The 'Great Game

Drawing on published documents and research in Russian, Uzbek, British and Indian archives, this article explains how a hasty attempt by Russia to put pressure on the British in Central Asia unintentionally triggered the second Anglo-Afghan War of 1878-80. This conflict is usually interpreted within the framework of the so-called 'Great Game', which assumes that only the European 'Great Powers' had any agency in Central Asia, pursuing a coherent strategy with a clearly-defined set of goals and mutually-understood rules. The outbreak of the Second Anglo-Afghan war is usually seen as a deliberate attempt by the Russians to embroil the British disastrously in Afghan affairs, leading to the eventual installation of 'Abd al-Rahman Khan, hosted for many years by the Russians in Samarkand, on the Afghan throne. In fact the Russians did not foresee any of this. 'Abd al-Rahman's ascent to the Afghan throne owed nothing to Russian support, and everything to British desperation. What at first seems like a classic 'Great Game' episode was a tale of blundering and unintended consequences on both sides. Central Asian rulers were not merely passive bystanders who provided a picturesque backdrop for Anglo-Russian relations, but important actors in their own right.

Alive with adventure, rich with exotic detail, the voice of Rudyard Kipling carried readers to faraway locations and brought new, exciting scenes to their doorsteps. Born and raised in India, Kipling became the voice of the eastern British Empire, and his writing extensively covered Central Asia. Early in his career, Kipling drew inspiration not from travels of his own, but from working with far-flung correspondents at the Civil and Military Gazette in Lahore, Pakistan, where he served as assistant editor. One of his chief correspondents was Dr. Charles Owen, a close friend of his father’s who served a tour of duty with the Afghan Boundary Commission between 1884 and 1886 addressing the border dispute between Great Britain and Russia. This historical biography provides a new perspective on Kipling’s days as an employee of the Civil and Military Gazette. Information garnered from newly uncovered letters and diaries of Dr. Owen (acquired by the National Army Museum in 1998) gives personal insight into Kipling’s life as well as firsthand perceptions of the Boundary Commission’s work. In addition, appendices provide a wealth of information regarding articles by Kipling, articles attributed to Kipling or his supervisor Wheeler, Kipling’s translations of Russian dispatches, and Boundary Commission reports.

The collapse of the USSR brought about conditions conducive to the dynamic development of relations between Central Asia and China. These relations have evolved from deep mistrust to the continually growing Chinese presence primarily in the region’s economy but also increasingly in its politics. Central Asia is playing a growing role in those areas of the economy which China sees as strategic (in particular in energy and communications). China’s ambitions and capabilities with regard to new areas and its geopolitical competitors are also being tested here. For the time being, it can be said that China has achieved vast success: its offer is appealing for the region, and Beijing has outpaced its Western rivals and has seriously challenged Russia’s position in the region. It remains, however, an open question whether China will be able to maintain and secure its present achievements and trends, which will be a serious challenge given the eternal instability in the region and Russia’s reintegration ambitions.

MAIN POINTS

The past two decades have been a period of fundamental change in Central Asia triggered by the collapse of the USSR. One effect of this was that five new states arose in the region. The emergence of China’s presence as a major player in Central Asia has been among the fundamental aspects of these regional changes.
Security issues are at the core of Chinese engagement in Central Asia. In the regional dimension, China wants to protect its western province, Xinjiang, from possible destabilisation which could spread from Central Asian countries or draw inspiration from them. In broader terms, Beijing wants to secure its interests with regard to Russia and the USA, which are also present and active in the region. In turn, from Central Asia’s point of view, securing the region against Chinese expansion is of fundamental significance. However, at the same time, the countries in the region are aware of the inevitability of co-operation with China, and have been making efforts to use it as a tool for strengthening their own stability and sovereignty.
Although security and (in broader terms) political issues are the basis for relations between China and Central Asia, the main field of play for their co-operation is economic issues. This is an effect of two realities: the economic: the great area and basic willingness for co-operation, and the political: mutual cautiousness and the self-restriction of the partners, and above all, resistance from Russia. Despite many difficulties encountered over the past two decades, China has become a strategic economic partner for this region. This is most evident in the trade, energy and infrastructure sectors. Beijing has outstripped its competitors: Russia, the USA, Turkey and Iran over a relatively short period. At the same time, the scale of co-operation has made Central Asia an important region for China (especially as an element of the strategy to bring stabilisation into Xinjiang and as a major gas supplier). Chinese economic engagement in Central Asia – considering the specifics and the guidelines of Beijing’s policy – viably contributes to China’s growing political significance in the region; with regard to individual republics and relations between them and also with regard to Russia and the USA. At the present stage, the region’s countries benefit, both politically and economically, from this situation. It is, though, giving rise to serious concern in strategic terms.
Whatever attainments Central Asia or China have made over the past two decades, the general situation in and around the region remains unstable, and the parties’ interests have been fixed and secured to a limited extent. Therefore, the evolution of China’s regional policy to secure its own interests by political means, the ultimate geopolitical balance of powers in the region between China, Russia and the USA, and the ability of the countries of Central Asia to continue to use China to reinforce their position are still open questions. However, China’s stance is playing an increasing role in each of these aspects.

This paper discusses the interaction between Tachibana Zuicho and Nomura Eizaburo, the two members of the Second Otani Expedition and Capt. Shuttleworth, the acting British Consul in Kashgar in 1909. Based on information provided by the Russian Consul, Shuttleworth was convinced that the two young Japanese explorers were involved in espionage, filing reports on their activities and ultimately preventing them to return to Xinjiang through the British frontier in Northern India.

Türkistan, ilk çağlardan itibaren Uzak Doğu ile Batı uygarlıkları arasında bir köprüdür. Moğolistan’dan Urallara kadar uzanan uçsuz bucaksız bozkırlar, çoğu zaman konargöçer boyların at koşturduğu coğrafya olarak araştırmalarda ön plana çıkarken, bu coğrafyanın Doğu ile Batı arasında gerçekleşen ilişkilerdeki rolü göz ardı edilmiştir. Oysaki Türkistan Çin’den veya Akdeniz kıyılarından yola çıkan kervanların ya da Çin’den Hindistan’a gitmek isteyen Budist hacıların uğramadan yola devam edemeyeceği bir coğrafyadır. Türkistan’ı bir ağ gibi saran tarihi ticaret yolları, sadece kervanların ticari ürünleri taşıdığı basit bir yol değildir. Bu yollar aynı zamanda kültürlerin ve dinlerin uzak coğrafyalara ulaşmasını sağlamıştır. Bu nedenle Çin, İran, Hint ve Roma gibi uygarlıklardan yola çıkan kervanlar, ordular, seyyahlar, hacılar ya da elçilerin yolu bir şekilde Türkistan’a düşmüştür. Bu yolculardan bazıları görüp duyduklarını yazarak bize seyahatnameler bırakmışlardır. Bazılarının serüvenleri ise başkaları tarafından yazılan kitapların konusu olmuştur. Türk ülkelerine çeşitli zamanlarda gitmiş olan yabancı seyyahlar, gezdikleri yerlerde dikkatlerini çeken olayları, mekânları, kişileri ya da gelenek-görenekleri kaleme alarak hem yaşadıkları dönemdeki kendi toplumlarına bilinmeyen ülkeleri tanıtmışlar, hem de bu değerli bilgilerin günümüze kadar ulaşmasını sağlamışlardır. Seyahatnameleri önemli kılan bir başka özellik ise bahsettikleri ülkelerde yaşayanlar için dikkate değer olmayan şeylerin bir yabancı tarafından önemli görülerek kaydedilmiş olmasıdır. Yani seyahatnameler çoğu zaman bir toplumun öteki gözüyle nasıl görüldüğünü anlamamıza imkân sağlayan eserlerdir. Türkistan’a bir şekilde yolu düşen seyyahların eserleri temel alınarak hazırlanan bu kitapta başlangıçtan 20. yüzyıla kadar Türkistan’daki Türklerin bir başkası tarafından nasıl görüldüğünün yansıtılması amaçlanmıştır. Bu nedenle farklı dönem ve kültürlerden seyyahların Türkistan’a ilişkin yazdıkları eserler incelenerek kitabın bölümleri oluşturulmuştur. Tabiî ki tarih boyunca Türkistan’ı ziyaret eden yüzlerce seyyahın eserlerini tek bir kitapta incelemek mümkün değildir. Örnek vermek gerekirse, sadece Rusların yazdığı raporlar ya da seyahatnameleri tanıtmak için dahi ciltlerce kitap yazmak gerekir. Bu nedenle elinizdeki eser, belli dönem ve coğrafyalar seçilerek hazırlanmıştır. Bugüne kadar Türkistan’la ilgili seyahatnameleri içeren birkaç araştırma yapılmış olsa da bütüncül olarak yaklaşan bir eser olmamasından hareketle hazırlanmış olan bu çalışma sadece bir başlangıç olarak değerlendirilebilir ya da Türkistan tarihini seyahatnameler üzerinden değerlendirme yolunda atılmış bir adım olarak da kabul edilebilir. Seyahatnameler üzerinden bir bölgenin tarihi ve coğrafyasının incelenmesi hem coğrafyada yaşayanların hem de
o coğrafyaya seyahat eden seyyahların kültürlerindeki devamlılığı, değişmeleri, kültürlerin birbirlerine karşı geliştirdiği bakışı göstermesi bakımından kıymetlidir. Zira seyyahlar her ne kadar Türkistan coğrafyasının çöllerinden geçip, dağlarından aşsalar da esasen hepsinin hatırasının üzerinden de zaman geçmiştir. Bu anlamda incelenen süreçte tarihin unsurlarından insanlar, zamanlar ve mekânlar da değişmektedir. Türkistan coğrafyası özelinde bu değişimin ana hatlarına değinmeye
çalışan elinizdeki kitabın bundan sonra bu yola düşecek araştırmacılara
faydalı olmasını temenni ederiz.

Abstract
The article considers the problem of the military aspect of the British Russophobia in the first half of the XIX century. It is established that in this period the foreign policy strategy of Great Britain was guided by the logic of the need to counter the growing military-political power of the Russian empire, demanding the development of appropriate ideological tools to give legitimacy to such a course and reach a public consensus on its implementation. Therefore, the British elites are beginning to develop and implement a large-scale anti-Russian information campaign, contributing to the emergence of the phenomenon of Russophobia, an important component of which was the military aspect. At the same time, the views of the military, on the one hand, seem to be rather restrained, reflecting the positive image of the Russian soldier, which was probably the result of the memory of the British-Russian allied relations during the Napoleonic wars. On the other hand, the first resident reports are being published on the possible directions of Russian aggression against British India and the need to neutralize this threat by diplomatic and military methods. Based on the analysis of a broad source base and numerous studies, it is revealed that in the period under review, the genesis and spread of Russophobic sentiments among the political elite of Great Britain and their projection regarding the foreign policy aspirations of the Russian empire in the context of their interpretation as a direct or indirect threat to British society, the state and Europe as a whole can be traced. Such imperatives, which emanated from the British officers, were directed to the formation of stable Russophobic attitudes among the population of Great Britain so that the people would support the government’s political line to increase geopolitical pressure towards the Russian Empire.
Keywords: Russia, Great Britain, russophobia, «Great Game», geopolitics.
Аннотация. В статье рассмотрена проблема военного аспекта британской русофобии в первой половине XIX века. Установлено, что в этот период внешнеполитическая стратегия Великобритании руководствовалась логикой необходимости противодействия растущей военно-политической мощи Российской империи, требуя выработки соответствующего идеологического инструментария для придания легитимности подобному курсу и достижения общественного консенсуса по вопросам его реализации. Поэтому британские элиты начали разрабатывать и воплощать масштабную антироссийскую информационную кампанию, способствуя возникновению феномена русофобии, важной составляющей которой являлся военный аспект. При этом взгляды военных, с одной стороны, представляются достаточно сдержанными, отражая позитивный образ русского солдата, что, вероятно, было следствием памяти о британско-российских союзнических отношениях в годы наполеоновских войн. С другой стороны, издаются первые резидентурные доклады о возможных направлениях русской агрессии в отношении Британской Индии и необходимости нейтрализации этой угрозы дипломатическими и военными методами. На основании анализа широкой источниковой базы и многочисленных исследований выявлено, что в рассматриваемый период происходит генезис и распространение русофобских настроений среди политической элиты Великобритании, а также их проекция относительно внешнеполитических устремлений Российской империи в контексте трактовки таковых как прямой или косвенной угрозы британскому обществу, государству и Европе в целом. Подобные императивы, исходившие от британского офицерского состава, были направлены на формирование устойчивых русофобских настроений среди населения Великобритании в целях поддержки народом политической линии правительства по усилению геополитического давления в отношении Российской империи.
Ключевые слова: Россия, Великобритания, русофобия, «Большая игра», геополитика.

The imaginary chessboard: the Great Game between imperialist visions, orientalist narratives and personal ambitions

This paper aims to present the main themes analysed within this volume while introducing the different studies and related approaches of the authors, connected to the so-called “Great Game”. Starting from the perspective of the British experience, this essay will frame the historical context of this geopolitical competition between imperial powers during the XIX century, whose origin preceded the “Great Game” itself, yet it will come back later with the so-called “arms race” that paved the way for the outbreak of the First World War.
Central Asia become the ground of the rivalries between the great powers of the time, resembling a sort of “chessboard” on which the Russian, the French and the British empires moved through to impose their territorial domain, each of them with their own political priorities, narratives, and obsessions leading to strategic decisions.
Beyond the description of the historical competition that occurred in the XIX century, this essay aims to shed lights on the role of military commanders and British officials, as supposed “young pawns” who, on the contrary, often implemented their own strategies according to their personal ambitions, widespread prejudices of locals, lack of territorial knowledge, as well as deep misconceptions of the competitors. Therefore, it is important to acutely underline the role of narratives in supporting military and diplomatic missions. Much more than a “game”, the competition in Central Asia shown the strength to consolidate respective zones of influence, but also how personal ambitions and self-perceptions of superiority has been used to justify political influence and domain.

In 1888, a British expedition in the southern Himalayas represented the first direct confrontation between Tibet and a Western power. The expedition followed the encroachment and occupation, by Tibetan troops, of a portion of Sikkim territory, a country led by a Tibetan Buddhist monarchy that was however linked to Britain with the Treaty of Tumlong. This paper analyses the role of the Bhutanese during the 1888 Expedition. Although the mediation put in place by Ugyen Wangchuck and his allies would not succeed because of the Tibetan refusal, the attempt remains important to understand the political and geopolitical space of Bhutan in the aftermath of the Battle of Changlimithang of 1885 and in the decades preceding the ascent to the throne of Ugyen Wangchuck.

Abstract
The article considers the ethno-cultural aspects of rivalry between the British and Russian empires in the process of the «Great Game» in Turkestan in the XIX century. It is established that direct contact with the eastern cultures, interaction and dialogue (and communication was observed on both sides) occurred through British and Russian travelers. Eastern territories served as colonies of European countries and Russia. Based on the analysis of a broad source base and numerous studies, it is revealed that the scope of the tasks of travelers included not only the exploration of economic potential, but also the study of the ethno-political, cultural and geographical features of the region. At the same time, the travelers described in detail the terrain and nature, but relatively modestly characterized the local population, which indicates the prevalence of the military significance of missions. The range of travel varies from political, diplomatic, trade-economic, research to «entertaining», for example: hunting and tourism. It is thanks to letters, notes, reports and books of Russian and British researchers that the image of local people and their culture develops. Descriptions of travel or stories about life in the eastern countries captured important details of everyday life, both local residents and travelers themselves. It is shown that during the period under review the progressive change in the notion of Europeans among the peoples of Central Asia was manifested, which was facilitated by the diverse composition of travelers and representatives of different European cultures. In this sense, the image of the Western traveler had a positive impact on the transformation of traditional society into a developing industrial society and the introduction of technological and cultural achievements of a more developed culture into it.
Keywords: Russia, Great Britain, «Great Game», Central Asia, Turkestan, ethno-cultural aspects.
Аннотация. В статье рассмотрены этнокультурные аспекты соперничества Британской и Российской империй в процессе «Большой игры» в Туркестане в XIX веке. Установлено, что через британских и российских путешественников происходил непосредственный контакт с восточными культурами, взаимодействие и диалог, причем общение наблюдалось с обеих сторон. Восточные территории служили колониями европейских стран и России. На основании анализа широкой источниковой базы и многочисленных исследований выявлено, что в круг задач путешественников входили не только разведка экономического потенциала, но и изучение этнополитических, культурных и географических особенностей региона. При этом путешественники подробно описывали местность и природу, но относительно скромно характеризовали местное население, что свидетельствует о преобладании военного значения миссий. Диапазон путешествий варьируется от политических, дипломатических, торгово-экономических, научно-исследовательских до «развлекательных», например: охота и туризм. Именно благодаря письмам, заметкам, отчетам и книгам российских и британских исследователей складывается образ местных народов и их культуры. Описания путешествий или рассказы о жизни в восточных странах запечатлели важные детали повседневной жизни как местных жителей, так и самих путешественников. Показано, что в рассматриваемый период проявляется поступательное изменение представлений о европейцах у народов Центральной Азии, чему способствовал разнородный состав путешественников, представителей разных европейских культур. В этом смысле образ западного путешественника оказывал позитивное влияние на трансформацию традиционного общества в развивающееся индустриальное и внедрение в него технологических и культурных достижений более развитой культуры.
Ключевые слова: Россия, Великобритания, «Большая игра», Центральная Азия, Туркестан, этнокультурные аспекты.

Eric Shipton was notoriously circumspect about many aspects of his life and there is much that remains unexplained about his career and his motivations. Mountain travel books like Mountains of Tartary (1950) tell us next-to-nothing about the political context of his time as Consul General in Kashgar, Xinjiang between the years 1940-1942 and 1946-1948, indeed the text serves quite deliberately to deceive. Enmeshed in the apparatus of the British Imperial security state in Chinese Central Asia, Shipton became adept at covering his tracks by directing his readers’ attention elsewhere. At the heart of the Shipton story is a missing decade. Utilising the 'Travellers' file kept on Shipton by the External Affairs Department of the Government of India, this paper examines how Shipton negotiated the complex web of political authority that governed access to the sensitive border regions of British India, ultimately enabling him to take up a key diplomatic posting in Chinese Central Asia.

SUMMARY: This article attempts to delineate and plot the contours of the intercultural contributions of Gerasim Lebedev in a linguistic-cultural domain totally alien to him, in early-colonial Calcutta. It also seeks to contextualise the intense polysemy between 'microcosmic' personal and literary journeys and the 'cosmopolitan' acculturation that came with Lebedev's socio-cultural background and travels. Though, as will be seen in the essay, Lebedev's path-breaking maverick effort was largely a shot in the dark, his achievement is seen, in almost the entire theatrical fraternity in West Bengal and Bangladesh, in terms that can be described as larger than life. The essay will seek to understand the extent to which Lebedev's personal and professional choices reflected deep cross-cultural sympathies, thus making him an enthusiast with a difference.

Abstract. The article considers the problem of the origin of the «Great game» between Russia and Great Britain in Turkestan at the beginning of the XIX century. Based on the analysis of a broad source base and numerous studies, the features of the first phase of this geopolitical competition, which continued during the period of 1810–1830s, have been identified. It is established that at this time the rivalry between the two empires was characterized by the use of military-diplomatic and intelligence methods, as well as latent struggle through the use of local ruling elites to avoid an open military confrontation. British and Russian authorities organized missions to the Central Asian region, whose purpose was to study the area and collect information about the moods of the population and elites. The values of missions to Turkestan by British residents and researchers of W. Moorcroft (1819–1825), A. Konolly (1829–1831) and A. Burnes (1831–1832) have been disclosed. The activities in the region of Russian missions of F. Nazarov (1813–1814), N. Murav'ev (1819–1820 and 1821–1822), P. Desmaisons (1833) and I. Vitkevich (1836 and 1837–1838) have been characterized. Within the framework of these missions, which were assigned mainly to the representatives of the military class, methods of espionage, bribery, trade rivalry, and sometimes elements of open opposition were used.
Keywords: Russia, Great Britain, «Great game», Central Asia, Turkestan, geopolitics.
Аннотация. В статье рассмотрена проблема происхождения «Большой игры» России и Великобритании в Туркестане в начале XIX века. Обосновано, что понятие «Большая игра» (или «турнир теней») подразумевает геополитическое соперничество Британской и Российской империй за доминирование в Туркестане и Южной Азии в XIX – начале XX в. На основании анализа широкой источниковой базы и многочисленных исследований выявлены особенности первого этапа данной геополитической конкуренции, который продолжался в период 1810–1830-х гг. Установлено, что в это время соперничество двух империй характеризовалось применением военно-дипломатических и разведывательных методов, а также латентной борьбой путём использования местных правящих элит, избегая открытого военного столкновения. Британские и российские власти организуют миссии в центрально-азиатский регион, целью которых являлось изучение местности и сбор информации о настроениях населения и элит. Раскрыты значения миссий в Туркестан британских резидентов и исследователей В. Муркровфта (1819–1825 гг.), А. Конолли (1829–1831 гг.) и А. Бёрнса (1831–1832 гг.). Показано, что вплоть до конца 1820-х гг. едва ли не единственным отечественным каналом получения разведывательной информации о ситуации в регионе был опрос караванщиков и купцов. Охарактеризована деятельность в регионе российских миссий Ф. Назарова (1813–1814 гг.), Н. Муравьёва (1819–1820 и 1821–1822 гг.), П. Демезона (1833 г.) и И. Виткевича (1836 г. и 1837–1838 гг.). В рамках данных миссий, которые возлагались преимущественно на представителей военного сословия, применялись методы шпионажа, подкупа, торгового соперничества, а иногда и элементы открытого противостояния.
Ключевые слова: Россия, Великобритания, «Большая игра», Центральная Азия, Туркестан, геополитика.