by; Sponsor recognition, attitude toward sponsor, sponsor patronage, and satisfaction with sponsor. The research would focus on observing SO on the context of general sponsorship of Persib, Honda, and PT. Daya Adira Mustika. The concepts are modified by researcher to fit research context. This study introduces a simpler construct to measure BETS from earlier model of Bauer, et al. And empirical test prove research hypothesis that BETS significantly affect SO using SEM, and dimensions of BETS correlates with SO. Simpler dimensions of BETS proposed by this study can accurately measure BETS, and the research also concluded Honda as the top of mind sponsor of Persib.

Keywords: Sponsorship, Sports Marketing, Brand Equity, Structural Equation Modeling, Brand Equity of Team Sports, Sponsorship Outcome, Sport Sponsorship Marketing.

The congruence or fit between a sponsored brand and sponsoring firm is a central tenet of sponsorship research. The influence of such congruence on the sponsored brand however, has received scant attention. This question is important because the strength of a sponsored organization's brand equity is the basis for many sponsorship alliances. The two experiments undertaken in this paper empirically evaluate the dynamic effect sponsor portfolio congruence has on perceptions of the sponsored organization's brand equity. The results of Study 1 indicate sponsor incongruence is particularly detrimental to the brand equity of the sponsored organization at the title sponsor level. Study 2 shows this adverse effect can be attenuated by increasing the number of congruent sponsors at the presenting level. The second study also provides support for nationality as a salient congruence dimension in an international sporting context. Implications of these findings are discussed.

One of the most common means of resource acquisition for both large administrative firms and smaller entrepreneurial enterprises is interorganizational alliances (Ireland, Hitt, & Vaidyanath, 2002). The promotional alliance is defined within this research as a strategic alliance based on resource exchange between a promoting enterprise and a firm seeking to fulfill promotion-based objectives through an ongoing collaboration with the enterprise. Each of the two sides of the promotional alliance relationship served as a focus for one of the two studies presented within this work.
In the first study, a longitudinal survival model was employed to investigate the dependency of a promotional enterprise on external resource acquisition via alliances with promotion-seeking firms. Alliances with sponsoring firms offering financial and performance-based resources, as opposed to operational resources, were found to have a significant influence on the survival of sponsored enterprises. However, these dependencies were subject to changes in institutional support and the potential for diminishing returns.
The second study approached promotional alliances from the perspective of the firms seeking promotion. Relying on the theory of efficient capital markets (Fama, 1970), an event study analysis was undertaken to determine the impact of internationally prominent promotional alliance announcements on the equity value of the sponsoring firms. Contrary to prior research, the initiation of these alliances demonstrated a negative impact on shareholder value. The magnitude of the sponsoring firm’s alliance investment and the nationality congruence within the alliance were influential in predicting investors’ reaction to such alliances. Each study was embedded within the institutional context of Formula One (F1) motor racing and focused on the promotional alliances involving corporate partners (sponsoring firms) and their affiliated racing teams.

Streszczenie: Sponsoring sportowy w ciągu kilkudziesięciu lat przeszedł ewolucję od prezentacji logotypów sponsora do komunikacji 360 stopni. Biznes szuka nowych dróg dotarcia do tradycyjnych kibiców sportu, a jeszcze bardziej stara się wychować nowych kibiców – konsumentów rozrywki sportowej. Znaczenie sponsoringu sportowego na całym świecie rośnie. Rośnie też rynek sponsoringowy. Pojawiają się nowe trendy, do których należy esport, szersze wykorzystanie nowych technologii komunikacyjnych, tworzenie sportowej rozrywki i aktywizacja dotychczas mniej eksploatowanych grup docelowych. 

Abstrakt: Sports sponsorship has evolved over several decades from the presentation of the sponsor's logos to 360 degrees of communication. Business is looking for new ways to reach traditional sports fans, and even more so is trying to educate new fans - consumers of sports entertainment. The importance of sports sponsorship is growing all over the world. The sponsorship market is also growing. New trends are emerging, such as team, wider use of new communication technologies, creation of sports entertainment and activation of hitherto less exploited target groups.

In 2007, Major League Soccer (MLS) became the first major professional sports league in the USA to allow individual franchises to sell advertising space on their game jerseys. While these shirt sponsorships are considered the norm in international soccer, in the US game uniforms are considered ‘sacred space’ free from the increasingly commercialized American sports landscape. Team owners and sports writers have given their opinions – the former arguing they are a necessity for increasing revenue, the latter arguing they represent a dangerous commoditization of sports – yet, little attention has been paid to the opinions of sports fans. To address this, an exploratory survey was conducted to assess fan reactions to shirt sponsorships in MLS, how these ads are affecting fan behaviours, and whether or not fans believe these ads to be starting a trend for other sports to follow. Preliminary results found no strong negative opinions about the presence of jersey advertisements, and respondents – soccer fans, sports fans and non-fans – showed support for shirt sponsorship if it helped keep games affordable and/or helped teams stay competitive. These results are discussed in greater detail, along with implications for more theoretical approaches to understanding the effect of shirt sponsorships on sports fans.

Brand sponsorship connects brands with large, passionate audiences. The sponsorship literature emphasizes the importance of brand sponsor–team congruence; however, prior research has largely focused on the relevance of the brand to the sport or geographic area. This article offers the first real-world empirical investigation of the effects of visual congruence through color matching on sponsorship performance. A wide-scale study of 703 Major League Baseball fans’ evaluations of their team’s sponsors, merged with real stadium signage data, offers evidence of the benefits of visual congruence. Two experiments in the contexts of product packaging and online advertising provide converging evidence of the positive effects of created visual congruence on attitudes toward the sponsorship, brand attitudes, and intentions. Brands without an inherent match to a team can enjoy enhanced sponsorship benefits with little additional costs simply by adopting the team’s colors in visual displays. However, the viewer’s motivation (fan status), opportunity (fan exposure), and ability (lack of color blindness) to process visual congruence moderates its effectiveness. By using the proposed framework, managers can maximize the value of their sponsorship rights.