TS 41-24 - Final ECG Draft 10 October 2017 2

PRODUCED BY THE OPERATIONS DIRECTORATE OF ENERGY NETWORKS ASSOCIATION
Technical Specification 41-24

Issue 2: 2017
Guidelines for the design, installation, testing and

maintenance of main earthing systems in
substations
www.energynetworks.org
ENA Technical Specification 41-24
Issue 2 - October 2017
Page 2
© 2017 Energy Networks Association
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This document has been prepared for use by members of the Energy Networks Association
to take account of the conditions which apply to them. Advice should be taken from an
appropriately qualified engineer on the suitability of this document for any other purpose.
<Insert publication history here, e.g. “First published, December, 2011”>
Amendments since publication
Issue Date Amendment

2 October Major revision and re-write. Alignment with latest revisions of BS EN
2017 50522, BS 7430 and ENA TS 41-24. New formulae introduced.
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1 Contents
2 Foreword ..................................................................................................................... 10
3 1 Scope .................................................................................................................... 11
4 2 Normative references ............................................................................................ 11
5 3 Definitions ............................................................................................................. 11
6 4 Fundamental requirements ................................................................................... 14
7 4.1 Function of an earthing system.................................................................... 14
8 4.2 Typical features of an earthing system ........................................................ 15
9 4.3 The effects of substation potential rise on persons ..................................... 16
10 4.3.1 Touch potential ................................................................................ 16
11 4.3.2 Step potential ................................................................................... 17
12 4.3.3 Transfer potential ............................................................................. 17
13 4.3.4 General ............................................................................................ 17
14 4.3.5 Limits for LV networks ..................................................................... 17
15 4.3.6 Limits for other systems ................................................................... 17
16 4.3.7 Limits for telecommunications equipment (HOT/COLD sites) ......... 17
17 4.4 Safety criteria ............................................................................................... 18
18 4.4.1 General permissible design limits .................................................... 18
19 4.4.2 Effect of electricity on animals ......................................................... 19
20 4.4.3 Injury or shock to persons and animals outside the installation ...... 19
21 4.5 Electrical requirements ................................................................................ 22
22 4.5.1 Method of neutral earthing ............................................................... 22
23 4.5.2 Fault current .................................................................................... 22
24 4.5.3 Thermal effects - general ................................................................. 22
25 5 Design ................................................................................................................... 23
26 5.1 Design considerations ................................................................................. 23
27 5.1.1 Limiting values for EPR ................................................................... 23
28 5.1.2 Touch and step potentials ............................................................... 23
29 5.1.3 Factors to include in calculation of EPR and safety voltages .......... 23
30 5.1.4 Transfer potential ............................................................................. 23
31 5.2 Preliminary arrangement and layout ............................................................ 24
32 5.3 Design guidelines ........................................................................................ 24
33 5.3.1 Outdoor substations ........................................................................ 24
34 5.3.2 Indoor substations ........................................................................... 25
35 5.3.3 Shared sites ..................................................................................... 26
36 5.3.4 Distribution (or secondary) substations ........................................... 26
37 5.3.5 Metallic fences ................................................................................. 26
38 5.3.6 Provision of maintenance/test facilities ............................................ 26
39 5.4 Design data.................................................................................................. 27
40 5.4.1 Soil Resistivity ................................................................................. 27
41 5.4.2 Fault currents and durations - general ............................................. 28
42 5.4.3 Fault current growth ......................................................................... 29
43 5.4.4 Fault currents for EPR and safety voltage calculations ................... 29
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44 5.4.5 Fault currents and clearance times for conductor size (thermal effects)
45 ......................................................................................................... 29
46 5.4.6 Fault currents and clearance times for electrode size calculations
47 (thermal effects) ............................................................................... 30
48 5.4.6.1 Surface current density ..................................................... 30
49 5.4.6.2 Design fault currents and clearance times for electrode
50 ratings ............................................................................... 31
51 5.4.6.3 Long term current flows .................................................... 31
52 5.4.6.4 Surface area and current density requirements ................ 32
53 5.5 Conductor and electrode ratings.................................................................. 32
54 5.5.1 Earthing conductors and electrodes ................................................ 32
55 5.5.2 Electrode current ratings ................................................................. 37
56 5.6 Design assessment ..................................................................................... 38
57 5.6.1 Design flowchart .............................................................................. 38
58 5.6.2 Assessment procedure .................................................................... 40
59 5.6.3 Methods to improve design (mitigation measures) .......................... 41
60 5.6.3.1 EPR reduction ................................................................... 41
61 5.6.3.2 Touch potential reduction ................................................. 41
62 5.7 Risk assessment.......................................................................................... 42
63 5.7.1 Methodology .................................................................................... 42
64 5.7.2 Typical applications ......................................................................... 43
65 6 Construction .......................................................................................................... 43
66 6.1 General ........................................................................................................ 43
67 6.1.1 Materials .......................................................................................... 43
68 6.1.2 Avoiding theft ................................................................................... 43
69 6.2 Jointing conductors and equipment connections ......................................... 44
70 6.2.1 General ............................................................................................ 44
71 6.2.2 Transition washers .......................................................................... 45
72 6.2.3 Copper to copper joints ................................................................... 45
73 6.2.4 Copper connections to earth rods ................................................... 45
74 6.2.5 Electrode test points ........................................................................ 45
75 6.2.6 Copper connections to equipment (steel or galvanised steel) ......... 45
76 6.2.7 Aluminium connections to equipment .............................................. 46
77 6.2.8 Aluminium to aluminium joints ......................................................... 46
78 6.2.9 Aluminium to copper joints .............................................................. 47
79 6.2.10 Earthing connections to aluminium structures ................................. 47
80 6.2.11 Steel structures ................................................................................ 47
81 6.3 Above-ground earthing installations ............................................................ 48
82 6.3.1 Fixing above-ground conductor to supports .................................... 48
83 6.3.2 Prevention of corrosion of above-ground conductors ...................... 48
84 6.3.3 Metal trench covers ......................................................................... 48
85 6.3.4 Loops for portable earth connections .............................................. 49
86 6.4 Below-ground earthing installations ............................................................. 49
87 6.4.1 Installation of buried electrode within a substation .......................... 49
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88 6.4.2 Positioning of buried electrode ........................................................ 49

89 6.4.3 Other earth electrodes ..................................................................... 50
90 6.4.3.1 Earth rods ......................................................................... 50
91 6.4.3.2 Earth plates ....................................................................... 51
92 6.5 Use of structural earths including steel piles and re-bar .............................. 51
93 6.5.1 Sheet steel piles .............................................................................. 51
94 6.5.2 Horizontal steel-reinforced foundations ........................................... 51
95 6.5.3 Vertical steel-reinforced concrete columns ...................................... 52
96 6.6 Metallic fences ............................................................................................. 52
97 6.6.1 Independently earthed fences ......................................................... 52
98 6.6.2 Segregation between independently earthed fence and earthing
99 system ............................................................................................. 52
100 6.6.3 Fences bonded to the substation MES ............................................ 53
101 6.6.4 Third-party metallic fences .............................................................. 54
102 6.6.5 Insulated fence sections. ................................................................. 55
103 6.6.6 Chain link fencing (galvanised or plastic coated) ............................ 55
104 6.6.7 Coated fence panels ........................................................................ 55
105 6.6.8 Electric security fences .................................................................... 55
106 6.6.9 Anti-climbing precautions ................................................................ 55
107 6.7 Specific items............................................................................................... 56
108 6.7.1 Water services to substations .......................................................... 56
109 6.7.2 Non-current carrying metalwork ...................................................... 56
110 6.7.3 Items normally bonded to the substation MES ................................ 56
111 6.7.4 Items not normally bonded to the substation MES .......................... 57
112 6.7.5 Non-standard bonding arrangements .............................................. 57
113 6.8 Overhead line terminations .......................................................................... 57
114 6.8.1 Tower terminations adjacent to substation ...................................... 57
115 6.8.2 Steel tower termination with cable sealing ends .............................. 57
116 6.8.3 Terminal poles with stays adjacent to substation fence .................. 58
117 6.8.4 Down drop anchorage arrangement with arcing horns .................... 58
118 6.8.5 Loss of aerial earth wires ................................................................. 58
119 6.9 HV cable metallic sheath / armour earthing ................................................. 58
120 6.9.1 Insulated sheath cables ................................................................... 58
121 6.9.2 Cables entering substations ............................................................ 59
122 6.9.3 Cables within substations ................................................................ 59
123 6.9.4 Outdoor cable sealing ends ............................................................. 59
124 6.9.5 Use of disconnected, non-insulated sheath/armour cables as an
125 electrode .......................................................................................... 60
126 6.10 Light current equipment associated with external cabling ........................... 60
127 6.11 Metalclad and gas insulated substations ..................................................... 60
128 6.11.1 Metalclad substations ...................................................................... 60
129 6.11.2 Gas insulated switchgear (GIS) ....................................................... 60
130 6.12 Fault-throwing switches, earth switches and disconnectors ........................ 61
131 6.12.1 Background ..................................................................................... 61
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132 6.12.2 Fault-throwing switches (phase to earth) ......................................... 62

133 6.12.3 Earth switches ................................................................................. 62
134 6.12.4 Disconnectors .................................................................................. 62
135 6.13 Operating handles, mechanisms and control kiosks ................................... 62
136 6.13.1 Background ..................................................................................... 62
137 6.13.2 Earth mats (stance earths) .............................................................. 63
138 6.13.3 Connection of handles to the earthing system and stance earths ... 63
139 6.14 Surge arrestors and capacitor voltage transformers (CVTs) ....................... 63
140 7 Measurements ...................................................................................................... 64
141 7.1 General ........................................................................................................ 64
142 7.2 Safety........................................................................................................... 64
143 7.3 Instrumentation and ancillary equipment ..................................................... 65
144 7.4 Soil resistivity measurements ...................................................................... 65
145 7.4.1 Objective .......................................................................................... 65
146 7.4.2 Wenner method ............................................................................... 65
147 7.4.3 Interpretation of results .................................................................... 65
148 7.4.4 Sources of measurement error ........................................................ 66
149 7.4.5 Driven rod method ........................................................................... 66
150 7.5 Earth resistance/impedance measurements ............................................... 67
151 7.5.1 Objective .......................................................................................... 67
152 7.5.2 Method ............................................................................................. 67
155 7.6 Comparative method of measuring earth resistance ................................... 69
156 7.6.1 Objective .......................................................................................... 69
157 7.6.2 Method ............................................................................................. 69
160 7.7 Earth connection resistance measurements (equipment bonding tests) ..... 71
161 7.7.1 Objective .......................................................................................... 71
162 7.7.2 Method ............................................................................................. 71
164 7.8 Earth conductor joint resistance measurements.......................................... 72
165 7.8.1 Objective .......................................................................................... 72
166 7.8.2 Method ............................................................................................. 72
168 7.9 Earth potential measurements ..................................................................... 72
169 7.9.1 Objective .......................................................................................... 72
170 7.9.2 Method ............................................................................................. 73
172 7.10 Earth electrode separation test .................................................................... 73
173 7.10.1 Objective .......................................................................................... 73
174 7.10.2 Method ............................................................................................. 73
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176 7.11 Buried earth electrode location .................................................................... 74

177 7.11.1 Objective .......................................................................................... 74
178 7.11.2 Method ............................................................................................. 74
179 8 Maintenance ......................................................................................................... 75
180 8.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 75
181 8.1.1 Inspection ........................................................................................ 75
182 8.1.2 Maintenance and repairs ................................................................. 75
183 8.2 Types of inspection ...................................................................................... 76
184 8.2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 76
185 8.2.2 Frequent visual inspection ............................................................... 76
186 8.2.3 Infrequent detailed visual inspection ............................................... 76
187 8.2.4 Detailed visual inspection, testing and analysis .............................. 77
188 8.2.4.1 Testing .............................................................................. 77
189 8.2.4.2 Selected excavation and examination of buried earth
190 electrode ........................................................................... 78
191 8.2.4.3 Analysis and recording of test results ............................... 78
192 8.3 Maintenance and repair of earthing systems ............................................... 79
193 8.4 Procedure for re-making defective joints or repairing conductor breaks ..... 79
194 8.4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 79
195 8.4.2 Joint repair methods ........................................................................ 80
196 8.4.3 Flexible braids ................................................................................. 80
197 9 Ground-mounted distribution substation earthing ................................................. 81
198 9.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 81
199 9.2 Relocation of pole-mounted equipment to ground level .............................. 81
200 9.3 General design requirements ...................................................................... 81
201 9.3.1 Design data requirements ............................................................... 82
202 9.3.2 Conductor and electrode sizing ....................................................... 82
203 9.3.3 Target resistance ............................................................................. 82
204 9.3.4 EPR design limit .............................................................................. 83
205 9.3.5 Calculation of EPR .......................................................................... 83
206 9.3.5.1 Factors to consider ........................................................... 83
207 9.3.5.2 Transfer potential from source .......................................... 84
208 9.3.6 Step/touch potentials at the substation ............................................ 84
209 9.3.7 Simplified approach ......................................................................... 84
210 9.3.8 Circumstances where the simplified approach is not appropriate ... 84
211 9.4 Network and other contributions .................................................................. 85
212 9.4.1 Additional electrode ......................................................................... 85
213 9.4.2 Parallel contributions from interconnected HV and LV networks ..... 85
214 9.4.3 Ascertaining network contribution .................................................... 85
215 9.4.4 Global earthing systems (GES) ....................................................... 86
216 9.5 Transfer potential onto LV network .............................................................. 87
217 9.5.1 General ............................................................................................ 87
218 9.5.2 Touch potential on LV system as a result of an HV fault ................. 87
219 9.5.3 Stress voltage .................................................................................. 87
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220 9.6 Combined HV and LV earthing .................................................................... 88

221 9.7 Segregated HV and LV earthing .................................................................. 88
222 9.7.1 Separation distance ......................................................................... 88
223 9.7.2 Transfer potential to third parties ..................................................... 89
224 9.7.3 Further considerations ..................................................................... 89
225 9.7.4 Multiple LV electrodes on segregated systems ............................... 89
226 9.8 Situations where HV/LV systems cannot be segregated ............................. 90
227 9.9 Practical considerations ............................................................................... 90
228 9.10 LV installations near HPR sites ................................................................... 90
229 9.11 Supplies to/from HPR sites .......................................................................... 91
230 9.11.1 Special arrangements ...................................................................... 91
231 10 Earthing of pole-mounted substations and associated equipment ....................... 92
232 10.1
General ........................................................................................................ 92
233 10.2
Pole-mounted transformers ......................................................................... 92
234 10.3
Electrode configuration for pole-mounted equipment .................................. 93
235 10.4
HV earth electrode value ............................................................................. 93
236 10.5
Electrode arrangement selection method .................................................... 93
237 10.6
Earthed operating mechanisms accessible from ground level .................... 94
238 10.7
Air break switch disconnector (ABSD) with an isolated operating
239 mechanism .................................................................................................. 96
240 10.8 Surge arrestors ............................................................................................ 98
241 10.9 Cable terminations ....................................................................................... 99
242 10.10 Operations at earthed equipment locations ................................................. 99
243 10.11 Installation.................................................................................................... 99
244 10.12 Inspection and maintenance of earthing installations ................................ 100
245 10.12.1 Items to inspect ............................................................................. 100
246 10.12.2 Items to examine ........................................................................... 100
247 10.12.3 Items to test ................................................................................... 100
248 11 Case studies / examples ..................................................................................... 101
249 11.1 Risk assessment – third-party metallic fence near substation ................... 101
250 11.2 LV supply into HPR site ............................................................................. 106
251 Bibliography ............................................................................................................... 109
252
253 Figures
254 Figure 1 – Touch, step and transfer potentials resulting from an earth fault ............... 16
255 Figure 2 – Arrangement of separately earthed fence .................................................. 53
256 Figure 3 – Arrangement of bonded fence .................................................................... 54
257 Figure 4 - Earth resistance measurement using the comparative method and a four-
258 pole earth tester (test electrode disconnected) ........................................................... 70
259 Figure 5 - Earth resistance measurement using the comparative method and a clamp
260 type resistance meter (test electrode connected) ....................................................... 70
261 Figure 6 - Connections for earth bonding conductor resistance measurements ......... 71
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262 Figure 7 - Connections for earth conductor joint resistance measurements ............... 72
263 Figure 8 - Typical PMT earthing arrangement ............................................................. 92
264 Figure 9 - Earthing arrangement for a PMAR with ground-level control box ............... 95
265 Figure 10 - Alternative earthing arrangement for a PMAR with ground level control
266 box 96
267 Figure 11 - Recommended earthing arrangement for an ABSD ................................. 98
268 Figure 12 - Third-party fence close to substation ...................................................... 101
269 Figure 13 - Touch potential along fence .................................................................... 103
270 Figure 14 - Overhead supply into HPR site ............................................................... 109
271
272 Tables
273 Table 1 – Permissible touch potentials for typical fault clearance times ..................... 20
274 Table 2 – Permissible step potentials for typical fault clearance times ....................... 21
275 Table 3 – Typical soil resistivity values ....................................................................... 27
276 Table 4 – Relevant currents for earthing design purposes .......................................... 28
277 Table 5 – Conductor ratings (copper) .......................................................................... 33
278 Table 6 – Conductor ratings (aluminium) .................................................................... 35
279 Table 7 - Cross sectional areas (CSA) for steel structures carrying fault current ....... 37
280 Table 8 – Maximum current rating of typical rod, tape and plate electrodes ............... 37
281 Table 9 – Bolt sizes and torques for use on aluminium .............................................. 46
282 Table 10 – Conditions for the passage of earth fault current ...................................... 61
283 Table 11 – Separation distance (m) from 3x3 m substation ........................................ 88
284 Table 12 – Separation distance (m) from 5x5 m substation ........................................ 89
285 Table 13 - Arrangements for LV supply into HPR site ............................................... 107
286
287
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288 Foreword
289 This Technical Specification (TS) is published by the Energy Networks Association (ENA) and
290 comes into effect from xxxx, 2017. It has been prepared under the authority of the ENA
291 Engineering Policy and Standards Manager and has been approved for publication by the ENA
292 Electricity Networks and Futures Group (ENFG). The approved abbreviated title of this
293 engineering document is “ENA TS 41-24”.
294 This specification is to be used in conjunction with ENA EREC S34. In this document account
295 has been taken of:
296 UK Adoption of BS EN 50522:2010, in particular with reference to acceptable touch/step

297 potential limits derived from DD IEC/TS 60479-1:2005.
298 changes to earthing practice as outlined in Electrical Safety, Quality, and Continuity
299 Regulations (ESQCR), in particular with regard to smaller distribution or secondary
300 substations. These are described in Sections 9 and 10 of this specification.
301 the requirements for Protective Multiple Earthing systems as outlined in ENA Engineering
302 Recommendation G12. (The relevant items concerning substation earthing in ENA EREC
303 G12/4 have now been transferred to this document).
304 the increasing use of plastic sheathed cables.
305 the differing requirements of earthing systems at various voltages and for differing types of
306 substation installation.
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307 1 Scope
308 This Specification applies to fixed earthing systems for all electricity supply systems and
309 equipment earthing within EHV, HV and HV/LV substations.
310 It also applies to:
311 • terminal towers adjacent to substations (see NOTE) and cable sealing end compounds.
312 • pole-mounted transformer or air-break switch disconnector installations.
313 • pole-mounted reclosers with ground level control.
314 It does not apply to earthing systems for quarries and railway supply substations.
315 NOTE: Touch potential control at terminal towers adjacent to substations is covered by BS EN 50341-1:2012.
316 2 Normative references

317 The following referenced documents, in whole or part, are indispensable for the application of
318 this document. For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references,
319 the latest edition of the referenced document (including any amendments) applies.
320 Standards publications
321 BS EN 50341-1:2012, Overhead electrical lines exceeding AC 1 kV. General requirements.

322 Common specifications
323 BS EN 50522:2010, Earthing of power installations exceeding 1 kV a.c.
324 DD IEC/TS 60479-1:2005, Effects of current on human beings and livestock, Part 1 – General
325 aspects.
326 BS 7430:2011+A1:2015, Code of practice for protective earthing of electrical installations.
327 Other publications
328 ENA EREC S34, A guide for assessing the rise of earth potential at electrical installations.
329
330 3 Definitions
ALARP As low as reasonably practicable.

NOTE: This term has a particular legal meaning.
APPROVED EQUIPMENT Equipment approved in an operational policy document for

use in the appropriate circumstances.
ASC Arc suppression coil. A tuned reactance used to limit earth

fault current in the event of a phase-earth fault.
AUXILIARY ELECTRODE See SUPPLEMENTARY ELECTRODE.
BACKUP PROTECTION Protection set to operate following failure or slow operation of

primary protection – also see NORMAL PROTECTION. For
design purposes, the backup protection clearance time may
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be taken as a fixed (worst-case) clearance time appropriate to

the network operator’s custom and practice.
BONDING CONDUCTOR A protective conductor providing equipotential bonding.
EARTH The conductive mass of earth whose electric potential at any

point is conventionally taken as zero.
EARTH ELECTRODE A conductor or group of conductors in direct contact with, and

providing an electrical connection to, earth.
EARTH ELECTRODE The difference in potential between the EARTH ELECTRODE

POTENTIAL and a remote EARTH.
EARTH ELECTRODE The resistance of an EARTH ELECTRODE with respect to

RESISTANCE EARTH.
EARTH ELECTRODE That area of ground over which the resistance of an EARTH
RESISTANCE AREA ELECTRODE effectively exists. It is the same area of ground
over which the EARTH ELECTRODE POTENTIAL exists.
EARTH FAULT A fault causing current to flow in one or more earth-return

paths. Typically, a single phase to earth fault, but this term
may also be used to describe two-phase and three-phase
faults involving earth.
EARTH FAULT CURRENT The worst-case steady state (symmetrical) RMS current to
(IF) earth, i.e. that returning to the system neutral(s) resulting from
a single phase to earth fault. This is normally calculated
(initially) for the zero-ohm fault condition. Depending on the
circumstances, the value can be modified by including earth
resistance.
NOTE 1: Not to be confused with GROUND RETURN CURRENT (IE) which
relates to the proportion of current returning via the soil.
EARTH POTENTIAL RISE The difference in potential which may exist between a point on
(EPR) (UE) the ground and a remote EARTH.
NOTE 1: Formerly known as RoEP (rise of earth potential).
NOTE 2: The term GPR (ground potential rise) is an alternative form, not
used in this standard.
EARTHING CONDUCTOR A protective conductor connecting a main earth terminal of an

OR EARTHING installation to an EARTH ELECTRODE or to other means of
CONNECTION earthing.
EARTH MAT A buried or surface laid mesh or other electrode, usually

installed at the operator position close to switchgear or other
plant, intended to control or limit hand-to-feet TOUCH
POTENTIAL.
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EARTHING SYSTEM The complete interconnected assembly of EARTHING

CONDUCTORS and EARTH ELECTRODES (including
cables with uninsulated sheaths).
EHV Extra high voltage, typically used in the UK to describe a

voltage of 33 kV or higher.
ELECTRODE CURRENT The current entering the ground through the substation’s
(IES) electrode system under earth fault conditions. For design
purposes, the electrode current may be taken as the worst-
case current flowing into a substation’s electrode system
under foreseeable fault conditions including, where relevant,
the loss of metallic return paths and/or cross-country faults.
NOTE: This term is generally used in the context of electrode sizing
calculations and is slightly different to ground return current since the ground
return current may flow through alternative paths such as auxiliary
electrodes etc.
GLOBAL EARTHING An earthing system of sufficiently dense interconnection such

SYSTEM (GES) that all items are bonded together and rise in potential together
under fault conditions. No true earth reference exists and
therefore safety voltages are limited.
HOT / COLD SITE A HOT site is defined as one which exceeds ITU limits for
EPR. Typically, these thresholds are 650 V (for reliable fault
clearance time <= 0.2 seconds), or 430 V otherwise.
NOTE 1:The requirements derive from telecommunication standards
relating to voltage withstand on equipment.
NOTE 2:These thresholds have formerly been applied as design limits for
EPR in some areas. The terms HOT and COLD were often applied as a
convenience (on the basis that many COLD sites do achieve safe step/touch
limits) but do not relate directly to safe design limits for touch and step
potentials in substations.
HIGH EPR / HPR High earth potential rise resulting from an earth fault. An EPR
greater than twice the permissible touch potential limit (e.g.
466 V for faults of 1 s duration on soil or outdoor concrete).
HIGH VOLTAGE (HV) A voltage greater than 1 kV and less than 33 kV. Typically
used to describe 6.6 kV, 11 kV and 20 kV systems in the UK.
MAIN EARTHING SYSTEM The interconnected arrangement of earth electrode and bonds
(MES) to main items of plant in a substation.
NOTE: formerly termed “substation earthing system” or “main earth grid”.
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NORMAL PROTECTION Clearance of a fault under normal (usual) circumstances. The

OPERATION normal clearance time will include relay operating time and
mechanical circuit breaker delays for all foreseeable faults,
and may be calculated for design purposes. Alternatively, a
network operator may work to the worst-case protection
clearance time applicable to the network in a given area. This
time assumes that faults will be cleared by normal upstream
protection and does not allow for e.g. stuck circuit breakers or
other protection failures/delays.
NOTE: Certain parts of an earthing design should consider slower BACKUP
PROTECTION operation which allows for a failure of normal protection.
NETWORK OPERATOR Owner or operator of network assets. Includes DNO

(Distribution Network Operator), IDNO (Independent or Inset
DNO) and Transmission Network Operator (TNO) as defined
in the Distribution Code (DCode) or System Operator
Transmission Code (STC) as appropriate.
SUPPLEMENTARY An electrode that improves the performance of an earthing

ELECTRODE system, and may increase resilience, but is not critical to the
safety of the system.
SAFETY VOLTAGE(S) Permissible touch, step or transfer potential(s).
STEP POTENTIAL (US) Voltage between two points on the ground surface that are 1
m distant from each other, which is considered to be the stride
length of a person.
NOTE: UvS is also used for prospective step potential.
STRESS VOLTAGE Voltage difference between two segregated earthing systems,

which may appear across insulators/bushings etc. or cable
insulation.
TOUCH POTENTIAL (UT) voltage between conductive parts when touched

simultaneously.
NOTE: UvT is also used for prospective touch potential.
331 4 Fundamental requirements

332 4.1 Function of an earthing system
333 Every substation should be provided with an earthing installation designed so that in both
334 normal and abnormal conditions there is no danger to persons arising from earth potential in
335 any place to which they have legitimate access. The installation should be able to pass the
336 maximum current from any fault point back to the system neutral whilst maintaining step, touch,
337 and transfer potentials within the permissible limits defined in Section 4.4 based on normal
338 protection relay and circuit breaker operating times (See definition of normal protection
339 operation in Section 3). In exceptional circumstances where the above parameters may not be
340 economically or practically kept below permissible limits, a probabilistic risk assessment may
341 be carried out. Where this shows the risk to be below accepted ALARP levels, the level of
342 earth potential rise mitigation may be reduced (see Section 5.7).
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343 The earthing system should be designed to avoid damage to equipment due to excessive
344 potential rise, potential differences within the earthing system (stress voltages), and due to
345 excessive currents flowing in auxiliary paths not intended for carrying fault current.
346 The design should be such that the passage of fault current does not result in any thermal or
347 mechanical damage [for backup protection clearance times] or damage to insulation of
348 connected apparatus. It should be such that protective gear, including surge protection, is able
349 to operate correctly.
350 Any exposed normally un-energised metalwork within a substation which may be made live by
351 consequence of a system insulation failure can present a safety hazard to personnel. It is a
352 function of the MES to eliminate such hazards by solidly bonding together all such metalwork
353 and to bond this to the earth electrode system in contact with the general mass of earth.
354 Dangerous potential differences between points legitimately accessible to personnel should
355 be eliminated by appropriate design.
356 The earthing system should maintain its integrity for the expected installation lifetime with due
357 allowance for corrosion and mechanical constraints.
358 The earthing system performance should contribute to ensuring electromagnetic compatibility
359 (EMC) among electrical and electronic apparatus of the high voltage system in accordance
360 with PD IEC/TR 61000-5-2.
361 4.2 Typical features of an earthing system

362 The earthing installation requirements are met principally by providing in each substation an
363 arrangement of electrodes and earthing conductors which act as an earthing busbar. This is
364 called the MES and the following are connected to it.
365 • all equipment housing or supporting high voltage conductors within the substation such as
366 transformer and circuit breaker tanks, arcing rings and horns and metal bases of insulators.
367 • neutral connection of windings of transformers required for high voltage system earthing.
368 For high voltage systems, the connections may be via earthing resistors or other current
369 limiting devices, as described in Section 4.5.1. The neutral earthing of low voltage systems
370 is separately considered in Section 9.
371 • earth electrodes, additional to the MES which may itself function as an earth electrode.
372 • earth connections from overhead line terminal supports and the sheaths / screens of
373 underground cables.
374 • earth mats, provided as a safety measure, to reduce the potential difference between points
375 on the area of ground adjacent to manually operated plant and the metalwork including
376 handles of that plant (but see also Section 10.6).
377 • grading electrodes (intended to reduce touch potentials on equipment), which as a
378 minimum consist of a horizontal ring electrode around all items of earthed plant and the
379 equipment and bonded to it. This often should be supplemented by additional grading
380 electrodes inside the ring.
381 • high-frequency electrodes, conductors and electrodes specifically configured to reduce the
382 impedance to lightning, switching and other surges at applicable locations, e.g. surge
383 arrestors, CVTs and GIS bus interfaces.
384 • all other exposed and normally un-energised metalwork wholly inside the substation
385 perimeter fence, e.g. panels (excluding floating fence panels), kiosks, lighting masts, oil
386 tanks, etc. Conductive parts not liable to introduce a potential need not be bonded (e.g.
387 metal window frames in brick walls). Items such as fences, cables and water pipes which
388 are not wholly inside the substation are separately considered in Sections 6.6 and 6.7.
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389 • Fences may be bonded to the MES in some situations – see Section 6.6.
390
391 Substation surface materials, for example stone chippings which have a high value of resistivity,
392 are chosen to provide a measure of insulation against potential differences occurring in the
393 ground and between ground and adjacent plant. Although effective bonding significantly
394 reduces this problem, the surface insulation provides added security under system fault
395 conditions. Permissible touch/step potentials are higher where an insulated surface layer is
396 provided – see Section 4.4.
397 4.3 The effects of substation potential rise on persons

398 During the passage of earth-fault current a substation earth electrode is subjected to an EPR.
399 Potential gradients develop in the surrounding ground area and these are highest adjacent to
400 the substation earth electrode. The EPR reduces to approximately zero (or true earth potential)
401 at some distance from the substation earth electrode.
402 A person will be at risk if they can simultaneously contact parts at different potential; thus in a
403 well-designed system, the potential differences between metallic items will be kept to safe
404 levels regardless of the EPR.
405 Ground potential gradients around the electrode system, if great enough, can present a hazard
406 to persons (e.g. Case study in Section 11.1) and so effective measures to limit them should be
407 incorporated in the design.
408 The three main design parameters relate to touch, step and transfer potentials as defined
409 below. These terms are shown as UvT, UvS and A respectively in Figure 1.
410
Touch Potential
Earth (UvT) Touch voltage on
Transfer Potential (shown
Potential Touch equal to EPR for sheath sheath (or earthed
Rise, EPR Potential (UvT) bonded at substation only) cores) when bonded to
Voltage (UE) local electrode as
gradient Step Potential shown.
across (UvS) A
site Fence Touch voltage will
Touch approach EPR without
Potential bond to local electrode
(separately earthed
Earth fence)
fault
S1 Earthing Earthing
Cable sheath Earthing Electrode Electrode
S2
earthed at Electrode S3
substation
Potential grading earthing electrodes
(eg ring earth electrodes), each
connected to the earth electrode Cable having a continuous metal sheath insulated
throughout but exposed at both ends
From
source
411
412
413 Figure 1 – Touch, step and transfer potentials resulting from an earth fault
414
415 4.3.1 Touch potential

416 This term describes the voltage appearing between a person’s hands and feet (see Figure 1).
417 It arises from the fact that the EPR at a person’s feet can be somewhat lower in value than
418 that present on the buried earth electrode (and any connected metalwork). If an earthed
419 metallic structure is accessible, a person standing on the ground 1 m away and touching the
420 structure will be subject to the touch potential. For a given substation, the maximum value of
421 touch potential can be two or three times greater than the maximum value of step potential. In
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422 addition, the permissible limits for step potential are usually much higher than for touch
423 potential. As a consequence, if a substation is safe against touch potentials, it will normally be
424 safe against step potentials.
425 In some situations, the hand-to-hand touch potential should be considered, for example if un-
426 bonded parts are within 2 m. The permissible limits for this scenario can be calculated as
427 described in DD IEC/TS 60479-1, using the body impedance not exceeded by 5 % of the
428 population. Typical values for dry conditions and large contact area are shown in Table 1. In
429 general, such situations should be designed out, e.g. by increasing separation or introducing
430 barriers if the systems should be electrically separate, or by bonding items together. The siting
431 of fences needs consideration in this regard.
432 4.3.2 Step potential

433 The potential gradient in the ground is greatest immediately adjacent to the substation earth
434 electrode area. Accordingly, the maximum step potential at a time of substation potential rise
435 will be experienced by a person who has one foot on the ground of maximum potential rise
436 and the other foot one step towards true earth. For purposes of assessment the step distance
437 is taken as one metre. (See Figure 1).
438 4.3.3 Transfer potential

439 4.3.4 General
440 A metallic object having length - a fence, a pipe, a cable sheath or a cable core, for example,
441 may be located so as to bring in (import) or carry out (export) a potential to or from the site.
442 By such means a remote, or true earth (zero) potential can be transferred into an area of high
443 earth potential rise (HPR) or vice-versa. For example, a long wire fence tied to a (bonded)
444 substation fence could export the site EPR to the end of the wire fence, where it may pose an
445 electric shock hazard to somebody standing on soil at true earth potential. Similarly, a metallic
446 water pipe (or telephone cable, or pilot cable, etc.) could import a zero-volt reference into a
447 substation, where local potential differences could be dangerous. Bonding the cable or pipe to
448 the substation system might reduce local risk but could create a problem elsewhere; isolation
449 units or insulated inserts (for pipework) are typical solutions that may need to be considered.
450 The limits for permissible transfer potential relate to shock risk (touch and step potential), and
451 equipment damage / insulation breakdown (withstand voltage).
452 4.3.5 Limits for LV networks

453 Safety criteria (see Section 4.4.1) apply to the voltage that may be transferred to LV networks.
454 Further information is also given in Section 9.5.
455 4.3.6 Limits for other systems

456 Voltages carried to pipelines, fences, and other metallic structures during HV fault conditions
457 should not exceed permissible the touch and step potential limits as defined in Section 4.4.1.
458 In some circumstances, for example pipelines connected to gas or oil pumping or storage
459 facilities, lower limits may apply.
460 4.3.7 Limits for telecommunications equipment (HOT/COLD sites)

461 Care should be taken to ensure that telecommunications and other systems are not adversely
462 impacted by substation or structure EPR; in general, these systems should be routed so that
463 the insulation withstand is not exceeded by passing through an area of HPR. Where the EPR
464 on substations or structures exceeds certain levels, the operators of these systems should be
465 notified. See ENA EREC S36 for more information.
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466 ITU Directives1 presently prescribe limits (for induced or impressed voltages derived from HV
467 supply networks) of 430 V rms or, in the case of high security lines, 650 V rms. (High security
468 lines are those with fast acting protection which, in the majority of cases, limits the fault duration
469 to less than 200 ms.) Voltages above and below these limits are termed HOT and COLD
470 respectively, although it should be noted that these terms do not relate directly to safety
471 voltages.
472 For telecoms connections to HOT sites, consultation with telecommunications provider may
473 be necessary to arrive at a solution, e.g. isolation transformers or optic fibre links to ensure the
474 telecoms system is segregated from the substation earth.
475 4.4 Safety criteria

476 4.4.1 General permissible design limits
477 An effective earthing system is essential to ensure the safety of persons in, and close to
478 substations, and to minimise the risk of danger on connected systems beyond the substation
479 boundaries. The most significant hazard to humans is that sufficient current will flow through
480 the heart to cause ventricular fibrillation.
481 The basic criteria adopted in this specification for the safety of personnel are those laid down
482 in BS EN 50522, which in turn derive from DD IEC/TS 60479-1. In addition, ITU-T Directives1
483 are considered where relevant, and where their limits might be lower than BS EN 50522.
484 The relevant limits for touch and step potentials are given in Table 1 and Table 2.
485 These use the body impedance values not exceeded by 5% of the population, and the C2
486 current curve as described in Annex NA of BS EN 50522:2010.
487 In selecting the appropriate limits, the designer should consider the type of surface covering,
488 and if footwear will be worn. Within substations, it should be assumed that footwear will be
489 worn. DD IEC/TS 60479-1 states that these design limits are sufficiently conservative to apply
490 to all humans including children; however, it is recommended that further reference be made
491 to that standard, and relevant (lower) limits adopted as necessary if a substation is in close
492 proximity to, or might otherwise impinge on high risk groups.
493 Table 1 and Table 2 give permissible touch and step potentials as a function of fault current
494 duration. Note that touch and step potentials are normally a fraction of the total EPR, and
495 therefore if the EPR (for all foreseeable fault conditions) is below the limits above, it follows
496 that the site will be compliant. (The full design assessment procedure is given in Section 5.)
497 Permissible limits are a function of normal protection clearance times. Figures NA1 and NA2
498 of BS EN 50522 show curves showing intermediate values of permissible touch potential, if
499 required.
500 Touch and step potentials are sometimes collectively referred to as safety voltages since they
501 relate directly to the safety of persons or animals.
502 Substations should be designed so that safety voltages are below the limits given in Table 1
503 and Table 2. It will be appreciated that there are particular locations in a substation where a
504 person can be subjected to the maximum step or touch potential. Steep potential gradients in
505 particular can exist around individual rod electrodes or at the corner of a meshed grid.
1 (ITU-T: Directives concerning the protection of telecommunication lines against harmful effects from
electric power and electrified railway lines: Volume VI: Danger, damage and disturbance (2008))
Page 19
506 The presence of a surface layer of very high resistivity material provides insulation from these
507 ground potentials and greatly reduces the associated risks. Thus, substations surfaced with
508 stone chippings or concrete are inherently safer than those with grass surfacing, and
509 permissible limits are higher, provided that the integrity of the surface can be maintained.
510 4.4.2 Effect of electricity on animals

511 The main focus of this document is human safety. However, horses and cattle are known to
512 be particularly susceptible to potential gradients in soil. There are no safety limits prescribed
513 for animals but technical report IEC/TR 60479-3 provides some limited experimental data.
514 Interpretation of this data suggests that potential gradients (e.g. around remote electrodes or
515 structures placed in fields) not exceeding 25 V/m will generally not result in animal fatality.
516 4.4.3 Injury or shock to persons and animals outside the installation
517 Shock risk outside an installation can be introduced by metallic transfer (fence, pipe, cable) or
518 via the soil. Where a hazardous transferred potential can occur due to metallically conductive
519 means, that eventuality should be removed by the introduction of insulation or other protective
520 measures (examples include insulated sections introduced into external metal fences). Where
521 metal fences are bonded to the MES, the touch and step potentials external to them should be
522 controlled by the design, such that they are within the acceptable limits. In other words, most
523 risks should be managed by design such that touch and step potentials are below the safe
524 limits defined in Table 1 and Table 2. Where HV and LV earthing systems are combined, the
525 EPR is transferred from the installation into domestic, commercial or industrial properties and
526 should be at a level that complies with the requirements of Section 9.5.
527 In many situations, risk to individuals may be beyond the control of the network operator, for
528 example if a building is erected close to an existing substation. In such circumstances, a risk
529 assessment should be carried out to establish the level of risk, and the justifiable spend to
530 mitigate against that risk. Acceptable voltage thresholds will be influenced by activity (e.g.
531 wet/dry), location (e.g. beach-side) and the presence of animals. The risk assessment process
532 is described further in Section 5.7.
533
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534 Table 1 – Permissible touch potentials for typical fault clearance times
Permissible
touch Fault clearance time (s)
potentials(A) (V)
(B)
0.1 .15 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 2 3 5 ≥10
Bare feet (with
521 462 407 313 231 166 128 106 92 84 80 76 73 71 69 67 63 60 58 57
contact resistance)
Shoes on soil or
2070 1808 1570 1179 837 578 420 332 281 250 233 219 209 200 193 188 173 162 156 153
outdoor concrete
Shoes on 75 mm
2341 2043 1773 1331 944 650 471 371 314 279 259 244 232 223 215 209 192 180 173 170
chippings
Shoes on 150 mm
(C)
chippings or dry 2728 2379 2064 1548 1095 753 544 428 361 321 298 280 266 255 246 239 220 205 198 194
concrete
Hand-to-hand dry
conditions, large
1114 968 836 639 484 368 276 221 191 172 161 152 146 141 137 134 125 119 115 114
contact area (see
4.3.1)
NOTE: These values are based on fibrillation limits. Immobilisation or falls/muscular contractions could occur at lower voltages. Steady state or standing voltages may require
additional consideration.
A. Additional resistances apply based on footwear resistance as well as contact patch, as defined in BS EN 50522, i.e. each shoe is 4 kΩ and the contact patch offers 3xρ,
where ρ is the resistivity of the substrate in Ω·m. Thus for touch potential, the series resistance offered by both feet is 2150 Ω for shoes on soil/wet concrete (effective
ρ=100 Ω·m). For 75 mm chippings, each contact patch adds 1000 Ω to each foot, giving 2500 Ω (effective ρ=333 Ω·m). For 150 mm chippings (and a conservative
estimate for dry concrete), the total resistance is 3000 Ω (effective ρ = 670 Ω·m). Concrete resistivity typically will vary between 2,000-10,000 Ω·m (dry) and 30-100 Ω·m
(saturated).
B. The >= 10 s column is an asymptotic value which may be applied to longer fault duration. This is a fibrillation limit only; it may be prudent to apply lower limits to longer
duration faults or steady state voltages sufficient to limit body current to let-go threshold values.
C. Dry assumes indoors. Outdoor concrete, or that buried in normally wet areas or deep (>0.6 m) below ground level should be treated in the same way as soil.
535
Page 21
536 Table 2 – Permissible step potentials for typical fault clearance times
537
Permissible step
potentials(B) (V) Fault clearance time (s)
0.1 .15 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 2 3 5 ≥10
(C)
Bare feet (with

22753 19763 17077 12715 8905 6044 4290 3320 2770 2434 2249 2098 1992 1897 1823 1771 1616 1503 1442 1412
contact resistance)
Shoes on soil or
A) A) A) A) A) A) A) A) 21608 19067 17571 16460 15575 14839 14267 13826 12629 11727 11250 11012
outdoor concrete
Shoes on 75 mm
A) A) A) A) A) A) A) A) 24906 21976 20253 18971 17951 17103 16445 15936 14557 13517 12967 12692
chippings
Shoes on 150 mm
chippings or dry A) A) A) A) A) A) A) A) A) A) 24083 22559 21347 20338 19555 18951 17311 16074 15420 15092
concrete
NOTE: As for touch potential, these limits are calculated according to fibrillation thresholds. Immobilisation or falls / involuntary movements could occur at lower voltages.
In general, compliance with touch potential limits will achieve safe step potentials.
A. Limits could not be foreseeably exceeded, i.e. 25 kV or greater.

B. Additional footwear / contact resistances appear in series (rather than parallel for the hand-feet case), and are therefore 4x those in equivalent touch potential case.
C. The >= 10 s column is an asymptotic value which may be applied to longer fault duration. This is a fibrillation limit only; it may be prudent to apply lower limits to longer
duration faults or steady state voltages sufficient to limit body current to let-go threshold values.
538
Page 22
539 4.5 Electrical requirements

540 4.5.1 Method of neutral earthing
541 The method of neutral (or star point) earthing strongly influences the fault current level. The
542 earthing system should be designed appropriate to any normal or alternative neutral earthing
543 arrangements, in a similar way that it will be necessary to consider alternative running
544 arrangements that may affect fault levels or protection clearance times.
545 If the system uses an ASC connected between the transformer neutral and earth, the
546 magnitude of the current in the earthing system may be small due to the tuning of the coil’s
547 reactance against the capacitance to earth of the unfaulted phases. However, other conditions
548 can occur that require a higher current to be considered. For instance, if the tuned reactor can
549 be shorted out (bypassed), e.g. for maintenance or protection purposes whilst the transformer
550 is still on load, it is necessary to design for this (see Sections 5.4.2 and 5.4.5). Furthermore,
551 even if there is no alternative method of system earthing, it may be necessary to consider the
552 possibility of a neutral bushing fault on the tuned reactor effectively shorting out the tuned
553 reactor (eg for thermal design calculations and sizing earth electrode and earthing conductor).
554 Such considerations also apply to all impedance earthed systems if there is a foreseeable risk
555 of the impedance earthing device failing and remaining out for any significant time.
556 The likelihood of phase-to-earth insulation failure is increased on tuned reactor systems,
557 particularly if earth faults are not automatically disconnected. This is because a first earth fault
558 will cause phase displacement such that the voltage on the two healthy phases will experience
559 an increased voltage relative to earth (approaching line-line voltage). Where justified by
560 operational experience, consideration should also be given to a cross-country fault, where the
561 current can approach phase-to-phase levels if the earth resistance at each fault site is minimal
562 or if there is metallic interconnection between the sites.
563 4.5.2 Fault current

564 The passage of fault current into an electrode system causes potential rise (EPR, and
565 touch/step/transfer potentials) and heating. Both are related to the magnitude of fault current
566 flow. Section 5.4 describes the fault currents (and durations) applicable to earthing design.
567 4.5.3 Thermal effects - general

568 The earthing system should be sized according to the maximum foreseeable current flow and
569 duration to prevent damage due to excessive temperature rise. For main items of plant in
570 substations (switchgear, transformers, VTs, CTs, surge arrestors, etc.), consideration should
571 be given to the possibility of simultaneous phase-earth faults on different items of plant, which
572 could result in phase-phase current flows through the MES. See also Section 5.4.5.
573 Any current flowing into an electrode will give rise to heating at the electrode and surrounding
574 soil. If the current magnitude or duration is excessive, local soil can dry out, leading to an
575 increase in the resistance of the electrode system. Section 5.5.2 gives current ratings based
576 on a surface current density limit calculated according to formula C2 in B.2.2 of ENA EREC
577 S34. In some situations, even if target resistance and design EPR values are achieved, it may
578 be necessary to increase the electrode contact surface area to ensure compliance with this
579 requirement (Section 5.4.6).
580
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581 5 Design
582 5.1 Design considerations
583 This section describes general arrangements applicable to all substations. Further discussion
584 relating to those items specific to distribution substations is included in Section 9, and pole-
585 mounted systems are further described in Section 10.
586 5.1.1 Limiting values for EPR

587 The design should comply with the safety criteria (touch, step and transfer potentials) and with
588 the earthing conductor and earth electrode conductor current ratings, and should allow
589 sufficient current flow for reliable protection operation.
590 There is no design requirement which directly limits the overall EPR of a substation to a
591 particular value, however, the design will need to consider insulation withstand between
592 different systems, and voltage contours in surrounding soil. The need to comply with these
593 requirements, and safety limits, will naturally tend to restrict the acceptable EPR. In practice,
594 an upper EPR limit may be applied by different network operators based on equipment
595 specifications and/or proximity to third-party systems.
596 5.1.2 Touch and step potentials

597 Touch and step potentials (collectively referred to as safety voltages) are the most important
598 design criteria. Formulae for calculating touch and step potentials are given in Appendix B of
599 EREC S34.
600 5.1.3 Factors to include in calculation of EPR and safety voltages

601 For each operating voltage at a substation, two conditions of earth fault should be considered
602 to determine the maximum value of earth electrode current for EPR and safety voltage
603 assessment purposes. In one, the earth fault is external to the substation; here the current of
604 concern is that returning to the neutral(s) of the transformer(s) at the substation under
605 consideration. The other is for an earth fault in the substation; here the current of concern is
606 now that value returning to the neutral(s) of the transformer(s) external to the substation under
607 consideration. These currents are components of the system earth fault currents. If these
608 return currents have available to them other conducting paths directly connected to the
609 earthing system of the substation, for example overhead line earth-wires and cable sheaths,
610 the currents in these paths should be deducted from the appropriate return current to derive
611 the value of current passing through the earth electrode system of the substation. Evaluation
612 of this ground-return current component is described in Section 6 of EREC S34. Also see
613 Section 5.4.2 below.
614 5.1.4 Transfer potential

615 A further factor that should be considered is transfer potential that may arise from a fault at the
616 source substation(s), if there is a metallic connection (cable sheath or earth wire) between the
617 substation earthing systems. Methods for calculating the transfer potential are described in
618 Annex I of ENA EREC S34.
619 A person at a remote location could theoretically receive the full (100 %) EPR as a touch
620 potential since he/she will be in contact with true earth. This may be disregarded if the EPR
621 at the source substation is known to meet the safety criteria, i.e. is within acceptable touch
622 potential limits. However, particular care is needed if there is a possibility of hand-hand contact
623 between a transfer potential source and other earthed metalwork. This possibility should be
624 excluded by using, where practicable, appropriate barriers (e.g. insulated glands, enclosures)
625 or by bonding. If this cannot be ensured, lower voltage limits will apply to the hand-hand shock
626 case (see DD IEC/TS 60479-1).
Page 24
627 5.2 Preliminary arrangement and layout

628 In order to determine fully the requirements for and adequacy of an earthing system it is
629 necessary to produce a preliminary design arrangement of that earthing system. From a site
630 layout drawing showing the location of the plant to be earthed, a preliminary design
631 arrangement of the earthing system for the substation should be prepared, incorporating the
632 relevant functions of Section 4.1 and the relevant features of Section 4.2. The particular layout
633 arrangement will be unique to each substation but all will have some dependence on, inter alia,
634 a combination of the factors described in Section 5.4, relating to fault level, fault duration,
635 electrode current and soil type.
636 5.3 Design guidelines

637 This Section gives an outline of those features of earthing system arrangements which have
638 proved to be most satisfactory in practice.
639 5.3.1 Outdoor substations

640 Except for pole-mounted equipment, it is recommended that the earthing arrangement be
641 based on a bare perimeter electrode (peripheral buried horizontal earthing electrode),
642 generally encompassing the plant items to be earthed such that the perimeter earth electrode
643 is at least 1m out from the plant items to provide touch potential control at arm’s reach. Internal
644 connections should connect from the perimeter electrode to the items of plant. These internal
645 connections function as an earthing conductor if not in contact with soil, or an electrode
646 otherwise. Where reasonably practicable, the amount run above the surface should be
647 minimized to deter theft. In addition, discrete earth electrodes, e.g. rods or plates, may be
648 connected to this perimeter electrode. These may variously be employed in order to reduce
649 the surface current and/or the electrode resistance of the MES.
650 The electrode system may be augmented with inter-connected, buried, bare cross-connections
651 to form a grid. Such cross-connections increase the quantity of earth electrode conductor and
652 mesh density of the grid, reduce touch potentials on plant within the grid, and provide local
653 main conductors to keep equipment connections short. Importantly, they also increase
654 security/resilience of connections by introducing multiple paths for fault current.
655 In all substations, it is recommended that duplicate connections are made from the MES to
656 main items of plant, in order to increase resilience (see Section 5.4.5 for conductor sizing).
657 Where regular contact of an operator with an earthed structure is anticipated, e.g. at a switch
658 handle, the earthing system should be enhanced by providing an earth mat (or, if a mat is
659 impracticable, an appropriate grading electrode) at or just below the surface of the ground and
660 bonded to the metalwork, so arranged that the metalwork can only be touched while standing
661 above the mat (or enhanced area).
662 Pole-mounted equipment presents a particularly difficult ground potential gradient problem and
663 the special precautions noted in Section 10 should be observed. It may be necessary to apply
664 these precautions in some ground-mounted substations.
665 Fault current flowing through an earth electrode system to earth uses the outer extremities of
666 the electrode system to a greater extent than the inner parts of the system. Thus, adding more
667 earth electrode, whether as vertical rods or as horizontal tape, to the inner area of a small loop
668 or well integrated grid electrode system, will have little impact in reducing earth resistance or
669 the current density in the outer electrode conductors of the system. However, this can help to
670 control step/touch potentials around specific items of plant.
671 Such reductions in overall earth resistance as may be desirable are best achieved by extending
672 the electrode system to cover a greater area of ground (e.g. by buried radial electrodes), or by
673 driving rods around the periphery of the system, or by a combination of both.
Page 25
674 The vertical rod electrode is most effective for use in small area substations or when low soil
675 resistivity strata, into which the rod can penetrate, lies beneath a layer of high soil resistivity.
676 Rods are least effective where there is a high resistivity layer beneath one of lower resistivity,
677 e.g. where underlying bedrock is near to the surface. In these locations, extended horizontal
678 electrodes in the low resistivity surface layer are more effective.
679 For large area substations employing a grid electrode system, the addition of vertical rods,
680 even when optimally installed around the periphery of the system, may make only a marginal
681 improvement.
682 5.3.2 Indoor substations

683 The plant of indoor substations will normally be erected on a concrete raft, often containing a
684 steel reinforcing mesh (re-bar). To control touch and step potentials around plant, it is common
685 for re-bar to be bonded to the main earthing system, or for a dedicated grading mesh (usually
686 consisting of prefabricated steel or copper) to be buried in the concrete screed in the substation
687 area. These measures are to control potential gradients and are not intended to act as an
688 electrode (they may be employed for example above basement areas); dedicated electrodes
689 will also be required to provide a connection to the mass of earth and achieve the functional
690 requirements. For new substation buildings, a buried peripheral horizontal electrode may be
691 conveniently installed around the building foundation and supplemented with vertical rod
692 electrodes as required. Coordination with the civil engineering design can result in a cost-
693 effective installation.
694 Where reinforcing mesh in concrete is to function as supplementary earth electrode, it should
695 be designed to carry the current without cracking the concrete, be constructed with mesh
696 panels welded together and be welded to the peripheral buried earth electrode at suitable
697 intervals (e.g. 5 m).
698 The provision of a buried main earth bonding conductor within the confines of an existing
699 building is often impractical and thus a surface mounted main earthing conductor loop is
700 normally installed with surface-run (and duplicate) spur connections to the various items of
701 plant. The earth electrode system employed with this arrangement may differ depending on
702 the magnitude of earth fault current that the electrode system is required to carry. Marshalling
703 earth bars are sometimes used in addition to, or instead of, a surface laid loop and if properly
704 labelled can facilitate measurement/maintenance. The convenience of such an arrangement
705 often brings with it a high reliance on bolted connections and so the resilience aspect should
706 be balanced with convenience.
707 Substations in buildings may require a buried loop/ring electrode outside the building if any
708 extraneous metalwork (e.g. metal cladding, steel joists, handrails, communications antenna
709 etc.) is bonded to the MES and could otherwise present a touch potential issue to those outside
710 the building. The same considerations apply where a substation is installed in an existing
711 building (for example in the basement of a tower block), even if the building is not recognisable
712 as a substation building; in fact, risks associated with members of the public will often be higher
713 in such installations and warrant additional consideration.
714 Electrode systems (rod nests, etc.) should not be sited close to main access/egress routes
715 without consideration of step and touch potential in these areas.
716 Grading electrode, where required, should be positioned 1 m from metalclad buildings, and
717 bonded to the building’s internal HV or EHV earthing system at two or more separate points.
718 If the building is to be provided with a lightning protection system (LPS) that will be bonded to
719 the main earthing system, the LPS electrodes may contribute to potential grading. Calculations
Page 26
720 and/or computer modelling will normally be necessary to demonstrate whether such measures
721 can be used in place of dedicated grading electrodes.
722 Sparsely positioned rods (e.g. associated with an LPS to BS EN 62305-1) may serve this
723 function if compliance can be demonstrated at the design stage.
724 An LPS, if purposely designed with regard to power system fault currents and with closely
725 spaced rods (or interconnecting electrode ring), could serve the dual purpose of lightning
726 protection and potential grading. Care is needed to ensure that such a system cannot be
727 disconnected from the building, e.g. by removal of test links.
728 Conversely, any earthing system designed for power system fault current may be used for an
729 LPS if it is compliant with BS EN 62305-1, particularly with regard to high-frequency
730 components and down-conductor routing (free of tight bends etc.)
731 5.3.3 Shared sites

732 Where the customer operates HV (and/or EHV) switchgear, there will be a natural boundary
733 between Network Operator ownership, and customer ownership. Ideally the Network Operator
734 should not rely on the customer’s earthing system to ensure electrical safety around the
735 Network Operator’s assets, unless maintenance agreements can be made. In practice, the
736 systems may need to be connected together, but each system should where reasonably
737 practicable be designed to be safe in the absence of any (electrode) contribution from the other
738 system.
739 Neither party should rely on the other’s earthing system unless regular maintenance/testing of
740 both systems can be assured.
741 5.3.4 Distribution (or secondary) substations

742 Distribution (HV:LV) substation earthing is particularly important given that LV system
743 neutral/earth conductors may be connected to, or close to HV earthing systems and
744 consequently could export transfer potential to customer installations. Specific examples for
745 ground-mounted substations are given in Section 9, and pole-mounted equipment is covered
746 in Section 10.
747 5.3.5 Metallic fences

748 Substation fences are typically either separately earthed or bonded to the MES. In general, a
749 separately earthed system will minimise the EPR and the resulting touch potential that may be
750 accessible externally. A bonded design will be required if 2 m separation or other means cannot
751 be established to prevent simultaneous hand-hand contact between the systems.
752 In the case of bonded fences, consideration should be given to touch potentials that appear
753 on the fence under fault conditions; an external peripheral electrode may be required 1 m
754 around the outside of the fence at an appropriate depth (typically 0.5m) to achieve acceptable
755 levels. Care should also be taken to ensure that potential rise is not exported via third-party
756 fences etc. that may be in contact with the substation fence.
757 See Section 6.6 for more details.
758 5.3.6 Provision of maintenance/test facilities

759 Facilities for monitoring earth system efficiency (see Section 6.2.5) should be included at the
760 design stage. See Section 7.5 for information on earth resistance measurements.
761 Test points (e.g. for clamp meter testing) should be shown on earthing drawings.
Page 27
762 5.4 Design data

763 The final design of the earthing system can only be undertaken when sufficient knowledge is
764 available of the proposed physical and electrical arrangements of the substation.
765 As a minimum, the designer should have knowledge of:
766 • value of fault current and supply arrangements (overhead and/or underground cable)
767 • fault duration (or protection settings)
768 • soil resistivity
769 • substation dimensions
770 Any special features about the site, such as subsoil of a corrosive nature and the suitability of
771 the site for driven earth rods or other forms of electrode, should be ascertained. Other relevant
772 features, such as existing earth electrodes, nearby earthed structures, buried pipes or piled
773 foundations should be noted and taken into consideration.
774 In urban areas in particular, the substation may be served by an underground cable network
775 which, particularly if incorporating non-insulated sheaths/armours, will make a contribution
776 which may be taken into consideration. See Section 9.4.3 for details on the contribution from
777 typical 11 kV networks.
778 5.4.1 Soil Resistivity

779 The value of the resistivity of the soil may be ascertained by reference to published data or by
780 direct measurement. Table 3 gives typical values relating to types of soil but these should only
781 be used for very preliminary assessments.
782 Nationally available soil survey data2 may also be used for this purpose.
783
784 Table 3 – Typical soil resistivity values
Soil type Resistivity (Ω·m)
Loams, garden soils, etc. 5 – 50
Clays 10 – 100
Chalk 30 – 100
Clay, sand and gravel mixture 40 – 250
Marsh, peat 150 – 300
Sand 250 – 500
Slates and slatey shales 300 – 3,000
Rock 1,000 – 10,000
785
786 Multi-layer soil models and computer modelling may offer more effective / optimal designs than
787 typical or homogeneous soil models. Except for some smaller substations, where the additional
788 expense may not be warranted, direct measurement will normally be necessary prior to
2 e.g. http://mapapps.bgs.ac.uk/geologyofbritain/home.html
Page 28
789 detailed design. The recommended method, using the Wenner Array, is described in Section
790 7.4.2.
791 It should be noted that the top layers of soil may be subject to significant seasonal variation
792 due to fluctuating moisture content. Designs should utilise deeper, more stable, strata
793 wherever possible; the depth of this stable layer is variable depending on soil type and
794 weather/climate.
795 5.4.2 Fault currents and durations - general

796 The earthing system should remain intact, and safety voltages should be acceptable for all
797 foreseeable fault conditions. BS EN 50522 describes the need to consider single phase to
798 earth, two phase, and three phase to earth fault current flows, as well as cross-country faults
799 in some situations.
800 The relevant currents for earthing design are summarised in Table 4, and described in detail
801 in the following sections.
802 Table 4 – Relevant currents for earthing design purposes
803
Type of Relevant for EPR and Relevant for thermal effects
system earth safety voltages
Earth electrode Earthing conductor
supplying
fault (see Section 5.4.6) (see Section 5.4.5)
Solid Earthing If known, and if earth return Maximum foreseeable Earth fault currents for all
paths are known to be electrode current. voltage levels at the
reliable and rated for duty: substation.
This should be taken as the
Ground return current ground return current or a Three phase (or phase-to-
value between the ground phase) faults should be
Impedance Otherwise: return current and the earth considered if phase-to-phase
Earthing fault current, taking into fault current can flow through
Earth fault current account the loss of any earthing conductors (e.g.
metallic return paths (cable separately earthed items of
See Section 5.4.4. sheath or overhead earth wire) plant, particularly single
where relevant. phase equipment).
See also section 5.5.2.
ASC earthing ASCs are generally used in addition to solid or impedance earthing. It is therefore usually
appropriate to design to the alternative solid or impedance arrangement (as above) which is
termed the bypass arrangement.
If there is no automatic disconnection of earth faults, cross-country faults may need to be

considered, depending on operational experience.
NOTE 1: Fault currents associated with all voltage levels in substations should be considered. The appropriate
protection clearance times for each voltage level should be applied.
NOTE 2: Steady state currents (i.e. the maximum current that can flow in the earthing system without protection
operation) may impose additional requirements on the designer.
NOTE 3: See also Section 5.4.3.
804 See Table 1 in BS EN 50522 for further details.

Page 29
805 5.4.3 Fault current growth

806 Consideration should be given to future network alterations and alternative running
807 arrangements. A margin should be added to allow for future changes without detailed
808 assessment (e.g. typical 15 % increase, unless more accurate information is available).
809 If fault levels are expected to approach the switchgear rating in the foreseeable future, the
810 switchgear rating should be used as the design figure. In any case, the rating of the earthing
811 system should be reviewed if plant is to be upgraded such that higher fault levels may be
812 possible.
813 5.4.4 Fault currents for EPR and safety voltage calculations
814 The fault current applicable to EPR calculation (and therefore safety voltage calculations) is
815 the maximum (symmetrical RMS) current to earth (earth-fault current) that the installation will
816 see under fault conditions.
817 Normal operating time of protection relays and breakers should be used for safety voltage
818 calculations, rather than worst-case (back-up) protection clearance times.
819 If there is a metallic return path for earth fault current (e.g. a cable screen or overhead earth
820 wire), this will typically convey a large proportion of the earth fault current. The remainder will
821 return through soil to the system neutral(s). Reduction factors for neutral current flows (multiple
822 earthed systems) and sheath/earth wire return currents may be applied to calculate the ground
823 return current. The ground return current is used in EPR calculations as it flows through the
824 resistance formed by a substation’s overall earth electrode system (and that of the wider
825 network) and thus contributes to potential rise of that system. Annex I of BS EN 50522
826 describes some methods for calculating this component. Further guidance is given in ENA
827 EREC S34.
828 If specific protection settings are not available, or the Network Operator deems it appropriate,
829 the design should use upper bound (slowest) clearance times associated with normal
830 protection operation, as specified by the network operator.
831 These considerations apply whether the source substation (i.e. that supplying the fault) is
832 impedance or solidly earthed. EPR should be calculated for all voltage levels at any substation,
833 for faults at the substation and on circuits fed from it. Faults on the LV network can usually be
834 shown to be insignificant in this regard.
835 For substations with ASCs, the design should be based on the most onerous (in terms of
836 magnitude and/or duration) earth fault or, depending on operational experience, cross-country
837 fault. In addition, the design should consider long duration EPR conditions which may give rise
838 to near steady-state voltages on equipment or fences etc.
839 NOTE: In many cases, the solid earth fault level is an appropriate design figure for safety voltage assessment on
840 ASC systems, since this is likely to represent a realistic upper-bound. The need to consider alternative fault
841 scenarios / currents is subject to operational experience / risk assessment.
842
843 5.4.5 Fault currents and clearance times for conductor size (thermal effects)
844 Conductor sizing calculations should be based on backup protection clearance time, i.e. the
845 design should allow for failure of primary protection without damage to the earthing system. In
846 the absence of network specific data, the following HV and EHV protection operating times
847 should be assumed:
848 Over 1 kV, up to and including 132 kV: 3s

849 275 kV and higher voltages: 1s
Page 30
850
851 For earthing conductors and electrodes in substations it is recommended that the design fault
852 current should be the maximum symmetrical three-phase fault current value, or other worst-
853 case foreseeable value if greater.
854 NOTE: The decision of whether to include the missing return path scenario is largely dependent on operational
855 experience and risk assessment. For example, the likelihood of complete failure of the metallic return path will be
856 higher for a single overhead earth wire than it would be for a triplex (3 x bunched single cores) cable network
857 arranged in a ring.
858 The maximum fault current applies wherever this may be borne by one spur connection, in
859 which case that spur should be sized accordingly. In grid (mesh) earthing designs there will
860 often be parallel paths to share the current; if the current is to flow in two or more paths (e.g.
861 around a ring), each individual path should be sized to no less than 60 % of the fault current.
862 Installations connected to, or part of the one where the highest fault current occurs, may only
863 be required to carry a portion of that current and the earth conductors may be sized
864 accordingly. For example, in lower voltage areas peripheral to a higher voltage one, their earth
865 conductors should be sized to meet the lower voltage fault current and calculations may show
866 that they are also adequate for their proportion of the HV or EHV fault current.
867 Conductor ratings are given in Section 5.5.1.
868 5.4.6 Fault currents and clearance times for electrode size calculations (thermal effects)
869 The discrete earth electrode should at all times retain its functional properties, i.e. both its
870 current carrying capability and its value of resistance to earth. For these reasons, the
871 temperature rise of the electrode conductor and the density of current dissipation from
872 electrode to soil, during the passage of fault current through it, should be limited.
873 Electrodes are thus subject to thermal requirements of the electrode material due to passage
874 of fault current, and current limits imposed by the electrode-to-soil interface.
875 Thermal requirements are satisfied by appropriate choice of material and cross-sectional area
876 for each electrode and its connection to the main earthing system (See Section 5.5.1). Surface
877 current density requirements are satisfied by ensuring sufficient electrode surface area. In
878 some cases, it will be necessary to install additional electrode(s) to satisfy this requirement,
879 particularly if the electrode resistance requirements can be met with a relatively small electrode
880 system.
881 5.4.6.1 Surface current density

882 The soil surrounding earth electrodes is of a much higher sensitivity than the electrode
883 conductor material and thus the passage of current through the soil will develop, relatively, a
884 much higher temperature rise. The effect of high temperature in the soil causes drying of the
885 surrounding soil, thus further increasing its resistivity, or even the production of steam which
886 can force a separation between the electrode conductor and its interfacing soil.
887 For this reason, the current rating of an electrode is calculated with reference to its surface
888 current density (A/mm2) and is dependent on soil resistivity. As a consequence, the current
889 rating of buried electrodes in practical installations is very much less than equivalent sized
890 above-ground earthing conductors. Section 5.5.2 gives ratings of typical buried electrodes.
891 Where a multi-mesh buried MES is installed, the density of fault current in the earth electrode
892 should rapidly reduce as the distance from the point of fault increases. Provided, therefore,
893 that a sufficient quantity of grid conductor is buried and is well distributed, the surface current
894 density will generally be satisfactory and high surface temperature restricted to a small area
Page 31
895 close to the fault point and thus have negligible effect on the value of total earth electrode
896 resistance or on the efficacy of the earthing system as a whole.
897 5.4.6.2 Design fault currents and clearance times for electrode ratings
898 The surface area of the main electrode through which the fault current flows to ground should,
899 as a minimum, be sufficient to disperse the maximum foreseeable electrode current (i.e. the
900 total current flowing into the electrode system).
901 The ground return current or earth fault current (as appropriate) should be used in calculations
902 if the electrode current(s) are not known. Higher values may be appropriate for ASC systems,
903 as described below.
904 NOTE 1: The maximum current flow into individual electrode groups (where there is more than one) may be
905 assumed to be 60% of the ultimate overall figure used above.
906 NOTE 2: Reduction factors for neutral current flows (multiple earthed systems) and sheath/earth wire return
907 currents may be applied in the normal way to calculate ground return current or electrode current.
908 NOTE 3: Faults at all voltage levels in each substation should be considered.
909 If there is a metallic return path for earth fault current (e.g. a cable screen or overhead earth
910 wire), this will typically convey a large proportion of the earth fault current. The remainder will
911 return through soil to the system neutral(s). Reduction factors for neutral current flows (multiple
912 earthed systems) and sheath/earth wire return currents may be applied to calculate the ground
913 return current. The ground return current is used in EPR calculations as it flows through the
914 resistance formed by a substation’s overall earth electrode system (and that of the wider
915 network) and thus contributes to potential rise of that system. Annex I of BS EN 50522
916 describes some methods for calculating this component. Further guidance is given in ENA
917 EREC S34.
918 The possibility of sheath failure or aerial earth wire failure can give rise to higher than normal
919 ground return current (and consequent electrode current) and should be considered where
920 necessary, as described in the previous section.
921 For ASC systems, the electrode current calculation should consider cross-country faults since
922 these are more likely on such systems. The electrode current in such circumstances can
923 sometimes exceed the normal calculated ground return current. Solid earth-fault level or
924 phase-to-phase fault levels should be used if there is any doubt, even if the bypass is via
925 resistor or reactor. The value to be used is subject to risk assessment and operational
926 experience.
927 NOTE: This is particularly relevant where earth faults are not automatically disconnected within 3 seconds.
928 The relevant clearance times are for backup protection operation as described in the previous
929 section, since it is imperative that the earthing system remains intact if faults are slow to clear.
930 Long term (steady state) current flows can cause drying of soil, and should be considered in
931 addition to normal faults (see below).
932 Relatively rare faults (e.g. bushing failures or internal faults) which may cause an ASC or
933 impedance to be shorted out should be considered if necessary, based on operational
934 experience.
935 5.4.6.3 Long term current flows

936 If significant ground-return current can flow for prolonged duration (i.e. without protection
937 operation), the effect of this current should be considered separately; it can lead to drying at
938 the electrode-soil interface and impose a steady state (or standing) voltage on plant which can
939 require additional measures to ensure safety. This is relevant for ASC systems where earth
940 faults are not automatically disconnected, or where moderate current can return via earth to
Page 32
941 the system neutral in normal circumstances due to un-balanced network capacitance or
942 leakage. The magnitude of this current should be taken as the ASC coil rating or earth-fault
943 protection relay current settings.
2
944 NOTE: A maximum surface current density of 40 A/m is appropriate for long term current flows. This is unlikely to
945 cause drying at the electrode-soil interface.
946
947 5.4.6.4 Surface area and current density requirements
948 In many cases, the electrode surface area requirement is satisfied by normal design practice
949 based on achieving a satisfactorily low earth resistance value; care is needed for systems
950 where a small electrode system is otherwise thought to be sufficient.
951 The appropriate fault current, as described above, should be divided by the surface area of the
952 electrode system to demonstrate that the current density at the electrode-soil interface is within
953 limits. It is permitted to use the surface area of all connected electrodes (main and auxiliary)
954 in this calculation. However, it is good design practice, wherever possible, to ensure that
955 sufficient main electrode meets this requirement.
956 NOTE: In situations such as substations in urban areas where the overall ground return current is significantly
957 increased by interconnection to a larger network or other auxiliary electrode system, dividing this overall ground
958 return current IE (returning via a wide area electrode system, as shown as in ENA EREC S34) into the local electrode
959 surface area will provide a safety margin. It is permissible, for design economy, to calculate the local electrode
960 current IES by evaluation of the ground return current split between the local electrode system and other paths, as
961 shown in Figure 2 of ENA EREC S34), and dividing this resultant electrode current into the local electrode area.
962 This approach should be used with caution, or combined with the risk assessment approach outlined in Section 5.7,
963 as failure of auxiliary electrode connections etc. could result in overheating/failure of the local electrode system
964 under fault conditions.
965
966 A formula for calculating the limiting surface current density Jlimit is given in B.2.2 of ENA EREC
967 S34. Current ratings for some typical electrodes calculated using limiting values of surface
968 current density, are given in Table 8.
969 5.5 Conductor and electrode ratings

970 The earthing system should remain intact following a protection failure as described in Section
971 5.4.5.
972 5.5.1 Earthing conductors and electrodes

973 Earthing conductors should normally be selected from standard copper or aluminium sections;
974 this does not exclude the use of other materials if longevity and resilience (especially to
975 corrosion) can be demonstrated. For alkaline or acidic soils (i.e. those where the pH is greater
976 than 10 or less than 4), or in other situations where corrosion is likely, it may be necessary to
977 oversize electrodes, or to apply other measures to give a reasonable lifetime. See BS 7430 for
978 further details.
979 Based on maximum fault clearance times, the conductor temperature should not exceed 405°C
980 for copper and 325°C for aluminium based on an initial temperature of 30°C. A lower limit of
981 250°C (absolute) is relevant for bolted connections, since extreme thermal cycling can lead to
982 loosening over time.
983 Table 5 and Table 6 give declared current ratings for a range of standard conductor sizes for
984 both 1 s and 3 s fault duration times. The short time rating of other conductors can be calculated
985 from formulae given in Appendix B of ENA EREC S34.
986
Page 33
987 Table 5 – Conductor ratings (copper)
988
989 (a) 405 ° C maximum temperature (copper)
These copper sizes are based on a temperature rise of 375°C occurring in 3 seconds and 1
second above an ambient temperature of 30°C (i.e. achieving a maximum temperature of 405°C)
with the currents in columns 1(a) and 1(b) respectively applied to the conductors. For each
substation, it will be necessary to specify whether column 1(a) or 1(b) should apply.
Fault current (kA) 2

Copper strip (mm) Stranded copper conductor (mm )
not exceeding
(a) (b)
Single Duplicate or
Single (spur) Duplicate or loop
(3 s) (1 s) (spur) loop
connections connections
4 25 x 4 25 x 4 70 70
8 25 x 4 25 x 4 70 70
12 25 x 4 25 x 4 95 70
13.2 40 x 3 25 x 4 120 70
18.5 40 x 4 25 x 4 150 95
22 50 x 4 31.5 x 4 120
26.8 40 x 6.3 40 x 4 150
40 - 50 x 4
31.5 x 4 or
40 50 x 4
40 x 3
63 50 x 6 50 x 4
NOTE 1: Equivalent sizes for stranded conductor include, but are not limited to the following, quoted as number
of strands/strand diameter:
2 2 2 2
70 mm =19/2.14 mm or 7/3.55 mm(e.g.HDC); 95 mm = 37/1.78 mm; 120 mm = 37/2.03 mm; 150mm =
37/2.25 mm.
NOTE 2: Consideration of corrosion risk may lead to the decision to specify minimum strand diameters (e.g.
1.7 mm or larger as given in BS EN 62561-2). A minimum strand diameter of 3 mm is preferred by some
Network Operators for longevity of the electrode system, particularly if corrosive soils exist.
990
991
992
Page 34
993 (b) 250 ° C maximum temperature (copper) – bolted connections

These copper sizes are based on a temperature rise not exceeding 250°C, from an ambient
temperature of 30°C with the currents in columns 1(a) and 1(b) respectively applied to the
conductors. For each substation, it will be necessary to specify whether column 1(a) or 1(b) should
apply. These figures are generally applicable to bolted connections between tapes or lugs etc.
which offer a relatively small thermal mass.
Fault current (kA) 2

Copper strip (mm) Stranded copper conductor (mm )
not exceeding
(a) (b)
Single Duplicate or
Single (spur) Duplicate or loop
(3 s) (1 s) (spur) loop
4 25 x 4 70 70
8 25 x 4 95 70
12 25 x 6 120 95
13.2 25 x 6 150 95
18.5 38 x 5 120
22 40 x 6 150
26.8 50 x 6
40 - 40 x 6
40 40 x 6 50 x 3
63 - 40 x 6
NOTE 1: Equivalent sizes for stranded conductor include, but are not limited to the following, quoted as number
of strands/strand diameter:
2 2 2 2
70 mm =19/2.14 mm or 7/3.55 mm(e.g. HDC); 95 mm = 37/1.78 mm; 120 mm =37/2.03 mm; 150 mm
=37/2.25 mm.
NOTE 2: Consideration of corrosion risk may lead to the decision to specify minimum strand diameters (e.g.
1.7 mm or larger as given in BS EN 62561-2). A minimum strand diameter of 3 mm is preferred by some
Network Operators for longevity of the electrode system, particularly if corrosive soils exist.
994
995
996
Page 35
997 Table 6 – Conductor ratings (aluminium)
998
999 (a) 325°C maximum temperature (aluminium)
These aluminium sizes are based on a temperature rise of 295°C occurring in 3 seconds and
1 second above an ambient temperature of 30°C with the currents in columns 1(a) and 1(b)
respectively applied to the conductors. For each substation, it will be necessary to specify
whether column 1(a) and 1(b) should apply.
Fault current (kA) Stranded aluminium conductor

Aluminium strip (mm) 2
not exceeding (mm )
(a) (b)
Duplicate or
Single loop Single (spur) Duplicate or loop
(3 s) (1 s) (spur)
connections connections connections
connections
(NOTE 2)
4 20 x 4 20 x 2.5 70 70
7.5 25 x 4 20 x 4 120 70
12 40 x 4 25 x 4 120
13.2 50 x 5 25 x 4 120
18.5 40 x 6 40 x 4 150
22 50 x 6 50 x 4
26.8 60 x 6 40 x 6
40 75 x 8 50 x 7
40 50 x 7 50 x 4
63 75 x 6.5 50 x 6
NOTE 1: Equivalent sizes for stranded conductor include, but are not limited to the following, quoted as
number of strands/strand diameter:
2 2 2 2
70 mm =19/2.14 mm or 7/3.55 mm; 95 mm = 37/1.78 mm; 120 mm =37/2.03 mm; 150 mm =37/2.25 mm.
NOTE 2: Duplicate or loop connections have been rated to carry 60 per cent of the full fault current.
1000
1001
1002
1003
Page 36
1004
1005 (b) 250°C maximum temperature (aluminium) – bolted connections
These aluminium sizes are based on a temperature rise not exceeding 250°C in 3 seconds
and 1 second from an ambient (initial) temperature of 30°C with the currents in columns 1(a)
and 1(b) respectively applied to the conductors. For each substation, it will be necessary to
specify whether column 1(a) and 1(b) should apply. These figures are generally applicable to
bolted connections between tapes or lugs etc. which offer a relatively small thermal mass.
Fault current (kA) Stranded aluminium conductor

Aluminium strip (mm) 2
not exceeding (mm )
(a) (b)
Duplicate or
Single loop Duplicate or
Single (spur)
(3 s) (1 s) (spur) Loop
Connections Connections
connections Connections
(NOTE 2)
4 20 x 4 20 x 2.5 70 70
7.5 25 x 5 25 x 3 120 70
12 50 x 4 25 x 5 185 120
13.2 50 x 4 25 x 5 120
18.5 50 x 6 50 x 4 185
22 60 x 6 50 x 4
26.8 70 x 6 40 x 6
40 - 60 x 6
40 50 x 7 40 x 6
63 - 60 x 6
NOTE 1: Equivalent sizes for stranded conductor include, but are not limited to the following, quoted as
number of strands/strand diameter:
2 2 2 2
70 mm =19/2.14 mm or 7/3.55 mm; 95 mm = 37/1.78 mm; 120 mm =37/2.03 mm; 150 mm =37/2.25 mm.
NOTE 2: Duplicate or loop connections have been rated to carry 60 per cent of the full fault current.
1006
1007
Page 37
1008 Table 7 - Cross sectional areas (CSA) for steel structures carrying fault current
1009
These sizes are based on the maximum temperature achieved after the passage of fault
current for 3 seconds and 1 second from an ambient (initial) temperature of 30°C. For
each substation, it will be necessary to specify whether column 1(a) or 1(b) should apply.
400°C (applicable to
Fault current (kA) 250°C (applicable to
welded/continuous structures which
not exceeding bolted structures)
are galvanised)
(a) (b)
2) 2
(3 s) (1 s) CSA (mm CSA (mm )
4 109 91
7.5 204 171
12 327 273
13.2 359 301
18.5 503 421
22 599 501
26.8 729 610
40 1087 910
40 628 525
63 989 828
1010
1011 5.5.2 Electrode current ratings

1012 Table 8 gives the current rating of typical electrodes. The limiting factor tends to be heating at
1013 the electrode-soil interface, consequently the ratings are dependent on the limit for electrode
1014 surface current density and on soil resistivity. The current ratings in Table 8 have been
1015 calculated using the formula for limiting current density Jlimit in B.2.2 of ENA EREC S34.
1016 Table 8 – Maximum current rating of typical rod, tape and plate electrodes
3 s current rating 1 s current rating

Rod Plate 25 x 4 Rod 25 x 4
Soil 16 mm 915 Plate mm 16 mm Plate Plate mm
Resistivity Dia. x 1220 x tape Dia. 915 x 1220 x tape
(Ω·m) (A per 915 1220 (A per (A per 915m 1220 (A per
metre mm mm (A) metre metre m (A) mm (A) metre
length) (A) length) length) length)
10 69.7 2322 4128 80.4 120.7 4022 7151 139.3
30 40.2 1341 2384 46.4 69.7 2322 4128 80.4
40 34.9 1161 2064 40.2 60.4 2011 3575 69.7
50 31.2 1039 1846 36 54 1799 3198 62.3
60 28.5 948 1685 32.8 49.3 1642 2919 56.9
70 26.3 878 1560 30.4 45.6 1520 2703 52.7
80 24.6 821 1460 28.4 42.7 1422 2528 49.3
100 22 734 1306 25.4 38.2 1272 2261 44.1
150 18 600 1066 20.8 31.2 1038 1846 36
200 15.6 519 923 18 27 899 1599 31.2
250 13.9 464 826 16.1 24.1 804 1430 27.9
300 12.7 424 754 14.7 22 734 1306 25.4
Page 38
1017 In most practical installations, the actual values of electrode current density will be
1018 considerably less than the limiting values, due to the quantity of bare buried conductor
1019 (electrode) employed in the installation to provide effective bonding and in some installations
1020 where extra electrodes have been added, to comply with the touch potential limits. Note that
1021 the surface current density limit is independent of the electrode material, and therefore the
1022 limits can be applied to re-bar, piling or other fortuitous or auxiliary electrodes, providing that
1023 the temperature rise in these structures under fault conditions will not cause issues such as
1024 cracking/distortion etc.
1025 Where an electrode is encased in a material such as concrete, or material/agent other than
1026 surrounding soil, a surface current density calculation should be carried out at the electrode-
1027 material interface, using the surface area of the metallic electrode itself and the properties of
1028 the agent. In some cases, it will also be necessary to carry out a similar calculation at the
1029 interface of the agent with surrounding soil, noting that the larger surface area offered by the
1030 agent will apply.
1031 A well-designed earthing system should provide sufficient surface area to satisfy thermal
1032 requirements without reliance on re-bar or other fortuitous / auxiliary electrodes.
1033 5.6 Design assessment

1034 The assessment procedure is outlined in Section 5.6.1. It begins with an approximation which,
1035 if giving satisfactory results, avoids the need for a more detailed assessment. If, however, the
1036 results indicate that the safety criteria could be exceeded or the EPR is considered to be
1037 excessive, the more refined assessment should be employed.
1038 When an entirely theoretical approach is used for assessing the design of an earthing system,
1039 doubts on the reliability of the result may arise due to uncertainties as to the correct value of
1040 soil resistivity to be used or of the effects that other buried structures may have. In these
1041 circumstances, direct measurements may be carried out to obtain a more reliable result.
1042 Recommended methods of measurement are given in Section 7.5. If the earth electrode
1043 system is not yet installed, measurements may be made on representative test electrodes and
1044 the results extrapolated to the intended final design. Measurement may be delayed until a
1045 sufficiently representative part of the intended system is installed to obtain a better prediction
1046 of any improvements necessary. In any event, a final check measurement of the completed
1047 installation is recommended prior to energisation.
1048 5.6.1 Design flowchart

1049 The general approach is summarised in the flowchart below.
1050
1051
Page 39
1052
Page 40
1053 5.6.2 Assessment procedure

1054 An approximate assessment considers both the internal and external earth fault conditions as
1055 explained above but disregards any contribution from external electrodes, e.g. overhead line
1056 earth-wires or cable sheaths. This may be all that is required in many cases providing
1057 compliance with the safety criteria is demonstrated.
1058 With reference to the flowchart in Section 5.6.1:
1059 1. Establish the soil resistivity (by measurement or enquiry).

1060 2. Estimate the resistance of the site electrode system (using computer modelling or formulae
1061 given in Appendix B of ENA EREC S34).
1062 3. Obtain the worst-case fault current flowing through the electrode system, disregarding the
1063 effect of fortuitous electrode systems or cable sheath/earthwire return paths.
1064 4. Estimate the EPR, which is the product of resistance (point 2 above) and current (point 3).
1065 5. If the value derived in (4) above does not exceed 2x the permissible touch potential, no
1066 further assessment should be done. The finalised design of the earthing system may be
1067 prepared taking into account the earthing and electrode conductor ratings.
1068 If the value derived under (4) above exceeds the appropriate safety voltages by a factor of
1069 2 or more, a more refined assessment should be made as detailed below.
1070 6. Determine the soil resistivity by measurement.

1071 7. Estimate the value of the substation earth electrode system resistance, including the
1072 contributions made by any overhead earth wires and/or earthed cable sheaths radiating
1073 from the site using the preliminary design assessment layout and the data provided in ENA
1074 EREC S34.
1075 8. Obtain the appropriate total values of system earth fault current for both an internal and
1076 external earth fault and deduce the greater value of the two following quantities of earth
1077 fault current passing through the earth electrode system. See ENA EREC S34 for guidance
1078 on this evaluation.
1079 9. For an internal fault, establish the total fault current less that returning to any local
1080 transformer neutrals and that returning as induced current in any earth wire or cable
1081 sheath/armour.
1082 10. For an external fault, that returning to local transformers less that returning as induced
1083 current in any earth wire or cable sheath/armour.
1084 11. Estimate the rise of earth potential (EPR) based on the product of items (7) and (9) or (10)
1085 above, whichever is the greater.
1086 12. If the EPR value derived under (11) above exceeds 2x the permissible touch or step
1087 potentials, an assessment covering touch, step, and transfer potentials should be made.
1088 The design should consider LV, telecoms, and remote systems where relevant.
1089 13. If the earthing system is safe against touch potential, it will almost always be safe against
1090 step potential3, although special consideration may be needed in certain situations such
1091 as wet areas, livestock, etc.
1092 Reference should be made to Appendix B of EREC S34 for formulae giving ground surface
1093 potential contours; the touch potential is the difference between EPR and ground surface
3 BS EN 50522 states: “As a general rule meeting the touch potential requirements satisfies the step potential
requirements, because the tolerable step potential limits are much higher than touch potential limits due to the
different current path through the body.”
Page 41
1094 potential up to 1 m from plant / bonded items. Computer modelling may be necessary for
1095 complex systems.
1096 Depending on the results of the evaluation, further improvements in the design of the earth
1097 electrode system may be necessary until the appropriate safety criteria for touch, step and
1098 transfer potentials are met and any necessary isolation or additional insulation is provided to
1099 avoid contact with transferred potentials which exceed the appropriate safety limit.
1100 5.6.3 Methods to improve design (mitigation measures)

1101 Following assessment, if the safety criteria are not met, the designer should consider ways to
1102 either reduce overall EPR, or reduce the step/touch potentials.
1103 5.6.3.1 EPR reduction

1104 As described in Section 4.4.1, there is no specified limit to the EPR of the substation and the
1105 ultimate design limit is dependent on a number of factors. However, improvements may
1106 sometimes be justified to lower this value by reducing the value of the earth electrode
1107 resistance. If, for example, the surface potential outside the substation exceeds that which is
1108 acceptable to third parties in that area (e.g. telecoms or pipeline operators), lowering the earth
1109 electrode resistance may be considered.
1110 Reduction of earth resistance by extending the electrode area may increase transfer potential
1111 onto third-party metallic services and this should be considered in the design. It may be more
1112 practicable to protect the other authorities’ plant by isolation or additional insulation.
1113 EPR (arising from local faults) can generally be reduced by one or more of the following.
1114 • Earth resistance reduction.

1115 • Fault level reduction. This can be achieved by impedance earthing (Section 4.5.1), or
1116 changes to running arrangements, or possibly more accurate calculation of earth fault level
1117 including earth resistance values, which may be of benefit in marginal situations.
1118 • Ground return current reduction. This can be achieved by lower impedance metallic return
1119 paths, e.g. enhanced cable sheaths or earth-wires, or undergrounding a section of
1120 overhead line to make a complete cable circuit.
1121 An excessive EPR arising from transfer potential, e.g. carried along the cable sheath from the
1122 source substation, can be reduced by lowering earth resistance or by introducing a sheath
1123 break into the cable (e.g. by using an insulated gland or unearthed overhead line section).
1124 Special care is required in such circumstances to ensure that a person cannot simultaneously
1125 make contact with two earthing systems. There may be other considerations which make a
1126 sheath break unacceptable or ineffective in some circumstances. Alternatively, measures
1127 could be taken to lower the EPR at the source substation. In any case, the design should be
1128 re-assessed to consider these revised arrangements.
1129 5.6.3.2 Touch potential reduction

1130 If reduction of EPR is not practicable or economic, touch potential can be reduced by adopting
1131 measures to equalise potential between an operator’s hands and feet; generally these
1132 measures involve additional bonded grading electrode or mesh under the operator’s position,
1133 or insulated platforms.
1134 Formulae are given in Appendix B of ENA EREC S34 for simple touch potential calculations.
1135 The touch and step potentials should be re-calculated or re-modelled following any changes
1136 to the electrode layout. The touch potentials appearing on external parts of a substation
Page 42
1137 (fences/doors/substations) should also be considered as these could cause issues for
1138 members of public.
1139 5.7 Risk assessment

1140 As set out in BS EN 50522, risk assessment is one of the acceptable tools for analysis of
1141 situations where the cost of removing an identified risk appears to be disproportionately high.
1142 A risk-based approach should consider the statistical probability of injury occurring and to
1143 weigh this against the cost needed to mitigate against that risk.
1144 Risk assessment should only be used in circumstances where strict compliance with
1145 permissible safety voltage limits is not reasonably practicable, and where there are valid and
1146 well documented reasons for this. It should be used only as a last resort, as described in the
1147 flowchart in Section 5.6.1. In practice, it is most appropriate outside an installation as it should
1148 almost always be possible to achieve safe (deterministic) step and touch potentials within site
1149 boundaries.
1150 A worked example is given in Section 11.1.
1151 5.7.1 Methodology

1152 The individual risk of fatality per year (IR) for a hypothetical person is calculated from the mean
1153 number of significant EPR events (!" ) per annum, the probability of exposure (PE) and the
1154 probability of fibrillation (PFB). A simplified formula applicable to power system applications is:
1155 #$ ≅ !" ∗ () ∗ (*+
1156 This simplified formula is in line with that given in Annex NB of BS EN 50522.
1157 NOTE: A hypothetical person describes an individual who is in some fixed relation to the hazard, e.g. the person
1158 most exposed to it, or a person living at some fixed point or with some assumed pattern of life [see HSE document
1159 R2P2]. To ensure that all significant risks for a particular hazard are adequately covered, there will usually have to
1160 be a number of hypothetical persons considered.
1161 () and (*+ are dimensionless quantities; () relates to the proportion of time that an individual
1162 is in contact with the system. (*+ can be derived from body current calculations and fault
1163 clearance times, with reference to Figure 20 of DD IEC/TS 60479-1. The assessment should
1164 in the first instance use the higher (*+ for the band (e.g. 5 % for the 0-5 % band AC-4.1
1165 between lines C1 and C2). An interpolated rather than upper-bound (*+ may be justifiable in
1166 some circumstances.
1167 It is recommended that the large area dry contact impedance model not exceeded for 5 % of
1168 the population is used (Table 1 of DD IEC/TS 60479-1) unless specific circumstances apply.
1169 The calculated individual risk is then compared to a broadly acceptable risk of death per person
1170 per year as defined in HSE Document R2P2. If the risk is greater than 1 in 1 million (deaths
1171 per person per year), but less than 1 in 10,000, this falls into the tolerable region and the cost
1172 of reducing risk should be evaluated using ALARP principles taking into account the expected
1173 lifetime of the installation and the HSE’s present value for the prevention of a fatality (VPF) to
1174 determine the justifiable spend for mitigation.
1175 Where the justifiable spend is significantly less than the cost of mitigation, risk assessment
1176 may justify the decision whether or not to take mitigating action. Mitigation may include (and is
1177 not limited to) new or relocated barriers/fences, insulating paint, earthing redesign, substation
1178 relocation, restricted access, appropriate signage, protection enhancements, reliability
1179 improvements, EPR reduction, insulated ground coverings or fault level modification.
Page 43
1180 5.7.2 Typical applications

1181 Typical applications for risk assessment may be those outside an installation, on the basis that
1182 it is almost always possible to control step and touch potentials within the confines of a
1183 substation by using appropriate buried electrode and/or ground coverings. Risk assessment is
1184 not appropriate for situations where the presence of an individual increases the likelihood of
1185 an earth fault, e.g. switching operations or work in substations or HV installations.
1186 Case Study 1 in Section 11 gives a typical example of a fence that has been built close to a
1187 substation having HEPR. Under substation fault conditions, touch potentials exceeding
1188 permissible design limits can appear around the fence due to differences between the elevated
1189 soil potential and that of the fence. The risk assessment approach allows the need for
1190 mitigation measures to be evaluated.
1191 6 Construction
1192 6.1 General
1193 Above-ground connections may use copper or aluminium conductors. Metal structures may
1194 be used to provide connections between equipment and the earthing system where
1195 appropriate.
1196 Below-ground earthing systems will normally be installed using copper conductor.
1197 When designing and installing both above and below ground earthing installations, the risk of
1198 theft and corrosion should be considered and mitigation measures put in place where
1199 necessary.
1200 6.1.1 Materials

1201 The use of copper earthing conductor is preferable due to its electrical and material properties.
1202 Copper tape and (hard drawn) stranded copper conductor (minimum strand diameter 2 mm)
1203 are both suitable to be used as a buried electrode.
1204 Bare aluminium conductor or copper rope (fine braided) are not suitable for use underground
1205 in any circumstances due to the risk of accelerated corrosion. Aluminium conductor is less
1206 prone to theft and may be used provided it is at all points at least 150 mm above the ground.
1207 Galvanised steel may be used as supplementary electrode where it is already installed for
1208 other reasons. Consideration should be given to the risk of corrosion over the lifetime of the
1209 installation. Galvanised steel has an electro potential different to that of copper and can erode
1210 quickly if connected to a system which has copper electrodes.
1211 In very hostile environments, it may occasionally be necessary to use more resilient materials
1212 such as stainless steel.
1213 6.1.2 Avoiding theft

1214 At the design stage, all exposed copper electrode should be reduced to a minimum.
1215 On new installations above ground, exposed copper and aluminium sections should be fixed
1216 using anti-theft fixing techniques. See Section 6.3.1 for conductor fixing detail.
1217 At new and existing high risk sites the use of additional anti-theft precautions should be
1218 considered.
1219 Precautions above ground may include:

Page 44
1220 • application of anti-climb paint on above-ground sections and / or above-ground copper may
1221 be painted to look like aluminium or galvanised steel.
1222 • fitting galvanised steel anti-theft capping over the conductor to a height of at least 3 m or
1223 the equipment position.
1224 • fitting steel banding around structures and pinning the fixings.
1225 • stamping copper tape electrode with the owner’s name.
1226 • earth connections to such items as metal cladding, metal structures, metal door frames or
1227 any other metallic panels should be made inside buildings.
1228 • additional site security precautions such as the application of alarms, electric perimeter
1229 fences, CCTV etc.
1230 • use of forensic traceable liquids.
1231 • avoiding yellow/green insulated coverings (use e.g. grey instead).
1232
1233 Precautions below ground may include:
1234 • placing concrete or concrete anchor blocks over buried electrode.

1235 • attaching earth rods every few metres to prevent removal of electrode.
1236 • pinning electrode at least every 300 mm where it is installed in concrete trench work or
1237 over concrete plinths.
1238 • laying electrode in conductive concrete or similar materials.
1239
1240 Earthing conductors located in pre-formed concrete trenches (or similar) containing power
1241 and/or multicore cables should be fixed to the walls near the top (e.g. 100 mm from the top).
1242 Where possible, they should be concealed or otherwise protected against theft.
1243 6.2 Jointing conductors and equipment connections

1244 6.2.1 General
1245 Exothermic welded, brazed and compression type joints are acceptable above and below
1246 ground and are suitable for all substations. For ground-mounted distribution substations, bolted
1247 joints are also permissible, provided they are adequately protected against moisture ingress.
1248 For connections made to equipment, welded joints may be possible, but in the majority of
1249 cases bolted joints will be necessary. The provision of bolted earth connections on equipment
1250 needs special consideration to achieve a low resistance arrangement which can withstand the
1251 maximum earth fault current without deterioration. Purpose designed connections should
1252 preferably be provided by the equipment manufacturer.
1253 Bolted connections should preferably be of the double bolt / double hole lug fixing type,
1254 however this generally requires drillings to be provided at the equipment procurement stage.
1255 Where single bolt / single hole lug fixings are provided, the application of a washer and second
1256 (lock) nut gives extra security.
1257 With aluminium conductors in particular, surface preparation is critical to achieving connections
1258 with ongoing low resistance.
1259 Nuts, bolts and washers should be of high tensile stainless steel or galvanised steel, except
1260 for transition washers used for joining dissimilar metals.
Page 45
1261 6.2.2 Transition washers

1262 A transition washer may be used to minimise corrosion when joining dissimilar metals with a
1263 bolted connection. Transition washers designed for copper-aluminium joints should be surface
1264 penetrating, grease protected washers manufactured from corrosion resistant copper alloy to
1265 BS EN 2874 (grade CZ121). They are designed to provide a stable corrosion resistant interface
1266 between aluminium and copper or tinned copper, and are usually provided as a pack including
1267 appropriate matched nuts, bolts and washers.
1268 Different transition washers may be required for connections from copper to galvanised metal.
1269 Transition washers tend not to be widely used for connections between aluminium and zinc
1270 coated (galvanised) steel, because zinc and aluminium are very close in the galvanic series.
1271 However, such connections are likely to corrode once the zinc coating has been lost, and
1272 therefore precautions should be taken to exclude moisture by use of an appropriate grease or
1273 paint applied after the joint is made.
1274 6.2.3 Copper to copper joints

1275 Tape to tape connections should be brazed or exothermically welded, except for smaller
1276 distribution substations where hot works may not be practicable.
1277 Connections between stranded conductors should be exothermically welded or joined using
1278 compression joints.
1279 Stranded conductor to tape connections should be exothermically welded or a lug should be
1280 compressed onto the stranded conductor, which for underground use is bolted and then brazed
1281 or welded onto the copper tape. For above ground purposes, the lug may be bolted to the tape
1282 but should preferably have a double bolt fitting.
1283 Soft soldered joints (e.g. lead-tin or lead-free solder) should not be used.
1284 6.2.4 Copper connections to earth rods

1285 Connections should be brazed or exothermically welded. Bolting and U-bolts should not be
1286 used, except for smaller distribution substations where hot works may not be practicable.
1287 6.2.5 Electrode test points

1288 Electrode test points may be required either at the rod top for long single rods or inline between
1289 a rod group and the main earthing system. To allow individual rod resistance values to be
1290 tested with a clip-on meter and facilitate electrode tracing, all test points should be constructed
1291 to allow the test clamp to fit and to avoid corrosion.
1292 Test links are not recommended but where installed, special procedures should be adopted to
1293 avoid inadvertent disconnection and to permit safe management/testing techniques.
1294 A test point associated with pile cap connections is useful but only if the design of the re-bar
1295 is electrically separated from the rest of the site. At most sites, the re-bar will be connected
1296 together and while this provides an excellent earth, testing the individual pile cap earths is
1297 impossible. In these cases, separate earth pins should have been provided in the design,
1298 perhaps for high-frequency and/or lightning protection, which will allow testing between
1299 individual earth rods and the MES.
1300 6.2.6 Copper connections to equipment (steel or galvanised steel)

1301 Connections should wherever possible be in the vertical plane. Remove paint from the metal
1302 at joint position on the equipment earth, sand metal smooth and apply neutral jointing
1303 compound. Drill the copper tape to accommodate the bolts (normal diameter is 10 mm) and tin
Page 46
1304 the complete contact area. The bolt holes should be less than one-third the width of the tape.
1305 Failing this, a copper flag should be jointed to the copper tape and the holes drilled into this. A
1306 two-bolt fixing is preferred, unless a suitably rated fixing is provided by the manufacturer.
1307 Copper joint surfaces, once drilled, should be cleaned using aluminium oxide cloth (grade 80).
1308 Copper is tinned at all bolted connections; the tinning should be thin, and should not exceed
1309 an average of 0.5 mm, otherwise it will flow from bolted sections under pressure. Neutral
1310 jointing compound should then be applied to the joint faces.
1311 The same procedure should be used when joining to galvanised steel, in which case the zinc
1312 coating should be removed from the joint faces.
1313 6.2.7 Aluminium connections to equipment

1314 Aluminium conductor connections to equipment should, where possible be in the vertical plane.
1315 In all cases joints should be made in accordance with the procedure for copper connections
1316 Section 6.2.6. However, the aluminium tape should not be tinned, and appropriate transition
1317 washers should be used at the aluminium to steel interface (but also see Section 6.2.11).
1318 6.2.8 Aluminium to aluminium joints

1319 The preferred method is either inert-gas tungsten-arc (TIG) or inert-gas metal arc (MIG)
1320 welding provided that the area of the welded material at least matches that of the tape cross
1321 section. Bolted joints are acceptable since aluminium is only used above ground.
1322 For bolted joints, the following applies:
1323 • All joints require a two bolt fixing.

1324 • Bolts should be of high tensile galvanised steel, fitted with large diameter galvanised steel
1325 washers, or (optionally), transition washers designed to penetrate the aluminium oxide
1326 coating.
1327 • The surface aluminium should be cleaned using grade 80 aluminium oxide cloth or
1328 equivalent and coated with neutral compound grease. This may not be necessary if a
1329 transition washer is used, in which case manufacturers guidance should be followed.
1330 • Bolts should be tightened using a torque wrench, to avoid over stressing in accordance
1331 with Table 9. It is important not to compress aluminium connectors by excessive tightening,
1332 as loss of elasticity by plastic deformation can result in loosening of the connection when
1333 subject to thermal cycling.
1334 • All excess grease should be wiped off the finished joint.
1335 • The joint should be sealed against ingress of moisture.
1336
1337 Table 9 – Bolt sizes and torques for use on aluminium
Bar Bar Bolt Hole Recommended Washer Washer

width overlap diameter diameter torque size thickness
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (Nm) (mm) (mm)
40 80 10 12 35 OD 25 2.5
ID 11
60 100 12 14 50 OD 28 3.0
ID 12.5
1338
Page 47
1339 6.2.9 Aluminium to copper joints

1340 Connections are to be in the vertical plane, at least 150 mm above the ground or concrete
1341 plinth. They should be located in positions where water cannot gather and the aluminium will
1342 be above the copper. Bi-metallic joints should not be made on buried sections of electrode.
1343 All connections involving dissimilar metals should be cleaned with abrasive cloth and coated
1344 with neutral compound grease, before making a bolted connection. Copper should be pre-
1345 tinned. The finished joint should be sealed using bitumastic paint, compound, waterproof tape
1346 or a heat shrink tube filled with neutral grease. A transition washer (see Section 6.2.2) may be
1347 used to minimise corrosion at bolted joints.
1348 Where joints have been made closer to ground level than 150 mm (usually following theft), a
1349 corrosion risk assessment is necessary. If the ground is well-drained and there is little chance
1350 of water being retained around the joint, the above arrangement is acceptable. If not, the
1351 copper should be extended upwards to reduce risk of corrosion.
1352 6.2.10 Earthing connections to aluminium structures

1353 The following procedures are necessary to ensure that aluminium structures used to support
1354 substation equipment do not corrode:
1355 • The bottom surface of the structure base and the top surface where galvanised steel or
1356 other equipment is to be fitted, should be painted with two coats of bitumastic paint, prior
1357 to bolting into position on the concrete plinth.
1358 NOTE: This reduces the possibility of bi-metallic action which would corrode the aluminium.
1359 A conducting strap is required between any steel of the top level equipment support and
1360 the aluminium structure.
1361 • Provision should be made for connecting below-ground conductor to the structure via a
1362 suitable drilling and bi-metallic connection (see Section 6.2.9).
1363 • Except for fault throwers and high-frequency earths (capacitor voltage transformers and
1364 surge arrestors) the aluminium structure leg(s) may be used to provide earth continuity
1365 down to the connection to the MES. The following is also necessary:
1366 Any bolted sections of the structure that may be subject to bi-metallic corrosion, and/or may
1367 be of insufficient cross section, should be bridged using aluminium earth tape. The bridged
1368 joint should be made as any other aluminium to aluminium earth connection. Totally tinned
1369 copper straps may be used if necessary on connections to insulator supports from the
1370 aluminium. The copper and completed connection should be painted to prevent moisture
1371 ingress and corrosion.
1372 The aluminium structure should be connected to the MES, using copper tape that is tinned at
1373 the joint position.
1374 Where the legs of the support structure are greater than 2 m apart or the structure forms a
1375 bolted TT (or goal post type) formation, an earth connection should be made on two legs of
1376 the structure.
1377 6.2.11 Steel structures

1378 The legs of steel structures should be used wherever practicable to provide the connection
1379 between the earthing system and equipment at the top, except for fault-throwing switches and
1380 earth switches. For equipment requiring high-frequency earths (e.g. CVTs and surge
1381 arrestors), see Section 6.14.
1382 Ideally, the structure should be of the welded type or have one or more legs formed with a
1383 continuous section from ground to equipment level.
Page 48
1384 If a steel structure is used to convey fault current, it should be reliable, and of sufficient current
1385 carrying capacity to avoid excessive temperature rise. If there is reliance on a single joint or
1386 leg, bolted shunts should be considered. Where bolted shunts are used, the temperature rise
1387 of bolted connections should be limited to 250 ºC. See Section 5.5.1.
1388 Joints should be reliable. Galvanising (zinc coating) of the steel forms an oxide which
1389 increases in thickness with age and could create a high resistance at joint surfaces.
1390 Where aluminium tape is connected to a galvanised steel structure, a transition washer is not
1391 required, however adequate preparation of the joint surfaces, and protection from water
1392 ingress is required in accordance with normal best practice.
1393 6.3 Above-ground earthing installations

1394 6.3.1 Fixing above-ground conductor to supports
1395 Bare copper or aluminium tapes should not be in direct contact with steel (or galvanised steel)
1396 structures, since electrolytic corrosion will result at the contact areas. The tapes should be
1397 held clear of the structures using non-metallic spacers, or corrosion prevented using sleeving
1398 or paint/greases to exclude moisture.
1399 To prevent theft, the following methods of fixing should be used:
1400 • Pinning at least every 300 mm for higher security using stainless steel pins. The pins should
1401 have plastic spacers to separate the pin from the conductor. Plastic spacers should
1402 separate uncoated aluminium or copper tape from galvanised steelwork.
1403 • Drilling and screwing with tamper proof screw heads. This method is more appropriate if
1404 the concrete support may be damaged by use of percussion driven pins. A plastic spacer
1405 is required to separate the screw from the metal. The screws should be stainless steel.
1406 It is important that the pins or screws are fitted such that water cannot gather and cause
1407 corrosion. Aluminium should preferably not be in direct contact with concrete, so if practicable,
1408 the back of the conductor should be coated with a high temperature aluminium grease or other
1409 heat-proof coating.
1410 Consideration should be given to the reduction of conductor cross-sectional area and current
1411 carrying capability due to drilling. Any holes introduced into the earth conductor should not
1412 exceed 10 mm in diameter and one third of the width.
1413 The design final temperature of any bolted connection is 250 ºC, compared to that of 405 ºC
1414 (copper) and 325 ºC (aluminium). Consequently, earthing conductors with bolted connections
1415 have a rating that is between 80 % and 90 % of their normal value.
1416 6.3.2 Prevention of corrosion of above-ground conductors

1417 Copper strip conductor supported from, or in contact with, galvanised steel should either be
1418 tinned or coated in a high temperature grease to prevent electrolytic action.
1419 Unless it is protected, aluminium earthing conductor should not be laid within 150 mm of
1420 ground level.
1421 6.3.3 Metal trench covers

1422 Within substation buildings, metal trench covers need to be indirectly earthed. This is best
1423 achieved by installing a copper strip (25 mm x 3 mm) along one edge of the trench top edge.
1424 The covers will be in contact with this when in position. The copper strip should be bonded to
1425 the switchgear earth bar or internal earthing system.
Page 49
1426 6.3.4 Loops for portable earth connections

1427 Earth loops of aluminium or copper strip conductor connected to the structure earth connection,
1428 should be provided at appropriate locations where portable earth leads need to be applied.
1429 The loops, if not provided as part of the structure, should preferably be formed separately and
1430 jointed to the aluminium or copper tape. The loop should be not less than 230 mm long and 75
1431 mm high and suitable for connection of portable earths complying with ENA TS 41-21.
1432 Loops should not be installed in the run of high-frequency earths associated with CVTs and
1433 surge arrestors since these will introduce a high impedance to high-frequency/steep fronted
1434 surges. A loop for portable earths may be added in parallel to the straight earthing conductor
1435 rather than as a loop formed in the earthing conductor itself. D loops should only be installed
1436 on fully rated conductors.
1437
1438 6.4 Below-ground earthing installations

1439 6.4.1 Installation of buried electrode within a substation
1440 The electrode should be installed at a depth of at least 600 mm to give physical protection to
1441 the electrode and connections. This also tends to place the electrode in moist soil below the
1442 frost line so helping ensure its resistance is stable. The resistivity of ice is in the region 10,000
1443 to 100,000 W.m (compared with 10-1000 W.m for most soils) and therefore the resistance of
1444 an earthing system will increase significantly if it is not clear of frost.
1445 Buried earth electrode should be surrounded by 150 mm of fine texture non-corrosive soil,
1446 firmly consolidated. The use of pulverised fuel ash (PFA) or coke breeze as backfill is not
1447 recommended as it may induce rapid corrosion of buried electrode and metallic cable sheaths.
1448 Where there is a risk of corrosion, the electrode size may need to be increased.
1449 If the indigenous soil is hostile to copper, i.e. acidic with a pH value of less than 6 or alkaline
1450 with a pH value of more than 10, suitable surrounding soil should be imported. However, if
1451 groundwater is present (which may serve to remove the imported soil), other methods may be
1452 necessary to protect the electrode. More regular testing or inspection may be required.
1453 When laying stranded conductor, care should be taken to avoid distorting and opening the
1454 individual strands because this increases the probability of accelerated corrosion.
1455 6.4.2 Positioning of buried electrode

1456 Earth electrode should not be laid close and parallel to hessian-served power cables, multicore
1457 cables, or bare metal pipes. This is to reduce the risk of puncture due to high currents or
1458 voltage transients on the electrode.
1459 Electrode should be at laid at least 300 mm away from hessian-served power cables and bare
1460 metal pipes and 150 mm away from plastic sheathed cables. Where a crossing is necessary,
1461 PVC tape or a split plastic duct should be applied around the cable or pipe for 0.5 m either side
1462 of a position where the cable or pipe crosses an earth electrode, or for the distance over which
1463 the 0.3 m separation cannot be maintained.
1464 Where copper tape within the site is to be buried under proposed cable routes care should be
1465 taken to ensure it is buried deep enough or otherwise protected in a duct so that it is not
1466 damaged during cable installation.
1467 Where electrode connected to the earthing system is laid under metal fencing, and the fencing
1468 is independently earthed, the electrode should be insulated for at least 2 m each side of the
1469 fence.
Page 50
1470 Earthing conductors laid near drainage pits or other civil works should maintain a separation
1471 of at least 500 mm to avoid mechanical damage during subsequent works.
1472 Where bare electrode has to cross permanent trench routes:
1473 • short lengths of electrode may be laid under the trench for later connection to the grid;
1474 • a short duct may be laid under the trench to accommodate the electrode.
1475
1476 Subsidiary connections to equipment may be laid at shallower depth. Due to variation of soil
1477 resistivity near the surface, their contribution to the overall earth resistance should be ignored
1478 in the design. Their contribution towards reducing touch and step potentials should be included.
1479 In cases where a concrete plinth covers the whole substation site, (e.g. 11 kV/LV unit type or
1480 urban 33 kV substations) earth electrodes should be installed prior to construction of the plinth.
1481 Provision should be made to bring multiple connections out through the concrete. The extent
1482 of the electrode mesh required will be influenced by whether steel reinforcing is used and
1483 bonded, within the foundation.
1484 When routing bare electrode off site, either to reduce the overall earth resistance or to provide
1485 a connection to external equipment such as terminal poles, routes that may be frequented by
1486 people with bare feet or animals should be avoided.
1487 If this is not possible, calculations or computer modelling should be used to confirm that the
1488 step potentials in these areas are acceptable (a design figure of 25 V/m may be used for
1489 livestock areas as described in Section 4.4.2). Where electrode crosses land that is ploughed
1490 it should be installed a minimum of 1 m deep.
1491 When re-bar is installed in building and equipment foundations, duplicate connections may be
1492 made from the re-bar to the grid for touch potential control. (See Section 6.5).
1493 Burying copper in concrete below ground level, and at a depth such that the moisture content
1494 remains reasonably stable, does not reduce the effectiveness of the earthing (except where
1495 damp-proof membranes are installed).
1496 6.4.3 Other earth electrodes

1497 6.4.3.1 Earth rods
1498 These are generally convenient to install where the subsoil is free from boulders and rock. Rod
1499 electrodes and their connections should be in accordance with ENA TS 43-94. The earth
1500 resistance of a rod or group of rod electrodes may be calculated from formulae given in
1501 Appendix B of ENA EREC S34.
1502 A number of rods may be connected in parallel but they should be installed with sufficient
1503 spacing such that each is essentially outside the resistance area of any other. For worthwhile
1504 results, the mutual separation should be not less than the depth of the rod.
1505 The rods may be connected to the earthing system via a test chamber which is capable of
1506 accepting a clip-on resistance meter.
1507 Deep earth electrodes should, as far as possible, be driven into the earth vertically. If rods are
1508 installed in drilled holes, they may be backfilled with a proprietary low resistance backfill
1509 material.
1510 Rods may be particularly advantageous if the earth resistivity falls with depth. If several deep
1511 earth electrodes are necessary in order to achieve a required parallel resistance, where space
Page 51
1512 is available the mutual minimum separation could usefully be double that of the effective length
1513 of an individual earth electrode.
1514 Substations in large urban developments are often located below ground level in tanked
1515 structures. In such situations, special facilities for installing earth electrodes are required.
1516 6.4.3.2 Earth plates

1517 Earth plates have been used in older earthing system designs when they were often situated
1518 in groups or “nests” near the main transformers. Modern designs make little use of plates,
1519 except where the soil is such that it is difficult to drive in earth rods or at the corners of the
1520 earthing system perimeter electrode. In this case a plate will be installed in the vertical plane
1521 and acts as a replacement for a rod.
1522 In older sites, should an earth plate require replacement, it is likely that the earthing system
1523 itself will require redesign and this may render the plate obsolete. Where there is any doubt,
1524 the plate can be replaced on a like-for-like basis, or by several 2.4 m rods in parallel, close
1525 together. Plates are typically 1220 mm or 915 mm square in size, of ribbed cast iron and
1526 approximately 12 mm thick.
1527 6.5 Use of structural earths including steel piles and re-bar
1528 Structural metalwork (piles and foundations) can make a valuable contribution to an earthing
1529 system, specifically providing parallel paths for earth fault current, reducing overall earth
1530 resistance and increasing resilience. Such contributions should be viewed as additional, rather
1531 than instead of, a dedicated earthing system.
1532 Horizontal (meshed) re-bar installed in concrete or in a screed below plant can provide good
1533 control of touch potentials. Use of re-bar should be primarily viewed in terms of touch potential
1534 control, rather than as an electrode system.
1535 6.5.1 Sheet steel piles

1536 Sheets that are more than 3 m long and 2 m wide should be bonded to the earthing system.
1537 Stainless steel studs are to be exothermically welded to each second sheet at a suitable height
1538 (normally 600 mm below finished ground level) and a strip of 40 mm x 4 mm copper tape will
1539 be bolted to these. The strip will in turn be connected to the MES. If the piles form a separate
1540 electrode connected to the earthing system at one point, the connection should be via a test
1541 chamber such that the contribution of the piles may be monitored. Bolted connections should
1542 be avoided where possible.
1543 6.5.2 Horizontal steel-reinforced foundations

1544 For transformer and switch rooms, the most significant benefit of shallow re-bar mesh is in
1545 potential grading (touch potential control). Where this is necessary to ensure operator safety
1546 (i.e. in situations where the EPR exceeds safe touch potential limits), it is important to ensure
1547 the integrity of any connections.
1548 For touch potential control, re-bar will be installed normally at shallow depth (i.e. with the re-
1549 bar strips bound with soft steel wire, or as a prefabricated mesh), but with two or more re-bar
1550 connections left protruding from the concrete for approximately 150 mm sufficient to allow
1551 connection to copper or aluminium conductors. Alternatively, connections may be provided
1552 before concrete is poured using a re-bar clamp with flexible earth conductor. In either case any
1553 inaccessible re -bar extension used for the final connections should be welded to the main re-
1554 bar assembly.
1555 Ideally the re-bar should be arranged with welded connections along at least two orthogonal
1556 edges such that welded joints connect each bar.
Page 52
1557 If the re-bar is to function as an auxiliary earth electrode (e.g. it is installed at sufficient depth
1558 to make a contribution), current rating considerations may mean that exothermic welding is
1559 necessary for connections to the re-bar and between re-bar meshes.
1560 NOTE: Protruding re-bar may not be acceptable in some circumstances due to concerns with water ingress etc.
1561 6.5.3 Vertical steel-reinforced concrete columns

1562 Where these columns have steel reinforcing that extends further into the ground than it is
1563 possible to bury a conventional earthing system, the design may require these to be bonded
1564 to the earthing system. The easiest method is to leave a section of bonded re-bar 150 mm out
1565 of the concrete for a connection to be made later by the earth installers. This should have its
1566 electrical continuity maintained at joint positions by welding the connections. Some designs
1567 require electrical connections between the piles made with re-bar. In this case, supervision of
1568 the civil works will be required before concrete is poured.
1569 NOTE: Protruding re-bar may not be acceptable in some circumstances due to concerns with water ingress etc.
1570 6.6 Metallic fences

1571 Two alternative earthing arrangements may be applied to metallic substation fences. These
1572 are:
1573 • an independently earthed (or segregated) fence arrangement where the fence is kept
1574 electrically isolated from the substation MES (Figure 2).
1575 or
1576 • a bonded fence arrangement where the fence is bonded to the substation MES (Figure 3).
1577 Occasionally it may be appropriate to employ both methods on different fence sections at the
1578 same site. In this case insulated sections are used to physically link the fences with different
1579 earthing arrangements.
1580 Where the fence panels are supported by steel posts that are at least 1 m deep in the ground,
1581 the posts can be considered as earth electrodes.
1582 Where it is important to provide electrical continuity between adjacent panels (e.g. where
1583 overhead lines cross, or run in parallel with the fence or in proximity to magnetic fields), this
1584 can be provided by attention to the bolt/fixing connections or by providing a separate continuity
1585 conductor which may be buried or supported on the fence.
1586 6.6.1 Independently earthed fences

1587 Where the MES is effectively within the substation perimeter fence, the fence should be
1588 separately earthed with rods approximately 2.4 m long located at:
1589 • all fence corners.

1590 • 1 m either side of each point where HV overhead conductors cross the fence.
1591 • additional locations such that the interval between rods sites should not exceed 50 m.
1592 Gate posts should be bonded together with below-ground connections to ensure that potential
1593 differences do not arise when the two parts are bridged by a person opening the gates. Flexible
1594 bonds (minimum CSA 16 mm2 cu or equivalent) should also be used to bond the gates to the
1595 posts as an additional safety measure.
1596 6.6.2 Segregation between independently earthed fence and earthing system
1597 A segregation distance above ground of at least 2 m should be maintained between the
1598 substation fence and the MES including all items connected to it. This is based on personnel
Page 53
1599 avoiding simultaneous contact with the independently earthed fence and equipment connected
1600 to the earthing system. A similar distance should be maintained below ground, where
1601 practicable, taking into account the location of substation perimeter electrodes etc.
1602 The 2 m segregation between the independently earthed fence and the earthing system should
1603 be maintained on an ongoing basis. This should not be compromised by alterations such as
1604 the addition of lighting or security installations, where e.g. cable armours can compromise the
1605 segregation of the systems.
1606 Where the required segregation cannot be achieved, mitigation measures should be
1607 considered e.g. insulating paint or barriers that do not compromise security. Alternatively, the
1608 risk assessment approach outlined in Section 5.7 may be applied.
1609 A formula for calculation of the touch potential on a fence is given in Formula P7 in Appendix
1610 B of ENA EREC S34.
1611
1612
1613
1614 Figure 2 – Arrangement of separately earthed fence
1615
1616 6.6.3 Fences bonded to the substation MES

1617 This arrangement is used where substation plant and equipment is located within 2 m of a
1618 metallic fence and where internal fences which are located within the area encompassed by
1619 the MES. The fences should be connected to the MES using discrete but visible connections
1620 located at:
1621 • all fence corners.

1622 • 1 m either side of each point where HV overhead conductors cross the fence.
Page 54
1623 • additional locations such that the interval between connections does not exceed 50 m.
1624
1625 Where the fence which is connected to the substation MES is the perimeter fence, and where
1626 the touch potential external to the fence could exceed the safety voltage limits set out in Table
1627 1, the following requirements apply:
1628 • A bare electrode conductor should be buried in the ground external to the perimeter fence
1629 at approximately a distance of 1 m and at a depth of 0.5 m. In agricultural locations, risk of
1630 disturbance due to ploughing should be addressed;
1631 • The conductor should be connected to the fence and to the earthing system at intervals of
1632 50 metres or less such that it becomes an integral part of the MES. One method to achieve
1633 this is to expand the substation grid such that the fence is located within the area of this
1634 grid. (Figure 3)
1635 • Chippings around the substation perimeter will provide additional protection to
1636 animals/persons outside the substation.
1637 At locations where fencing connected to the substation MES abuts with independently earthed
1638 fencing and this presents a touch hazard, there should be electrical isolation between the two
1639 fence systems. See Section 6.6.5 for methods of achieving electrical isolation between fences
1640 using insulated fence sections.
1641
1642
1643 Figure 3 – Arrangement of bonded fence
1644
1645 6.6.4 Third-party metallic fences

1646 Third parties should not directly connect their metal fences to a metallic substation fence, as
1647 this may introduce a transfer potential risk. Where such third-party fences are present or are
Page 55
1648 likely to be present within 2 m of the substation, one of the options listed below should be
1649 implemented to maintain electrical isolation between the two fence systems.
1650 Note: Security considerations may preclude this if the third-party fence could act as a climbing aid.
1651
1652 6.6.5 Insulated fence sections.
1653 Insulated fence sections to segregate lengths of fencing which are bonded to the substation
1654 MES from those which are independently earthed or connected to third-party fences may be
1655 used. The insulated sections may be formed by:
1656 • Installing a 2 m (or longer) insulated fence panel made wholly of insulating material.
1657 • Installing a 2 m (or longer) metal fence panel mounted on insulated supports / standoff
1658 insulators. The insulators need a voltage withstand capability in excess of the highest EPR
1659 at the perimeter of the site whilst at least maintaining the equivalent physical strength of
1660 the fence.
1661 Coated fences (see Section 6.6.7) should not be treated as insulated sections unless
1662 specifically designed and tested for such purposes.
1663 6.6.6 Chain link fencing (galvanised or plastic coated)

1664 Such fencing should be earthed by bonding the support posts, fence and straining wires and
1665 any anti-climbing devices to the independent or bonded fence earth electrode system as
1666 appropriate. This may conveniently be achieved by the addition of an electrode run with the
1667 fence to aid bonding/earthing. The fence should be treated as if it were bare metal, i.e. no
1668 insulation withstand should normally be assumed.
1669 If a touch potential issue exists with a plastic coated chain link fence this should be addressed
1670 by installing a grading electrode rather than by relying on the integrity of the plastic fence
1671 coating which may not be comprehensive and is also likely to deteriorate.
1672 6.6.7 Coated fence panels

1673 These typically consist of galvanised steel support posts and galvanised steel mesh panels,
1674 all of which are coated. When used for enclosing electrical apparatus or a substation, they
1675 should be earthed and precautions are necessary to cater against damage or erosion of the
1676 coating. The support posts should be earthed via a bolted connection and ideally the metal of
1677 each panel should in turn be similarly connected to the post. Ideally these should be via
1678 manufacturer provided facilities. The overall fence is connected to earth in a similar manner to
1679 a separately earthed or bonded metal palisade fence.
1680 Such fences should not be treated as insulating, unless the covering is specifically designed
1681 for this purpose and its longevity can be assured.
1682 If a touch potential issue exists with a coated fence this should be addressed by installing a
1683 grading electrode.
1684 6.6.8 Electric security fences

1685 When electric security fencing is installed on independently earthed fence installations, the
1686 isolation of segregated fence sections from the substation MES should be maintained. This
1687 may require independent electric fence zones and special consideration of electric fence earth
1688 connections.
1689 6.6.9 Anti-climbing precautions

1690 Where barbed wire or other metal anti-climbing devices are erected along the top of brick walls
1691 or other non-metallic barriers they may be connected to earth using the same procedure as
Page 56
1692 with fencing. Metallic parts not liable to introduce a potential, e.g. short lengths of barbed wire
1693 or spikes, need not be bonded.
1694 Care should be taken to ensure that anti climbing guards do not bridge fencing sections that
1695 are designed to be separately earthed or isolated. This includes e.g. the metal centre rods of
1696 plastic vane guards.
1697 6.7 Specific items

1698 6.7.1 Water services to substations
1699 Water supplies to substations should be run in non-metallic pipes. This avoids the substation
1700 potential rise being transferred outside so endangering other users of the water supply system.
1701 This is now largely a legacy issue at older sites as insulated pipes are used for new
1702 construction. When such an existing site is being refurbished or upgraded, a section of
1703 insulated plastic pipe should be inserted in the incoming metallic water service.
1704 Any metallic pipe used within the substation site should be bonded to the MES and adequately
1705 segregated from separately earthed fence sections.
1706 6.7.2 Non-current carrying metalwork

1707 Most non-current carrying metalwork of all kinds within the perimeter fence should be securely
1708 bonded to the main earthing system to ensure that all such items are held to the same potential
1709 and, if called upon to do so, will carry fault currents without damage. Conductive parts not liable
1710 to introduce a potential need not be bonded.
1711 The cross section of any bonding conductors should be as described in Table 5 and Table 6.
1712 If there is no likelihood of current flow or corrosion/erosion, equipotential bonding conductors
1713 should be no smaller than 16 mm2 copper or equivalent.
1714 NOTE: Small metallic items (extraneous metalwork) that are unlikely to introduce or carry a significant potential,
1715 need not be bonded to the main earthing system (see Section 4.2). Such items may include, but are not limited to,
1716 window frames, signposts, wall brackets, small access steps/handrails etc. However, if there is any foreseeable
1717 likelihood of them acquiring a potential in service sufficient to cause a touch potential hazard, such items should be
1718 bonded to the main earthing system.
1719 Larger items, even if some distance from current carrying metalwork, may acquire a stray voltage due to inductive
1720 or capacitive coupling and should always be bonded.
1721
1722 6.7.3 Items normally bonded to the substation MES
1723 These include:
1724 • overhead line termination structures including towers, gantries and earthed wood pole
1725 structures within or adjacent to the substation.
1726 • power cable sheaths and armours (at one or more points).
1727 • transformer and reactor tanks, coolers and radiators, tap changers, earthing resistors,
1728 earthing reactors, high voltage transformer neutral connections.
1729 • metal clad switchgear assemblies and cases, isolators and earth switch bases.
1730 • metal gantries and structures and metalwork mounted on wood structures.
1731 • metallic building structures including steel frames (bonded at each corner), re-bar and piles.
1732 • miscellaneous metalwork associated with oil and air tanks, screens, steel structures of all
1733 kinds.
1734 • all panels, cubicles, kiosks, LV AC equipment, lighting and security masts.
Page 57
1735 Critical items such as transformer tanks and terminal towers should have duplicate
1736 connections to the MES.
1737 6.7.4 Items not normally bonded to the substation MES

1738 The following list is not exhaustive, and includes some typical items that a designer may specify
1739 to remain unbonded.
1740 • The perimeter fence is only bonded to the MES if all or part if it cannot be kept at least 2 m
1741 clear of earthed structures and the MES. (see Section 6.6).
1742 • Screens of telephone cables where they are taken into HOT sites. (see Section 4.3.7).
1743 • Extraneous non-current carrying metalwork (see Section 6.7.2).
1744 • Parts intended to be isolated from earth, e.g. floating fence panels, some stay wires.
1745 6.7.5 Non-standard bonding arrangements
1746 Sometimes it may be necessary to isolate cable sheaths and screens from the substation MES
1747 to avoid transfer potential issues. Such arrangements should be the subject of a bespoke
1748 design and precautions taken at the earth isolation point to avoid touch potential issues.
1749 NOTE: There may be other considerations which make a sheath break unacceptable or ineffective in some
1750 circumstances. ENA EREC C55 provides further related information.
1751 6.8 Overhead line terminations
1752 6.8.1 Tower terminations adjacent to substation
1753 Where the aerial earth wire of an incoming overhead line terminates on a steel tower / terminal
1754 support adjacent to a substation, continuity should be provided for current in the earth wire to
1755 flow into the main earthing system by:
1756 • bonding the aerial earth wire to the top of the line gantry.
1757 or
1758 • bonding the aerial earth wire to the top of the tower, and bonding the base of the tower to
1759 the substation MES.
1760 The current rating of the bonds should at least be equal to that of the aerial earth wire.
1761 If not bonded via an aerial earth wire, the tower should be bonded to the MES via two
1762 continuous conductors which run from different tower legs via separate routes and connect to
1763 two different points on the MES. Each below-ground conductor should be fully rated. The
1764 bonds should be buried and be installed so as to minimise risk of theft. If the bonds run under
1765 an independently earthed fence, they should be insulated for a 2 m distance on either side of
1766 the fence.
1767 If the tower legs are located within 2 m of an independently earthed metal fence, the section
1768 of fence adjacent to the tower should be bonded to the tower and electrically isolated from the
1769 rest of the fence. Alternatively, the relevant metal fence panels may be replaced by insulated
1770 panels, or suitable insulating coating applied (see Sections 4.4.3 and 6.6.7). If this is not
1771 practicable, a risk assessment should be carried out (see Section 5.7).
1772 6.8.2 Steel tower termination with cable sealing ends

1773 Where an aerial earth wire terminates on a tower with a sealing end platform or an associated
1774 cable sealing end compound that is well outside the substation, continuity between the base
1775 of the tower and the substation MES will be provided by either the sheaths of the power cables
1776 or by an earth continuity conductor laid and installed in accordance with ENA EREC C55.
Page 58
1777 6.8.3 Terminal poles with stays adjacent to substation fence

1778 Stay wires that are external to the site and more than 2 m from the fence or earthed metalwork
1779 may be left unearthed, if this is in accordance with normal practice. They should be earthed
1780 within the substation compound where possible to minimise risk from current leakage across
1781 the stay insulator.
1782 Earthed stay wires can present a touch potential risk if the stay is in very close proximity to an
1783 independently earthed fence, and may form an inadvertent connection between the
1784 independently earthed fence and the substation MES. To address this, in addition to installing
1785 the normal upper stay insulator a second stay insulator should be installed as close to ground
1786 level as possible leaving the centre section of the stay unearthed. 2 m segregation should be
1787 achieved between the lower earthed section of the stay including the rod and the fence.
1788 Unless the earthed stay rod is inside the earthing system, a loop of buried electrode should be
1789 laid around the rod at a 1 m radius, and bonded to the rod/main earthing system to control
1790 touch potential.
1791 6.8.4 Down drop anchorage arrangement with arcing horns

1792 Where it is necessary to have an assembly of ferrous fittings such as turn buckles, links,
1793 shackles etc. between the insulators and an earthed structure or ground anchor point,
1794 precautions may be required if the earth fault current is very large.
1795 The earthed-end arc-ring (or horn) anchorage arrangement may be attached to the main earth
1796 connection by means of a flexible copper shunt, in order to limit earth fault current flowing
1797 through the discontinuous ferrous fittings. This prevents mechanical damage due to arcing.
1798 6.8.5 Loss of aerial earth wires

1799 If alterations are carried out to overhead lines which break an otherwise continuous aerial earth
1800 wire between substation sites, consideration should be given to the increase in ground return
1801 current and consequent increase in EPR.
1802 There may also be a further increase in EPR due to reduction of the chain impedance
1803 contribution. It may be necessary to consider the installation of an overhead or buried earth
1804 conductor to provide continuity of the aerial earth wire.
1805 6.9 HV cable metallic sheath / armour earthing

1806 This section covers all HV cables contained within or entering HV substations but excludes
1807 those HV cables which feed HV/LV transformers located in the substation where the LV supply
1808 is exclusively for use in the substation. The requirements for the latter are dealt with under
1809 Section 9.
1810 6.9.1 Insulated sheath cables

1811 The metallic sheath/armour of cables can, due to their inductive coupling properties, provide a
1812 very low impedance return path for earth fault current flowing in the cable phase conductors.
1813 This can greatly reduce the current that returns to source though the ground and, subject to
1814 the sheath being continuous, significantly reduce the EPR at associated terminal substations.
1815 To achieve this, the sheath/armour should be earthed at least at both ends. This arrangement
1816 of earthing is generally satisfactory for three-core and TRIPLEX type HV cables forming part
1817 of general distribution system circuits.
1818 Simply bonding sheaths/armours at both ends of single-core cables or very heavily loaded
1819 circuits such as transformer interplant cables can cause de-rating as large circulating currents
1820 may flow in the sheath/armours, causing additional heating and risking damage.
Page 59
1821 Consequently, two methods of installation have been developed for single-core cables where
1822 the length is sufficient to cause this problem.
1823 • Single-point bonding – where the sheaths are connected to earth at a single point. A parallel
1824 earth continuity conductor may be laid with the cables to provide continuity between items
1825 of plant.
1826 • Cross-bonding – where the sheaths are connected to earth at each end, and periodically
1827 transposed to cancel circulating currents flowing in the sheaths.
1828 Single-point bonding preserves the rating of the cables, but permits a potential to develop
1829 between the sheaths/armours and earth at the unearthed ends of the cables which could, on
1830 long cable runs, require shrouding or other measures to ensure safety.
1831 Cross-bonding provides a return path for earth fault current in the sheaths without permitting
1832 significant circulating de-rating current to flow or exceeding the sheath voltage rise limit. Care
1833 is needed at link boxes/transposition points.
1834 Both methods, together with their merits and disadvantages, are described in detail in ENA
1835 EREC C55 together with solutions to the problems described above. A bespoke cable and
1836 earthing / bonding design is usually required for very heavily loaded circuits (e.g. interplant
1837 cables) or circuits operating above 33 kV.
1838 Methods for calculating the ground return current (for systems with sheaths earthed at both
1839 ends) are given in Appendix D of ENA EREC S34.
1840 6.9.2 Cables entering substations

1841 The sheath/armour at the substation end of the cable should be earthed to the substation MES.
1842 Triplex, three-core, and fully cross-bonded cables will, in addition, be earthed at their remote
1843 ends. This provides both a conductive and inductive path for fault current. With cross-bonded
1844 single-core cables, it is the usual practice to install further additional sheath earths along the
1845 route of the cable. The additional sheath earths will normally produce an insignificant benefit,
1846 and can be ignored in the assessment of the substation earth resistance.
1847 6.9.3 Cables within substations

1848 Three-core cables will have their sheath/armour earthed at both ends.
1849 Single-core cables will usually be short enough to allow single-point sheath/armour earthing,
1850 without causing serious sheath voltage rise problems. The single sheath/armour bond to earth
1851 should be located where personnel are most frequently present, for example at switchgear.
1852 Screens should be shrouded at the unearthed end. An earth continuity conductor may be
1853 required. See ENA EREC C55 for further details.
1854 For the higher voltage systems, sheath voltage limiting devices (SVLs) may be installed
1855 between the sheath and earth at the unearthed end of the cable to protect the integrity of the
1856 sheath and its terminating point insulation against transient voltage surges on the sheath.
1857 6.9.4 Outdoor cable sealing ends

1858 Where cables terminate at outdoor sealing ends, pedestal-type insulators are fitted to insulate
1859 the sealing-end base and gland from its support structure. If sheath earthing is made at this
1860 location, special earthing bonds are required in accordance with ENA TS 09-15 or ENA EREC
1861 C55 as appropriate.
Page 60
1862 When the standing sheath voltage at a termination can exceed 10 V to earth, the base
1863 metalwork of the sealing-end should be screened against accidental contact by means of an
1864 insulating shroud of the type illustrated in ENA EREC C55.
1865 Sealing end support insulators should be used only for short single-core cable tails with an
1866 earth bond made at the trifurcating point of any three-core cable.
1867 6.9.5 Use of disconnected, non-insulated sheath/armour cables as an electrode

1868 Metallic sheathed/armoured hessian served cables are often decommissioned or replaced with
1869 insulated sheath cables. Where these are laid direct in soil, they can provide a valuable
1870 electrode contribution. Where practicable, (particularly if the buried length exceeds 200 m)
1871 these redundant cables should be retained as earth electrodes to maintain their contribution
1872 towards lowering overall substation earth resistance and EPR.
1873 If such sections are retained, the phase conductors and sheaths/armours of these cables, once
1874 disconnected, should be joined together to maintain their contribution to the electrode system.
1875 The start ends should ideally be connected to the substation MES via test chambers to permit
1876 continuity or resistance measurements. The remote ends should, if practicable, be connected
1877 to the electrode system at a joint or distribution substation. Cable and earthing records should
1878 be annotated to show such cables are being used as substation earth electrode.
1879 Constant-force springs (CFS) or plumbed joints may be appropriate for connecting stranded
1880 copper conductor to lead sheathed cables; other types of connection may loosen in service as
1881 the lead continues to flow or creep under contact pressure. In any case, moisture should be
1882 excluded from such joints using heat shrink boots or similar. Manufacturers guidance should
1883 be sought if connecting to sheaths of other cable types.
1884 6.10 Light current equipment associated with external cabling

1885 All exposed conductive parts of light current equipment should be earthed to the main earthing
1886 system as required. Where pilot or communication cables operate between two remote points
1887 and the rise of earth potential at each end of the circuit does not exceed the appropriate ITU-
1888 T limit, any required circuit earth may be made at either end. If the rise of earth potential at
1889 either end exceeds the appropriate ITU-T limit, protective measures should be applied to those
1890 circuits. See ENA EREC S36 and Section 4.3.7.
1891 6.11 Metalclad and gas insulated substations

1892 6.11.1 Metalclad substations
1893 Metal clad substations will normally be erected on a concrete raft. The provisions for an earth
1894 electrode system in these circumstances will be similar to those described in Section 6.4.
1895 Where touch potential is an issue, consideration should be given to using an enclosure made
1896 of insulating material and to using surface-laid earth mat/grating.
1897 6.11.2 Gas insulated switchgear (GIS)

1898 GIS employing single-phase busbar enclosures requires additional earthing precautions
1899 incorporated into the design of the substation MES.
1900 Due to close coupling with individual phase conductors, busbar enclosures can experience
1901 high levels of induction. Steelwork used to support the enclosures and adjoining items of plant
1902 may form closed paths in which induced inter-phase and earth currents flow under both steady-
1903 state and fault conditions. These currents can be undesirably high and may approach the
1904 phase conductor current. The flow of circulating current renders secondary wiring more
1905 vulnerable to inductive interference.
Page 61
1906 A further issue with GIS is the creation of surge voltages on the enclosures and associated
1907 steelwork during switching or other transient/high-frequency system disturbances.
1908 To help minimise the above effects it is recommended that an earthing system, well integrated
1909 and with locally enhanced electrode (e.g. increased mesh density and vertical rods) in the
1910 regions close to the plant, be laid over the raft from which short spur connections can be taken
1911 to the specific earthing points on the equipment. Typical arrangements are described in CIGRE
1912 Paper 044/151.
1913 To retain current in the busbar enclosures, short circuit bonds, together with a connection to
1914 the earthing system, should be made between the phase enclosures at all line, cable and
1915 transformer terminations, at busbar terminations and, for long busbar runs, at approximately
1916 20 m intervals. Switchboards over 20 m in length will require intermediate connections. Except
1917 where adjacent enclosures are insulated from each other, the interface flanges of the
1918 enclosures should have bonds across them and the integrity of bolted joints of all bonds should
1919 be checked.
1920 As a guide, the resistance of the bonded flanges should not exceed 5 µW. At insulated flanges,
1921 consideration should be given to the installation of non-linear resistive devices to prevent
1922 transient flashover.
1923 6.12 Fault-throwing switches, earth switches and disconnectors

1924 6.12.1 Background
1925 Fault-throwing switches, earth switches and disconnectors are normally mounted on steel,
1926 aluminium, steel reinforced concrete or wood pole structures.
1927 Metallic structures may be of electrically continuous all-welded construction or assembled

1928 using several large pre-welded sections or individual bolted members. In some cases, although
1929 the structure is of bolted construction, there may be a continuous metallic section from ground
1930 to equipment level. Where there is more than one metallic section in series in a fault current
1931 path, continuity between sections should be considered.
1932 Fault-throwing switches should have a dedicated earth connection in addition to any structure
1933 earth. See Section 6.12.2.
1934 Where steel or aluminium support structures are used to support disconnectors and / or earth
1935 switches, it is desirable to use the structure itself to carry earth fault current in order to reduce
1936 the need for above-ground earth conductors vulnerable to theft. This arrangement is only
1937 acceptable where the metallic structure can provide a reliable earth connection with adequate
1938 current carrying capacity.
1939 NOTE: Some Network Operators may not permit the use support structures in lieu of a dedicated earthing conductor.
1940 When installing earth connections to earth switches and disconnectors, the design should take
1941 into account the magnitude and duration of the prospective earth fault currents involved.
1942 The main earth connection to these devices carries earth fault current under the following
1943 conditions:
1944 Table 10 – Conditions for the passage of earth fault current
1945
Device Condition for passage of earth fault current
Fault-throwing switch By design when protection operates

Page 62
When there is an equipment failure or switching error. May

Earth switch
also carry lightning induced current when closed.
When the disconnector or its connections fault, or when the
Disconnector disconnector is used in a sacrificial mode if main protection
fails.
1946
1947 The main options for connecting earth switches and disconnectors are to use:
1948 • a fully rated earth conductor fixed to the structure. This method is most applicable to higher
1949 fault current applications (e.g. systems operating at 90 kV and above) or where the support
1950 structure cannot provide an adequate earth fault current path. See Table 5 and Table 6 for
1951 conductor ratings.
1952 • the metallic structure to conduct earth fault current from the top of the structure equipment
1953 to the grid. This is subject to the structure being electrically continuous and having sufficient
1954 current carrying capability. The method is more applicable to lower fault current
1955 applications (e.g. 33 kV systems) which use welded or continuous metallic structures.
1956 The following earthing arrangements apply to fault-throwing switches, earth switches and
1957 disconnectors located within secured substation sites fitted with earthing systems.
1958 Different arrangements (e.g. insulated downleads) may be required for equipment located
1959 outside substations in areas accessible to the public.
1960 6.12.2 Fault-throwing switches (phase to earth)

1961 A direct earth connection should be made from the switch earth contact to the substation MES
1962 using a conductor fixed to the structure.
1963 6.12.3 Earth switches

1964 Connections from earth switches to the substation MES may be made by either:
1965 • an earth conductor, fixed to the structure

1966 or
1967 • by using the metallic support structure as a conductor subject to the structure being
1968 electrically continuous and having sufficient current carrying capability.
1969 6.12.4 Disconnectors
1970 Connections from disconnector support metalwork to the substation MES may be made by
1971 either:
1972 • a fully rated earth conductor, fixed to the structure.

1973 or
1974 • by using the metallic support structure as a conductor, subject to the structure being
1975 electrically continuous and having sufficient current carrying capability.
1976 6.13 Operating handles, mechanisms and control kiosks
1977 6.13.1 Background
1978 Earthing arrangements for operating handles of disconnectors, circuit breakers, earth and
1979 fault-throwing switches should provide touch and step potential control for the operator.
1980 These are critical locations which require careful consideration and sound construction.
Page 63
1981 A full earthing system may not always be present at some older sites and additional
1982 precautions may be required when operational work and/or minor alterations are being carried
1983 out to ensure safe touch and step potentials. Generally, with exceptions outlined below, stance
1984 earths should be provided at all locations where operators may stand to operate high voltage
1985 equipment handles, mechanisms and control equipment.
1986 6.13.2 Earth mats (stance earths)

1987 New installations will have touch and step potential control provided by a purpose designed
1988 earthing system. If it can be demonstrated that such measures are adequate to ensure
1989 operator safety, and if a network operators operational policy allows, an additional stance earth
1990 may not be required. In making this assessment, the likelihood of deterioration due to theft or
1991 corrosion should be considered. Portable or visible (surface laid) stance earths may be
1992 required in addition to any buried grading electrode as a risk reduction measure.
1993 NOTE: Surface-laid earth mats are generally preferred over buried earth mats; they give much better touch potential
1994 control and their presence can readily be checked. The size and position of the mat should match the operator
1995 stance position(s) for the given equipment. Galvanised steel grating earth mats can be readily extended to cover
1996 the operator path followed with horizontal operation handles. Buried earth mats may be a suitable alternative to
1997 surface-laid earth mats where the resulting touch potential is sufficiently low.
1998 6.13.3 Connection of handles to the earthing system and stance earths
1999 The earth connection from the handle to the earthing system should always be separate to
2000 that for the switch metalwork and be as short as possible.
2001 The earth connection should use standard copper conductor connected direct to the earthing
2002 system.
2003 In some cases, an insulated insert may be fitted between the operating handle and the switch
2004 metalwork to help prevent any fault current flowing down the handle and mechanism into the
2005 earthing system.
2006 See also Section 10.6.
2007 6.14 Surge arrestors and capacitor voltage transformers (CVTs)

2008 Plant connected between line and earth, including surge arrestors and CVTs, presents
2009 relatively low impedance to steep-fronted surges and permits high-frequency currents to flow
2010 through it to earth.
2011 Unless a low impedance earth connection to the MES is provided, the effectiveness of a surge
2012 arrestor could be impaired and high transient potentials appear on the earthing connections
2013 local to the equipment. The following installation earthing arrangements are recommended:
2014 Two connections to earth are required for both surge arrestors and CVTs:
2015 • The first connection (for power-frequency earthing) will use the structure to connect to the
2016 MES.
2017 • The second (high-frequency) connection should be direct to an earth rod, installed vertically
2018 in the ground as near to the surge arrestor base as possible, with a tee connection to the
2019 support structure if metal. High-frequency earth rods should be driven vertically into the
2020 ground to a depth of approximately 4.8m. Where this is not achievable, a high density earth
2021 mesh arrangement or four (or more) long horizontally buried conductors (nominally 10 m
2022 in length, minimum depth 600 mm) dispersed at 90° (or less, equally spaced across the full
2023 360º) may be used in place of the rod. Calculations should be provided to demonstrate that
2024 any proposal is equivalent to the 4.8 m long earth rods. The high-frequency connection
Page 64
2025 should be made to the centre of the alternative high-frequency earthing designs. Dedicated
2026 earth mats or similar may be considered in difficult circumstances.
2027 NOTE: See BS EN 62305-1, BS EN 62561-2 and ENA ETR 134 for more information.
2028 The benefit of surge arrestors over arc gaps is greatest when the resistance to earth is less
2029 than 20 W. When a surge arrestor is provided at a cable termination, the earth side of the
2030 arrestor should be connected to the cable crucifix and thereby to the cable sheath. Surge
2031 arrestors should be sited as close as practical to the terminals of the plant, (e.g. transformer
2032 bushings or cable sealing ends) which they are protecting.
2033 The support structure and plinth will be designed to allow the high-frequency earth connection
2034 to either pass through its centre, or through an angled slot to ensure that the connection is as
2035 short and straight as possible. This will aid performance and deter theft. It is particularly
2036 important to avoid sharp bends. This connection should not be enclosed within a steel support
2037 tube or box.
2038 Fully rated conductors should be used for both high-frequency and power-frequency
2039 connections. High-frequency downleads should be insulated from the support structure
2040 (except where bonded to the structure at low level) to accommodate surge counters, and also
2041 to facilitate testing of the electrode with a clamp meter (see Section 7.6.2(b)).
2042 7 Measurements
2043 7.1 General
2044 This section describes some of the most common measurements which may be required
2045 during the design, commissioning or maintenance of an earthing system at an electrical
2046 installation. An overview of the important measurement and interpretation methods is provided
2047 together with some guidance on avoiding sources of error. More detailed guidance and method
2048 statements would be expected to be available in company manuals and operational
2049 documentation.
2050 7.2 Safety

2051 The earthing related measurements described in this section are potentially hazardous. They
2052 should be carried out by competent staff using safe procedures following a thorough
2053 assessment of the risks. The risk assessment should include, but not be limited to,
2054 consideration of the following aspects and the necessary control measures implemented, e.g.
2055 personal protective equipment, special procedures or other operational controls.
2056 • Potential differences that may occur during earth fault conditions between the MES and
2057 test leads connected to remote test probes. The likelihood of an earth fault occurring should
2058 be part of this assessment, e.g. not allowing testing to proceed during lightning conditions
2059 or planned switching operations.
2060 • Potential differences that may occur between different earthing systems or different parts
2061 of the same earthing system. In particular, approved safe methods should be used when
2062 disconnecting earth electrodes for testing and making or breaking any connections to earth
2063 conductors which have not been proven to be effectively connected to earth.
2064 NOTE: Disconnection from earth can cause potential differences to arise in the case of the path from tower
2065 line-earthing system due to induction. As it is related to current in the tower line, and therefore continuously
2066 present, it represents a particularly serious hazard.
2067 • Potential differences occurring as a result of induced voltage across test leads which are
2068 in parallel with an HV overhead line or underground cable.
2069 • Environmental hazards of working in a live substation or a construction site as governed
2070 by the applicable safety rules and/or other regulations.
Page 65
2071 • Injury when running out test leads for large distances in surrounding land.
2072
2073 7.3 Instrumentation and ancillary equipment
2074 It is imperative that measurements are taken using the most suitable instrumentation for the
2075 required task which is in good working order and has a valid calibration certificate. The
2076 instrumentation will be used for field measurements in all weather conditions. It should
2077 therefore be robust, have a sufficient level of water resistance and be suitably protected from
2078 electrical transients (e.g. by fuses) and shielded for use in high voltage installations. Further
2079 advice on this may be sought from instrument manufacturers.
2080 Instruments should be calibrated regularly (e.g. annually) to a traceable national standard.
2081 Heavily used instruments should be checked more frequently, e.g. against other calibrated
2082 instruments or standard resistors, between formal calibration periods. Instruments should be
2083 periodically serviced/safety tested and any identified damage or faults should be rectified
2084 before re-use.
2085 Many of the measurements require ancillary equipment such as test leads, earth rods,
2086 connection clamps, etc. and it is equally important that these are also fit for purpose and well-
2087 maintained.
2088 7.4 Soil resistivity measurements

2089 7.4.1 Objective
2090 To determine the resistivity of the materials (soil, rock, etc.) that make up the ground where an
2091 earth electrode is installed. Site-specific measurements are required. The results obtained can
2092 be interpreted to provide a uniform equivalent resistivity for use in standard design equations
2093 (See ENA EREC S34) or a multi-layer soil model which can be used in commercially available
2094 computer simulation tools. Important design parameters such as the earth resistance and EPR
2095 are strongly dependent on the soil resistivity, so it is essential for the accuracy of the design
2096 that proper attention is given to these measurements and their interpretation as early as
2097 possible in the design process.
2098 7.4.2 Wenner method

2099 A four-terminal earth tester is used for these measurements. A number of measurement
2100 techniques are available which involve passing current through an array of small probes
2101 inserted into the surface of the soil and measuring the resulting potentials at specified points.
2102 Using Ohm’s Law a resistance value can be calculated which can then be related to the
2103 apparent resistivity at a particular depth using suitable formulae. Varying the positions of the
2104 probes, and hence forcing the current to flow along different paths, allows the apparent
2105 resistivity at different depths to be measured. The most commonly used arrangement for
2106 earthing purposes is the Wenner Array. This is described in more detail in NC 7.2 of BS EN
2107 50522.
2108 NOTE: There are variations on the Wenner Array method using uneven electrode spacing. These include the
2109 Schlumberger Array method and the General Array method.
2110 For large substations, it is important to take measurements at a number of different locations
2111 around the site so that an average may be used. In urban areas, meaningful measurements
2112 may only be obtained from the nearest parks or open ground and so results from several
2113 locations around the substation are essential.
2114 7.4.3 Interpretation of results

2115 It is difficult to interpret measurement results by inspection other than for a uniform or two-layer
2116 soil model. Formulae for interpretation of data for soils with three or more layers are
2117 cumbersome and in practice this requires the use of software. A number of suitable software
Page 66
2118 tools are commercially available. Because most of these are based on a curve-fitting approach,
2119 geotechnical information such as borehole records is useful to reduce uncertainty in the soil
2120 resistivity model by indicating layer boundary depths, materials, water table height, bedrock
2121 depth, etc. and should be used where available.
2122 Knowledge of the soil resistivity at different depths is important when designing the most
2123 effective electrode to reduce the substation earth resistance. For example, vertical rods are
2124 better suited to a soil with a high resistivity surface layer and low resistivity material beneath.
2125 Conversely, where there is low resistivity material at the surface with underlying rock, extended
2126 horizontal electrodes will be more effective.
2127 7.4.4 Sources of measurement error

2128 A number of sources of error should be considered when planning and carrying out these
2129 measurements. These include, but are not limited to:
2130 • influence of buried metallic structures such as bare cable armouring/sheaths, earth
2131 electrodes, pipes, etc. Measurements taken above or near buried metallic services will
2132 indicate lower resistivity values than actually exist. This can lead to under-designed
2133 earthing systems which may be costly to rectify at the commissioning stage. Measurement
2134 locations should be carefully planned to avoid interference from metallic structures by
2135 consulting service records and, where there remains uncertainty, on-site scanning may be
2136 required. It is also important that measurements are taken at a number of different locations
2137 (a minimum of two) around the site of interest so that any influenced results become
2138 apparent in comparison to unaffected results. Two orthogonal sets of measurements can
2139 also help to indicate an error.
2140 • interference from stray voltages in the soil or induction from nearby electrical systems may
2141 adversely affect measurement results, normally evident as an unstable reading on the
2142 instrument or unexpectedly high readings. This may be reduced by avoiding test leads
2143 running in parallel with high voltage power lines/cables or near other potential sources of
2144 interference, e.g. electric traction systems.
2145 • the Wenner spacings used should be appropriate for the size of the earthing system and
2146 recommended spacings are provided in Annex NC of BS EN 50522. Spacings that are too
2147 short may not identify the lower layer resistivities which can introduce large positive or
2148 negative error into design calculations.
2149 • low resistivity soils, especially at long Wenner spacings, require relatively small resistances
2150 to be measured at the surface. Instrumentation with an inadequate lower range may reach
2151 its limit and incorrectly indicate higher resistivity values than exist.
2152 • care should be taken in interpreting the measurement data. If using computer software
2153 tools, it should be remembered that the result is a model of the soil conditions which is
2154 largely determined by automatic curve-fitting routines or user judgement. To increase
2155 confidence, it is good practice to test the model by comparing it to other geological data
2156 available for the site and the expected range of resistivity values for the materials known
2157 to be present. Measured resistances of vertical rods installed at the site can also be
2158 compared to calculated values obtained using the soil model. It should be recognised that
2159 the soil resistivity model may need to be refined throughout the project as more supporting
2160 information becomes available.
2161
2162 7.4.5 Driven rod method
2163 The driven rod method is an alternative to the Wenner Method which is particularly useful in
2164 built-up urban areas where there is inadequate open land to run out test leads. This method
2165 should be used with caution and measures should be taken to avoid the possibility of damage
Page 67
2166 to buried services, in particular HV cables. Where the absence of buried services cannot be
2167 established, rods should not be driven. An earth rod is driven vertically into the ground and its
2168 earth resistance measured as each section is installed using either of the methods from
2169 Section 7.6.2. Using a simple equation (for uniform soil equivalence – see Appendix B of ENA
2170 EREC S34) or computer simulation (for multi-layer analysis) the soil resistivity may be deduced
2171 from the measured rod resistance and its length in contact with the soil. This method can be
2172 cost-effective as the rods can be used as part of the earthing installation. Where possible, the
2173 results from driven rods at a number of locations around the site should be used together with
2174 any available Wenner Method data to improve confidence in the derived soil resistivity model.
2175 7.5 Earth resistance/impedance measurements

2177 To measure (where practicable) the substation earth resistance or impedance on
2178 commissioning of a new substation and subsequently at maintenance intervals. The
2179 measurement will include all earthing components connected at the time of the test and the
2180 result represents the value which is normally multiplied by the ground return current to
2181 determine the EPR. This method may also be used to measure the earth resistance or
2182 impedance of individual electrodes, tower footings or tower line chain impedances. (See
2183 Appendix G of ENA EREC S34 for details of chain impedance and relevant calculations).
2184 7.5.2 Method

2185 The most commonly used method of measuring substation earth resistance or impedance is
2186 the fall-of-potential method and this is described in NC 5.1 of BS EN 50522. It requires
2187 temporary electrodes to be installed in the ground some distance from the substation and
2188 connected back via trailing leads. A standard four-pole earth tester should be used (as
2189 opposed to a three-pole tester – see Section 7.5.4(e)) to inject a small test current into the
2190 earth electrode and returned via a remote probe. A potential gradient is set up around the
2191 electrode and a second probe is used to measure this with respect to the electrode potential
2192 rise. The resistance is calculated and results are normally presented as a curve of resistance
2193 versus distance from the substation along a particular route. Voltage measurements may be
2194 taken along any route, but traverses which are parallel or orthogonal to the current lead are
2195 most commonly used and are more readily interpreted using standard methods.
2196 Most commercially available earth testers use a switched DC square wave signal. Where it is
2197 possible to select a very low switching frequency (below 5 Hz) the measured values will
2198 approach the DC resistance which will be accurate for small earth electrode systems in
2199 medium to high soil resistivity. When higher switching frequencies are used (128 Hz is common)
2200 inductive effects may be evident in the results. Where an appreciable inductive component is
2201 expected and long parallel test leads are used, it is advisable to use an AC waveform so that
2202 mutual coupling between the test lead may be subtracted and a true AC impedance obtained.
2203 Because of the appreciable standing voltage commonly found on live substation earth
2204 electrodes, AC test signals are normally selected to avoid the fundamental and harmonic
2205 frequencies. For the most accurate results, measurements should be taken using frequencies
2206 either side of the power-frequency to allow interpolation. Additional guidance may be found in
2207 IEEE 81.
2208 It may not be possible to use the fall-of-potential method where no suitable routes exist for the
2209 test lead / probe set up, e.g. in urban or industrial areas. Alternative methods should be used
2210 in these locations. See Section 7.6.
2211 The substation earth resistance or impedance can also be measured by injecting a current
2212 from a generator connected to a remote earthing system via a de-energised power line. The
2213 rise in electrode potential is measured with respect to another remote earth electrode such as
2214 a telecommunication circuit earth. This method is more costly in terms of equipment resources
Page 68
2215 and circuit outages and it is rarely used in the UK. Experience has shown that care should be
2216 taken to ensure that there are no unwanted metallic paths between the substation electrode
2217 and either of the reference electrodes as this will divert current and introduce errors, unless
2218 the diverted current can be measured and a correction applied. This is especially difficult to
2219 achieve in urban environments, otherwise this technique would be a good option where no
2220 suitable area for a fall-of-potential measurement exists.

2222 Earth resistance or impedance measurement results are normally in the form of a series of
2223 points on a curve which should be interpreted using a mathematical rule or procedure. Care
2224 should be taken in selecting a suitable method and their limitations should be understood.
2225 More detail on the methods available is given in Annex NC of BS EN 50522.

2227 There are a number of sources of error which should be considered when planning and
2228 carrying out these measurements. These include, but are not limited to:
2229 influence of buried metallic structures such as bare cable armouring/sheaths, earth
2230 electrodes, pipes, etc. Measurements taken above or near buried metallic services will
2231 generally underestimate the substation resistance. Measurement locations should be
2232 carefully planned to avoid interference from metallic structures by consulting service
2233 records and, where there remains uncertainty, the use of scanning methods on site.
2234 Measurement results that have been influenced by a parallel buried metallic structure will
2235 typically be lower than expected and the resistance curve will be flat. A metallic structure
2236 crossing the measurement traverse at right-angles will result in a depression in the
2237 resistance curve. If interference is suspected the measurement should be repeated along
2238 a different route or an alternative method used.
2239 the distance between the substation and the remote current probe is important to the
2240 accuracy of the measurement. The theoretical recommended distance is between five and
2241 ten times the maximum dimension of the earth electrode with the larger separations
2242 required where there is underlying rock. In practice, where there is insufficient land to
2243 achieve this, the current probe should be located as far away from the substation as
2244 possible. Measurements taken using relatively short distances between the substation and
2245 return electrode may not be accurately interpreted using standard methods and require
2246 analysis using more advanced methods. Typical distances used range from 400 m for
2247 standard 33/11 kV substations up to 1000 m or greater for large transmission substations
2248 or large combined systems.
2249 interference caused by standing voltage (noise) on a substation MES may result in
2250 standard earth testers failing to produce satisfactory results. This is normally evident as
2251 fluctuating readings, reduced resolution or via a warning/error message. Typical
2252 environments where this may be experienced include transmission substations (275 kV
2253 and 400 kV), railway supply substations or substations supplying large industrial processes
2254 such as arc furnaces or smelters;
2255 results should be interpreted using an appropriate method and compared to calculations.
2256 Where there is significant difference further investigation is required. Interpretation using
2257 the 61.8% rule or slope method may not be appropriate in all circumstances as they are
2258 based on simple assumptions. Detailed analysis using computer software may give
2259 greater accuracy where:
2260 • the soil resistivity is non-uniform, i.e. multi layered soils.
2261 • where the current return electrode is relatively near to the electrode under test, e.g. less
2262 than five times the size of the earth electrode being tested.
Page 69
2263 • for a large and irregular-shaped electrode where the test is taken far away from the
2264 centre of the electrode.
2265 • where there are known nearby buried metallic objects that may have influenced the
2266 measurements.
2267 use of a three-pole earth tester is acceptable where the resistance of the single lead
2268 connecting the instrument to the electrode is insignificant compared to the electrode
2269 resistance. These instruments are generally suitable only for measuring small electrode
2270 components such as rods or a small group of rods in medium to high resistivity soils. For
2271 larger substations or low resistance electrodes, a four-pole instrument is essential to
2272 eliminate the connecting lead resistances which would otherwise introduce a significant
2273 error.
2274 7.6 Comparative method of measuring earth resistance
2276 To measure the earth resistance of small individual electrode components within a large
2277 interconnected earthing system. It is most effective where a relatively high resistance electrode
2278 is measured in comparison to a reference earthing system which has a much lower resistance.
2279 7.6.2 Method

2280 Two different approaches may be used:
2281 The first method, illustrated in Figure 4, requires that the electrode being tested is
2282 disconnected from the remainder of the substation MES, e.g. immediately after installation
2283 prior to the connection being made or via opening of a test link at existing sites. A standard
2284 four-pole earth tester may be used with terminals C1 and P1 connected to the electrode
2285 component being tested. Terminals C2 and P2 are connected to the reference earth.
2286 Current is circulated around the earth loop containing the electrode and the reference earth
2287 resistances and the voltage developed across them is measured. Using Ohm’s Law the
2288 series loop resistance is calculated and if the reference earth resistance is sufficiently low
2289 relative to the electrode resistance the measured value will approach the electrode
2290 resistance.
2291 The second method, illustrated in Figure 5, uses a similar principle but does not require
2292 disconnection of the electrode. A clamp type meter is placed around the connection to the
2293 electrode which generates and measures current and voltage in the electrode loop and
2294 displays the loop resistance. The advantage of this method is that the earth electrodes may
2295 be tested without disconnection hence avoiding the associated safety risks and the need
2296 to apply earth disconnection procedures. This is the preferred method for safety and
2297 facilities should be included in the design to allow access to rods for testing with a clamp
2298 meter.
2299
R (Parallel)
R1 C1 P1 P2 C2
FOUR-POLE
EARTH TESTER
ELECTRODE
If R(Parallel) << R1 the measured
PARALLEL UNDER TEST earth loop resistance
NETWORK OF EARTH
ELETRODES
(DISCONNECTED) [R(Parallel)+R1] approaches R1.
Page 70
2300 Figure 4 - Earth resistance measurement using the comparative method and a four-
2301 pole earth tester (test electrode disconnected)
2302
2303 R(Parallel)
CLAMP TYPE
2304 EARTH TESTER
R1
2305
2306
2307 If R(Parallel) << R1 the measured

PARALLEL ELECTRODE earth loop resistance
NETWORK OF EARTH UNDER TEST
[R(Parallel)+R1] approaches R1.
2308 ELETRODES
(CONNECTED)
2309
2310 Figure 5 - Earth resistance measurement using the comparative method and a clamp
2311 type resistance meter (test electrode connected)

2313 In order to accurately measure an electrode resistance via this method it is necessary to have
2314 a very low reference earthing system resistance compared to the electrode resistance (10 %
2315 or lower is recommended). It is also necessary to have a reasonable physical separation
2316 between the electrode and reference earth to reduce mutual coupling through the soil.
2317 If the reference earth resistance is too high, the measured result will be significantly higher
2318 than the electrode resistance (if this is known, it can be subtracted). If the electrode and
2319 reference earths are too close together, a value lower than the electrode resistance may be
2320 measured. These errors may be acceptable if the purpose of the measurement is a
2321 maintenance check where it is only necessary to compare periodic readings with historical
2322 results to identify unexpected increases, e.g. due to corrosion or theft.
2323 If several different electrodes can be tested with respect to the same reference earth, more
2324 detailed interpretation methods may be developed to increase confidence in the individual
2325 electrode resistances and, in some circumstances, allow the reference earth resistance to be
2326 deduced.

2328 If the reference earth resistance is too high relative to the electrode resistance, the
2329 measured value may be significantly higher than the electrode resistance. An approximate
2330 assessment of this may be made by comparing the physical area covered by the respective
2331 earthing systems, e.g. a rod electrode measured with respect to a large MES would be
2332 expected to provide a reasonably accurate resistance value for the rod electrode.
2333 Where the test electrode and reference earth are in close proximity to each other there will
2334 be significant mutual coupling via the soil which may result in an apparently lower reading
2335 than the true electrode resistance.
2336 The electrode under test may be inadvertently in contact with the reference electrode below
2337 ground level, or otherwise connected to it. If so, the test current is circulated around a loop
2338 and the resistance value obtained does not represent the intended earth electrode
2339 resistance.
2340 This method cannot be directly used to measure the overall substation earth resistance
2341 which requires the use of the fall-of-potential method given in Section 7.5.2.
2342
Page 71
2343 7.7 Earth connection resistance measurements (equipment bonding tests)

2345 To measure the resistance between a plant item and the main substation earth electrode to
2346 check bonding adequacy. This is essential during commissioning of a new substation to
2347 confirm that each item of plant is effectively connected to the earth electrode system. It is also
2348 useful as an on-going maintenance check and for operational procedures, e.g. post-theft
2349 surveys.
2350 7.7.2 Method

2351 The procedure is based upon the principle of measuring the resistance between a set point (or
2352 points) on the main electrode system and individual items of earthed equipment. A micro-
2353 ohmmeter is used and the connection arrangement is illustrated in Figure 6. Measurements
2354 can be taken from one central point (such as the switchgear earth bar) or, to avoid the use of
2355 unduly long leads, once a point is confirmed as being adequately connected, it can be used
2356 as a reference point for the next test and so on.
2357
EARTH
CONNECTION 2
EARTH
CONNECTION 1
C1 P1 P2 C2
FOUR-POLE
EARTH TESTER
2358
2359 Figure 6 - Connections for earth bonding conductor resistance measurements
2360 To establish that a satisfactory connection exists between the grid and any exposed metalwork
2361 it is necessary to measure in the micro-ohms or milli-ohms range. An injection current of at
2362 least 100 mA is recommended.
2363 The probable path of the injected current should be considered and, where the substation uses
2364 a bus-zone protection scheme, care should be taken to ensure that any test current does not
2365 produce enough current to operate protection systems.
2366 Special procedures should be adopted when checking bonding between a substation earthing
2367 electrode and a terminal transmission tower. If the bond is ineffective or missing, a potential
2368 difference may exist which may pose a shock hazard or damage to a test instrument. Normally
2369 these methods will include checking current flow in the terminal tower legs prior to testing, as
2370 a higher proportion of current will flow in a leg with an effective connection to the substation.
2371 This would be supplemented by voltage measurements using suitably insulated probes and
2372 meters and buried electrode location techniques.

2374 The measured resistance between the two connection points will depend on the length, cross-
2375 sectional area, material and number of earth conductors between them. Based on a maximum
2376 distance of 50 m between connection points, a threshold value of 20 mΩ will provide a good
2377 indication of when further investigation is required.
Page 72
2378 7.8 Earth conductor joint resistance measurements

2380 To measure the resistance across an earth conductor joint to check its electrical integrity. This
2381 is normally performed for every joint created at a new substation prior to backfilling. It is also
2382 carried out during periodic maintenance assessments.
2383 7.8.2 Method

2384 The method described uses a micro-ohmmeter to measure electrical resistance and is suitable
2385 for bolted, compression, brazed and welded joints. It does not check the mechanical integrity
2386 of welds or check for voids inside a joint.
2387 Most micro-ohmmeters are supplied with standard leads with two sharp pins that can penetrate
2388 through paint or surface corrosion to reach the metal underneath. The first set of leads is
2389 connected to one side of the joint and the second set to the other as illustrated in Figure 7.
2390 Ideally, the connectors should be no more than 25 mm either side of the joint. A suitable scale
2391 should be selected on the instrument (normally a minimum current of 10 A is required to
2392 measure in the micro-ohm range) and an average value recorded after the test polarity has
2393 been reversed.
JOINT
EARTH
CONDUCTOR
FOUR-POLE
C1 P1 P2 C2
EARTH TESTER
2394
2395 Figure 7 - Connections for earth conductor joint resistance measurements
2396 Joints should also be mechanically robust and survive a firm tap with a steel hammer.

2398 The measured resistance should not significantly exceed that of an equivalent length of
2399 conductor without a joint. Joints which exceed this by more than 50 % should be remade.
2400 Where different sized tapes are involved the threshold value used should be that of the smaller
2401 tape.
2402 At new installations, it is recommended that a few sample joints are made under controlled
2403 conditions (e.g. in a workshop), their resistance measured and the median of these values
2404 used as the benchmark for all other similar joints made at the installation.
2405 7.9 Earth potential measurements

2407 To measure touch, step and transfer potentials (e.g. in HPR zones) for comparison with
2408 calculated values. These measurements may be required to confirm that the installed design
2409 complies with the main safety limits (see Section 4.4). Advanced techniques and equipment
2410 are required to perform these measurements at live substations and guidance on the different
2411 methods available can be found in IEEE 81.
Page 73
2412 7.9.2 Method

2413 Earth potential measurements may be measured by injecting a current into the substation
2414 electrode and returning through a remote electrode via a connecting conductor. The return
2415 electrode may be another substation electrode connected via a de-energised power line or a
2416 temporary test lead and set of probes. Providing the return electrode is located at a large
2417 distance from the substation relative to the size of the substation electrode, a potential profile
2418 will be set up around the substation proportional to that which would exist during fault
2419 conditions. The potential between the substation electrode and different points on the surface
2420 can be measured and related to touch potential. Step potential can also be determined from
2421 measurements of the potential difference between points on the surface which are 1 m apart.
2422 In both cases, the actual touch potential can be found by scaling in the ratio of the test current
2423 and fault current.
2424 In a similar way, the potential gradients may be measured around the substation, for example
2425 emanating out from each corner, and equipotential contours derived. Measurements may also
2426 be carried out to determine the voltage transferred from a substation electrode to a nearby
2427 metallic structure, e.g. a steel pipe or the earthing system associated with a different electrical
2428 system.

2430 The measurement results should be interpreted by competent engineers and compared to
2431 calculated values. It is recommended that a series of measurements are taken at a number of
2432 locations around the substation where high touch or step potentials are expected (normally at
2433 the corners or in areas where the electrode mesh is less dense). This will enable the trends in
2434 the potential gradients to be assessed to identify spurious data points. Where the return
2435 electrode is not located sufficiently far away from the test electrode, large errors may be
2436 introduced. These errors may be corrected using a detailed computer model or by averaging
2437 the measurements obtained using different current return electrode locations.
2438 7.10 Earth electrode separation test

2440 To assess the electrical separation of two electrodes in the soil by measurement, e.g.
2441 segregated HV and LV electrodes at an 11 kV distribution substation or a substation earth
2442 electrode and a separately earthed fence.
2443 7.10.2 Method

2444 This method requires that the earth resistances of the two electrodes (R1 and R2) have been
2445 measured separately using the fall-of-potential method described in Section 7.5.2 and Annex
2446 NC of BS EN 50522.
2447 Similar connections are made as for the bonding integrity checks (Figure 6) and the earth loop
2448 resistance (R3) of the two electrodes via the ground is measured.

2450 If the two electrodes are separated by a large distance, R3 will approach the series resistance
2451 of R1 + R2. Lower measured values of R3 indicate a degree of conductive coupling through the
2452 soil. Generally, for the purposes of checking satisfactory segregation of earth electrodes the
2453 following test is used: R3 > 0.9*(R1 + R2). Values lower than 0.9*(R1 + R2) may indicate
2454 inadequate separation and further investigation is required (see Section 9.7.3).
Page 74
2455 7.11 Buried earth electrode location

2457 At older substation sites, whilst an earthing system is in place, a record of its design may not
2458 exist or may be out of date. An earthing record is desirable to ensure that the design is
2459 satisfactory and to assist in the planning of new construction work. The record should include
2460 the position of the electrode, its burial depth, material, size and installation method (e.g. above
2461 ground, in ducts, or buried directly).
2462 Where existing electrode should be located within live substations, surface detection methods
2463 are usually the lowest cost option.
2464 7.11.2 Method

2465 The most effective surface detection techniques, found by experience are documented below.
2466 This includes commercially available low to medium frequency systems and ground
2467 penetrating radar (high-frequency) systems. It should be noted that these methods are subject
2468 to interference from other buried services and often need to be supplemented by trial
2469 excavations.
2470 A low to medium frequency system comprises a transmitter and receiver, working at
2471 frequencies from 50 Hz (detection of live mains cables) to nearly 100 kHz. The transmitter
2472 injects a signal into the earthing system which is to be traced (the “target line”). As this signal
2473 passes through the earth electrodes, it radiates an electric and magnetic field, one or both of
2474 which can be detected and interpreted by coils in the receiver. Basic receivers simply emit an
2475 audio tone as they are passed over the target line. More advanced receivers give information,
2476 such as burial depth and test current magnitude. This feature can sometimes enable the target
2477 line to be distinguished from others which have erroneously picked up the transmitter’s signal
2478 through coupling.
2479 A ground penetrating radar system, used in conjunction with appropriate analysis software,
2480 can also be used to produce a reasonable graphical image of structures below the surface.
2481 Radar systems detect the dielectric contrast between a target and its surroundings and so are
2482 well suited for detecting conductive, metallic electrodes against soil which is relatively resistive.
2483 They are well suited to drained, high soil resistivity locations. The radar system is usually
2484 guided over the trace area in a grid pattern, with detection results being stored for later analysis
2485 by the computer.
2486 Where neither of the above methods is conclusive, e.g. in areas with a high density of buried
2487 services, selected trial holes may be required.
2488
Page 75
2489 8 Maintenance
2490 8.1 Introduction
2491 Earthing systems should be inspected, maintained and repaired so as to ensure they will
2492 operate in the manner required on an ongoing basis.
2493 8.1.1 Inspection

2494 Inspection falls into two main categories:
2495 Visual Inspection

2496 Detailed physical examination and testing
2497 When setting inspection, testing and maintenance regimes for a substation consideration
2498 should be given to identifying and where necessary rectifying issues arising from:
2499 • physical deterioration and damage/theft;

2500 • inappropriate installation alterations or third-party actions which prejudice the principal of
2501 operation of the earthing system;
2502 • inappropriate installation / design;
2503 • changes to system operating regimes or construction which alter the magnitude, flow and
2504 / or duration of earth fault current to values outside the original earthing system design
2505 parameters;
2506 • magnitude of EPR and how close touch and step potentials are to safety limits.
2507 The frequency of inspection and testing should be set according to EPR, risk of theft, damage,
2508 and deterioration. It may be revised from time to time if circumstances change.
2509 If an extraordinary event occurs (e.g. delayed fault clearance), additional ad-hoc inspection
2510 and testing may be required.
2511 8.1.2 Maintenance and repairs

2512 When undertaking repairs or minor alterations to damaged earth conductor and buried
2513 electrode, the procedures adopted should take into account:
2514 • Broken conductors may operate at elevated voltages even when the rest of the associated
2515 network is operating normally.
2516 • The possibility of transient or sustained system earths fault occurring while repairs are
2517 being undertaken.
2518 Inspection, testing and maintenance work should be undertaken in accordance with company
2519 operational and safety procedures. Where required, risk assessments and method statements
2520 will be prepared. Inspectors should wear company specified personal protective equipment
2521 and only approach plant and equipment when it is safe to do so.
2522 See Sections 8.3 and 8.4 for further issues.
2523
Page 76
2524 8.2 Types of inspection

2525 8.2.1 Introduction
2526 The three main types of inspection are covered in Sections 8.2.2, 8.2.3 and 8.2.4 and may be
2527 summarised as:
2528 • a frequent basic visual inspection to check there is no visible damage, theft or obvious
2529 impairment of the earthing system;
2530 • a less frequent and more detailed visual inspection to review the standard of construction
2531 and condition as well as checking for damage, theft and impairment;
2532 • an infrequent, more thorough, visual inspection combined with testing, measurement and
2533 analysis.
2534 For an open busbar substation, typical areas to be inspected include earth connections
2535 associated with:
2536 • aluminium, steel, concrete and wood structures;

2537 • towers, earthed poles and above-ground cable connections within or adjacent to the
2538 substation site.
2539 • isolator mechanisms, fault-throwing switches, earth switches and control kiosks including
2540 associated surface and buried earth mats;
2541 • transformers, reactors, VTs, CVTs, CTs, surge arrestors and arcing horns;
2542 • transformer neutral links and switches and associated connections to earth either direct or
2543 via earthing resistors, reactors or earthing transformers;
2544 • metallic fencing and gates;
2545 • indoor switchgear (if present) including connections to plant, cables, structural steel work
2546 and earth bars.
2547 8.2.2 Frequent visual inspection
2548 This can form part of a normal routine substation inspection procedure or be a part of the
2549 procedures operational staff conduct when entering a substation. The objective is to frequently
2550 and quickly check for visible damage, theft or obvious impairment of the earthing system.
2551 During routine visual inspections, accessible earth connections associated with key items of
2552 electrical plant in the substation should be checked. Procedures such as lifting trench covers
2553 will normally be avoided unless the initial inspection gives cause for concern.
2554 8.2.3 Infrequent detailed visual inspection

2555 Before commencing a detailed examination, the substation earthing records should be
2556 checked to confirm they correspond to the actual layout. The inspector should be aware of the
2557 fence earthing arrangement and whether it is independently earthed or bonded to the earthing
2558 system or a mixture of both.
2559 The key items covered in the frequent inspection plus all other accessible connections to plant,
2560 circuits and civil infrastructure should be inspected thoroughly. As well as condition, the
2561 standard of construction should be reviewed against present practices and any inadequacies
2562 reported. Checks for damage, theft and impairment of the earthing system should also be
2563 carried out. Visual checks should be carried out on less accessible earthing conductors not
2564 covered in the frequent inspection such as those located under trench covers or located in
2565 basements.
2566 The results of all inspections should be documented in accordance with company procedures.
Page 77
2567 A pre-prepared check list for each site will assist consistent reporting and record keeping.
2568 8.2.4 Detailed visual inspection, testing and analysis

2569 This consists of four related parts:
2570 • A thorough detailed visual inspection and review of the earth connections to all electrical
2571 plant, circuits and civil infrastructure
2572 • Carrying out specific testing and measurement of the earthing installation.
2573 • Selecting portions of the buried electrode system for examination via trial holes.
2574 • Analysis and recording of results including review of EPR related issues.
2575
2576 8.2.4.1 Testing
2577 See Section 7 for specific measurement and analysis techniques.
2578 Testing may include:
2579 • Measurement of the overall substation earth resistance/impedance value.

2580 • Measurement of the resistance of:
2581 Individual earth electrodes.
2582 Rod and plate groups.
2583 Fence earth rods.
2584 Test electrodes (where fitted).
2585 Surge arrestor, CVT and GIS high-frequency earths.
2586 • Measurement of soil resistivity.
2587 • Resistance tests across a representative sample of important joints using a micro-
2588 ohmmeter. The value should be recorded and compared with the values recommended by
2589 the manufacturer, or taken for similar joints elsewhere. Any joint where the resistance value
2590 is excessive should be broken down, cleaned and re-made, or replaced.
2591 • Confirmation of continuity between key items such as transformers, switchgear, terminal
2592 tower(s) etc. and the substation MES using a micro-ohmmeter. This is especially important
2593 for items where corrosion, theft or damage is considered to have prejudiced the integrity of
2594 the connection.
2595 • Confirmation of continuity between adjacent site earthing systems.
2596 • Confirmation of whether metallic fences are isolated from or bonded to the MES by carrying
2597 out a separation test.
2598 • For substations fitted with frame leakage earth fault protection checking the integrity of the
2599 segregation between earth zones by testing and/or visual inspection and also testing
2600 across cable terminations where island glands are fitted.
2601 • Measurement of soil pH.
2602 • Tracing of buried electrode if required to update the substation earthing drawing;
2603 • Separation tests and review of separation between distribution substation HV and LV
2604 earths. (See Sections 7.10 and 9.7);
Page 78
2605 8.2.4.2 Selected excavation and examination of buried earth electrode

2606 Since the earth electrode system is largely buried, it is impracticable to carry out a detailed
2607 examination of the whole installation. However, it cannot be assumed that the buried electrode
2608 system, once installed, will remain in good condition.
2609 Particularly where a substation site is associated with former industrial use such as a coal
2610 power station or foundry which may have produced corrosive material used as landfill, there is
2611 enhanced risk of corrosion of buried copper conductor. A similar risk may arise if material from
2612 such sites is imported to construct a substation. It is recommended that representative
2613 locations be chosen to excavate and expose the buried electrode in order to check its
2614 condition.
2615 These should include some below-ground connections, e.g. an earth rod connection position,
2616 or other locations where the electrode is jointed. Several connections from above-ground plant
2617 should be uncovered back to the connection to the buried earth tape/grid, to check their
2618 condition through the layers of chippings and soil. Conductor size should be compared with
2619 records.
2620 Whilst carrying out excavation, the soil pH value should be checked. This should lie between
2621 6.0 and 10.0. For pH values outside these limits, it is probable that corrosion of the copper
2622 conductors/connectors will be evident. In the past, power station ash has been used as
2623 bedding for earth electrodes. This is known to be acidic and is likely to cause corrosion of the
2624 conductors.
2625 Where tests show the pH value of the soil to be outside the limits, if the copper electrode is
2626 corroded, repairs or a new electrode system and either some imported soil or an inert backfill
2627 (such as bentonite) is required. If the electrode has limited corrosion, a soil / corrosion
2628 investigation is necessary to assess the risk of future corrosion and any precautions
2629 necessary. Normally the corrosion rate will be uneven, with severe corrosion in some areas
2630 and none in others. Severely corroded electrodes should be replaced, whilst that elsewhere
2631 should be monitored and measures taken to limit corrosion in all important areas.
2632 Should examination of the exposed conductors or connections give cause for concern,
2633 additional excavations elsewhere on site may be necessary to assess the extent of the
2634 problem.
2635 8.2.4.3 Analysis and recording of test results

2636 Resistance values for the substation, individual electrode groups and for joints should be
2637 recorded and where previous values are available compared to indicate any trend.
2638 The earthing drawing should be updated if required with revised electrode sizes and positions.
2639 Once a new substation earth resistance is obtained, it should be used to recalculate the
2640 substation EPR using up-to-date earth fault current data and earth fault current return paths
2641 (earth wires/cable sheaths etc.). Safety voltages and conductor current ratings should be
2642 recalculated and any deficiencies identified.
2643 The presence (or otherwise), values and configuration of any resistances / impedances placed
2644 in high voltage transformer neutrals should be recorded and aligned with those contained in
2645 the company power system model.
2646 Defects should be listed and prioritised for remedial action.

Page 79
2647 8.3 Maintenance and repair of earthing systems

2648 In some cases, earthing related maintenance and repair work will be reactive, following theft
2649 or damage revealed by an inspection.
2650 Before undertaking earthing system repair or measurement work, the responsible person in
2651 charge of the work should familiarise themselves with the site-specific risks and consequences
2652 of:
2653 • Working on or touching unsound earthing systems;

2654 • Open circuiting (even for a short time) earth conductor circuits;
2655 • Extending (even temporarily) earthing systems from sites where touch and step potentials
2656 are controlled;
2657 • Working on broken earthing conductors;
2658 • An earth fault occurring on the system being worked on. For primary substations supplying
2659 extended HV rural overhead line networks this can be a relatively frequent occurrence (e.g.
2660 at least once a week). Supervisors should avoid work or testing being carried out in high
2661 risk periods such as during storms or fault switching.
2662 There is risk of serious or fatal electric shock when working on intact and depleted/damaged
2663 earthing systems. The responsible person in charge of any remedial work should be suitably
2664 qualified to undertake this area of work. Network Operators should develop their own
2665 policies/procedures for dealing with depleted earthing systems.
2666 Specialised equipment including insulated rods, shorting leads and conductor clamps are
2667 required to make repairs. PPE including insulated footwear and gloves should be available if
2668 required.
2669 High voltages can appear on earth system conductors even under normal running conditions.
2670 Items requiring particular caution include connections associated with CVTs, transformer
2671 neutrals, underground cable bonding arrangements and connections between earthing
2672 systems and overhead line towers.
2673 Examples of situations requiring remedial work include:
2674 • broken or damaged below-ground earthing conductors which have been exposed in the
2675 course of excavation work;
2676 • broken or damaged bonding conductors on underground cable systems (such as cross-
2677 bonding connections that can be expected to carry significant current under normal
2678 operating conditions);
2679 • repairs to/replacement of high resistance earth connections (see Section 8.4);
2680 • minor alterations to/diversions of earthing systems for construction work;
2681 • repairs after theft of earthing conductors (Remedial work on depleted earthing systems is
2682 normally the subject of a bespoke company instruction and is outside the scope of this
2683 document).
2684
2685 8.4 Procedure for re-making defective joints or repairing conductor breaks
2686 8.4.1 Introduction
2687 It may be necessary to re-make a joint or repair a break on the earth electrode system at a
2688 substation for a number of reasons:
Page 80
2689 • The joint is obviously damaged.

2690 • The joint has failed a micro-ohmmeter test.
2691 • An earth electrode has been severed.
2692 • A minor diversion of the electrode system or other repair work may be proposed.
2693
2694 Should a fault occur during the period when a repair is being carried out, to prevent danger
2695 from a high voltage which could appear across the joint, precautions should be taken.
2696 The design of the earthing system (if present) may or may not be adequate to eliminate danger
2697 to personnel when touching a bare broken conductor even after a temporary earth continuity
2698 conductor has been applied.
2699 Before carrying out any repairs, the joint or break to be repaired should be short-circuited by
2700 connecting a fully rated conductor to positions either side of the break or defective joint. This
2701 short should be applied using an approved procedure involving insulated rods.
2702 If company policy so states or any doubt exists, the operator should wear insulating footwear
2703 and gloves designed for electrical application when handling earth conductor to make a
2704 permanent repair.
2705 Whilst carrying out work, the operator should stand within the boundaries of the earthing
2706 system, or immediately above a bare buried earth conductor.
2707 For example, if a terminal tower earth connection is broken, a significant potential difference
2708 may be present between the tower and earthing system. Arcing and current flow will occur
2709 when trying to remake the connection. Insulated rods and approved connectors are required
2710 to apply the initial short-circuit. The repairs, as detailed in Section 8.4.2, can then be carried
2711 out.
2712 Similarly, high voltages may appear across open circuited cross bonding conductors on HV
2713 underground cable circuits.
2714 8.4.2 Joint repair methods

2715 • Compression joint – cannot be repaired, should be replaced.
2716 • Mechanical connector - disconnect, clean all contact surfaces, apply a company approved
2717 contact lubricant, reconnect and re-tighten.
2718 • Cold-weld/exothermic weld joint - if defective, this type of joint should be replaced.
2719 On completion of repair of any joint, having first connected the instrument across the joint, the
2720 temporary earth continuity conductor or shorting strap should be removed. A micro-ohmmeter
2721 resistance test should then be carried out across the joint.
2722 8.4.3 Flexible braids

2723 Flexible bonding braids or laminations should be inspected for signs of fracture and corrosion
2724 and changed as required. A protective compound may be applied to flexible braids where
2725 corrosive conditions exist.
Page 81
2726 9 Ground-mounted distribution substation earthing

2727 9.1 Introduction
2728 Whilst the general principles of earthing can be applied to all voltage levels, small (distribution)
2729 substations providing supply to LV networks can present their own additional challenges. The
2730 key earthing related differences between distribution (or secondary) substations, and larger
2731 (primary, or grid substations) include:
2732 • HV distribution apparatus is often located in densely populated areas in close proximity to
2733 the public.
2734 • earth fault clearance times on distribution systems are usually longer.
2735 • many older legacy installations do not have the benefit of a comprehensive earthing system
2736 environment, as they rely on metallic sheath cable systems to control touch and step
2737 potentials.
2738 • LV earth connections may be combined with HV earthing systems, or in close proximity to
2739 them.
2740 • connections from the LV distribution system are taken into almost every property.
2741 • for new connections, Network Operators have a legal obligation to provide an LV earth
2742 terminal to their customers as long as it is safe to do so;
2743 • the low voltage system should be earthed such that earth potential rise due to high voltage
2744 earth faults does not cause shock or injury (to installation users, public or staff) or damage
2745 to internal electrical installations, distribution equipment or telecommunication systems.
2746 The design issues, therefore, can be summarised as:
2747 a) achieving safety in and around the HV/LV substation, and
2748 b) ensuring that danger does not arise on the LV system as a consequence of HV
2749 faults.
2750 The design approach given in Section 5.6.1 applies equally to distribution substations, and
2751 special considerations are described below.
2752 9.2 Relocation of pole-mounted equipment to ground level

2753 Due to the high EPR that can appear on pole-mounted equipment, metallic items should not
2754 be relocated at ground level (e.g. replacing a pole transformer with a small pad-mount
2755 substation) without appropriate modifications to the earthing system.
2756 Ground-mounted substations will introduce a touch potential risk that is absent from pole-
2757 mounted installations, and consequently require an electrode system that not only limits EPR,
2758 but controls touch and step potentials to safe limits.
2759 Similarly, care should be exercised if other earthed equipment on the pole (e.g. auto-reclose
2760 relay cabinet) is within reach of persons on the ground.
2761 The decision to operate with combined HV and LV, or otherwise, should consider the voltage
2762 that will be impressed on the LV system under HV fault conditions (Section 9.5).
2763 Section 10 describes pole-mounted installations in detail.
2764 9.3 General design requirements

2765 In common with any earthing system, the design of any new-build substation should satisfy
2766 requirements for EPR, touch/step potentials, transfer potentials, and stress voltages. If major
Page 82
2767 changes are to be made to an existing substation, the effects of these proposed changes on
2768 the existing earthing system need to be considered. A significant consideration in all cases is
2769 the transfer potential that will be impressed on the LV network under HV fault conditions. See
2770 Section 9.5.
2771 9.3.1 Design data requirements

2772 The data required is similar to that described in Section 5.4, as necessary to determine the
2773 current flow into the electrode system, and the fault duration. These include:
2774 fault level at the new substation, or at the source (primary);

2775 resistance of the earthing system at the primary substation (RA), and at the new
2776 distribution substation (RB);
2777 circuit length and cable type(s);
2778 whether there is any overhead line in the circuit.
2779
2780 For worst-case studies, if there is any overhead line, the ground return current (IE) can be
2781 assumed equal to the earth fault current at the distribution substation (i.e. IE% = 100 % IF).
2782 9.3.2 Conductor and electrode sizing

2783 Earth conductors at distribution substations will usually connect key items of plant such as
2784 transformer(s), ring main unit / switchgear, and low voltage cabinets. In many unit substations
2785 these items may be supplied with bonding connections in place. These bonds should be sized
2786 as described in Section 5.5.1; in general they should be sized for the maximum foreseeable
2787 earth fault level. For ASC systems, the limited ASC current should not be used (see Section
2788 5.4.2). Network Operators may wish to use the earth fault level at the primary substation, or a
2789 higher value allowing for growth (See Section 5.4.3) and uncertainty, up to the 3-phase fault
2790 current.
2791 Electrodes should have sufficient surface area to meet the requirements of Sections 5.4.6 and
2792 5.5.2. The worst-case foreseeable electrode current should be used for design purposes. This
2793 may be taken as the maximum earth fault current at the substation or its source, or the cross-
2794 country fault current or bypass fault current, whichever is the greater, on ASC systems.
2795 Note: If detailed modelling of current distribution is carried out, it will be seen that the ground return current IE, if
2796 calculated using a contribution from a wide area network, will be significantly higher than the local electrode current
2797 IES. Either may be used for electrode design purposes providing that connection to the wider network contribution
2798 is reliable. If any doubt exists as to the prolonged integrity of sheath return paths and/or auxiliary electrode
2799 connections, the (larger) earth fault current level IF(calculated for a zero ohm fault) should be used.
2800 9.3.3 Target resistance
2801 A HV electrode system should be established for the substation that is of sufficiently low
2802 resistance to ensure reliable protection operation and to limit EPR (and touch/step potentials)
2803 to acceptable levels. The design process in this respect is the same as that given in Section
2804 5.3. The resistance that should be achieved is termed the target resistance, and may be
2805 specified with and without contribution from parallel systems. Use of a target earth resistance
2806 for the substation MES, which ensures compliance with the safety criteria, is useful as it is a
2807 more readily understood parameter that can be achieved and tested by installers. Network
2808 contribution is discussed in Section 9.4.3.
2809 For ground-mounted substations, traditional custom and practice (permitted by previous
2810 versions of this TS) was to apply a target resistance (before connection to the network) of 1 W.
2811 If this could be achieved, it was permissible to combine the HV and LV earthing systems. No
2812 perimeter or grading electrodes were installed in such legacy systems, and often only one
2813 vertical rod or horizontal electrode would be installed. This approach relied heavily on
Page 83
2814 contributions from lead-sheathed cables radiating away from the substation, often passing
2815 under the operator’s position. These cables provided a degree of potential grading (thus
2816 reducing touch potentials) as well as reducing the overall (combined) earth resistance of the
2817 substation. Experience has shown that this approach is no longer applicable, particularly given
2818 the now widespread use of insulated sheath cables.
2819 Network Operators may find that different target values for earth resistance are generally
2820 applicable in different geographical areas, and for overhead or underground networks, and
2821 thus may choose to adopt a rule of thumb to assist designers and other connections providers.
2822 In any case, calculations or measurements sufficient to demonstrate that the installed system
2823 will be safe should be carried out at the design stage. See Section 9.3.7.
2824 Target resistance values should consider all foreseeable running arrangements or network
2825 configurations, especially if the network is automated or remote controlled. See Section 9.9.
2826 9.3.4 EPR design limit

2827 A natural EPR design limit is imposed by a) consideration of transfer potential onto the LV
2828 systems for combined HV/LV systems, and b) insulation withstand voltage between the HV
2829 and LV systems for segregated systems. See Section 9.7for more detail regarding separation
2830 distances. These considerations may for example, lead to typical design EPR limits of 2 kV
2831 (or higher, depending on equipment withstand voltage) for segregated systems, and 466 V 4
2832 for combined systems.
2833 9.3.5 Calculation of EPR

2834 The EPR for a distribution substation, for faults at that substation, is calculated in the
2835 conventional manner, i.e. by multiplying the ground return current by the overall (combined)
2836 substation earth resistance.
2837 9.3.5.1 Factors to consider

2838 The ground return current value is influenced by the earth fault current split between the soil
2839 return path and the cable sheath.
2840 The earth fault current is influenced by the resistance of the earthing system and the
2841 impedance of the cable sheath. The source impedance (primary substation), the resistance
2842 of the primary substation MES, and in particular the method of neutral earthing will have an
2843 effect.
2844 For most accuracy, some form of iterative calculation or computer model will be required to
2845 explore the relationship between fault current, EPR, and substation resistance. However, in
2846 any such design there are often other factors or unknowns / variables which may be of more
2847 significance. For this reason, it may be sufficient for a design to err on the side of caution by
2848 using a zero-ohm earth fault level (the maximum theoretical fault level at the distribution
2849 substation calculated using zero sequence impedances for the circuit). Fault impedance can
2850 then be introduced only if necessary to achieve an economic or practicable solution.
2851 ENA EREC S34 provides a detailed discussion of EPR calculations and includes worked
2852 examples to assist with the calculation of ground return current.
4 This value is twice the 1 s touch potential limit of 233 V, and replaces the previous design figure of 430
V.
Page 84
2853 9.3.5.2 Transfer potential from source

2854 A second contribution to EPR comes from transfer potential exported from the source
2855 substation, since any EPR at the source will be conveyed along the cable sheath and will
2856 appear (in part) at the new substation.
2857 Transfer potential need not been considered if there is any overhead line in the circuit, or if the
2858 new substation is not the first on the feeder and transfer potential is known to be of no
2859 significance at previous distribution substations.
2860 In determining the acceptable transfer potential from source, the relevant protection clearance
2861 time at the source should be used in touch/step potential calculations.
2862 9.3.6 Step/touch potentials at the substation

2863 Many Network Operators or connection providers opt for a standard design of distribution
2864 substation, and it is possible to establish, by modelling or calculation, the step and touch
2865 potentials as a % of EPR for each standard layout. These values are influenced to a small
2866 degree by the depth of earth rods and the proximity of other earthed metalwork, but for design
2867 purposes can be taken as fixed for each layout. Typical values for touch potential within a 3x3
2868 m unit substation that has a perimeter grading ring and corner electrodes are 20-40 % of EPR.
2869 A substation built on a fine (and bonded) re-bar mesh might present a touch potential in the
2870 region of 10% or less of EPR.
2871 Substations that employ a single rod electrode, or similar legacy design, are unlikely to limit
2872 touch potentials to less than 75 % of EPR away from the electrode, and may have
2873 unacceptably high step potentials (gradients) in the vicinity of the electrode, depending on its
2874 depth of burial. Computer modelling using an appropriate package and soil model will normally
2875 be necessary to demonstrate safety unless the system is simple enough to permit first principle
2876 calculations such as those presented in ENA EREC S34 or other relevant standards.
2877 The appropriate design limits for touch and step potential are given in Table 1 and Table 2 and
2878 are dependent on normal (calculated or worst-case) protection operation.
2879 9.3.7 Simplified approach

2880 In some cases, a safe system can be achieved without detailed design calculations. Network
2881 Operators may wish to instead adopt simple rules in certain geographic areas, provided these
2882 rules can be shown to produce a site with acceptable touch, step and transfer potentials. For
2883 example, a standard layout (perhaps consisting of a perimeter electrode and corner rods)
2884 might be appropriate if:
2885 11 kV fault current is limited by reactor or resistor, and;

2886 there is a continuous cable connection to the primary substation, and;
2887 there is interconnection to the wider (HV and LV) network, and;
2888 the transfer potential from the Primary Substation is below the permissible touch
2889 potential (taking into consideration clearance times at the primary);
2890 there is some potential grading to limit step/touch to 50% or less of EPR (this assumes
2891 that site EPR will not exceed 2x permissible touch potential limits).
2892 This approach is broadly consistent with that outlined in the design flowchart (Section 5.6.1).
2893
2894 9.3.8 Circumstances where the simplified approach is not appropriate

2895 More detailed assessments might be needed if one or more of the following apply:
Page 85
2896 there is any overhead line in circuit, or other break in the earth-return path;
2897 the substation is not interconnected to the HV or LV network;
2898 the secondary winding of the main transformer at the primary substation is solidly
2899 earthed.
2900 dedicated earth fault protection is not installed;
2901 In difficult circumstances a HPR but safe (step/touch potential) design is allowable by
2902 appropriate use of grading electrode/mesh to control step and touch potentials.
2903 Alternatively, the EPR may be reduced by appropriate means (see Section 5.6.3).
2904 9.4 Network and other contributions
2905 Distribution substations are commonly connected to larger metallic systems which can serve
2906 as an electrode. The following Sections describe typical contributions which may be included
2907 in design calculations.
2908 9.4.1 Additional electrode

2909 In many cases it will be possible to supplement the substation’s electrode system by laying
2910 bare copper, or a long rod nest beneath incoming or outgoing cables (subject to
2911 separation/segregation where required), although when there are several parties involved in a
2912 project it may not be possible for the substation installer to do so without agreement with cable
2913 installers and landowners at the design stage. Test facilities e.g. an accessible loop may be
2914 provided so that the integrity of buried horizontal electrode can be tested periodically.
2915 Electrode contribution such as this may be considered in calculations for EPR, touch/step
2916 potentials, and surface current density. It should not be included in design calculations if it is
2917 vulnerable to theft and/or damage. Suitable precautions should be taken to ensure the integrity
2918 of any such connections if they are safety-critical.
2919 9.4.2 Parallel contributions from interconnected HV and LV networks

2920 If it is not practicable to achieve a safe (compliant) design based on HV electrode (and
2921 additional electrode) contribution alone, a reasonable parallel contribution from the HV network
2922 may be included in the design (Section 9.4.3). However, this network contribution should not
2923 be the sole means of earthing and it is recommended that the local (HV) electrode contribution
2924 does not exceed a value sufficient to ensure reliable protection operation. In this way, there is
2925 some protection against failure of cable sheath/glands.
2926 The LV network contribution may also be used if it can be shown that it is safe to combine the
2927 HV and LV networks. Consideration should be given to the magnitude of fault current that will
2928 flow into other (parallel) systems, particularly in the case of solidly earthed HV systems, to
2929 ensure that the thermal ratings of any conductor or cable sheath are not exceeded.
2930 The thermal rating and surface current density requirements of Sections 5.5.1 and 5.5.2 should
2931 be met without reliance on network contribution, thus allowing the earthing system to withstand
2932 fault current without damage should the cable sheath/gland connections fail.
2933 9.4.3 Ascertaining network contribution

2934 The HV network or LV network, (if applicable), can serve as an effective electrode system, and
2935 will provide a reduction in earth resistance when combined with the substation earth.
2936 The network contribution element is difficult to establish accurately at the design stage, and
2937 measurements of the LV and HV network may be necessary to inform the design. However,
2938 due to the relatively routine nature of most small HV (11 kV or 6.6 kV) connections, a
2939 conservative estimate is often made to expedite the design process.
Page 86
2940 The contribution from the network is (for older networks) made up of horizontal electrodes (un-
2941 insulated cable sheaths) and point electrodes at distribution substations.
2942 The cable connected distribution substations, whether connected with polymeric HV cables or
2943 otherwise, can be modelled as a ladder network, with cable sheath impedances forming the
2944 series elements, and earth electrode resistances forming the parallel parts. This is termed the
2945 chain impedance, and is akin to the treatment of metal EHV towers in ENA EREC S34. The
2946 chain impedance contribution from the HV network substations falls as distance increases from
2947 the new substation. In practice, the substations within a 1-2 km radius are those which need
2948 to be considered.
2949 The horizontal electrode contribution from any lead-sheathed or hessian-served HV cable
2950 sheaths can be treated in the same way as a buried horizontal conductor. In practice, each
2951 conductor will have an effective length, beyond which no additional contribution can be
2952 assumed. (See Appendix F of ENA EREC S34). A practical HV network will radiate from a
2953 substation in more than one direction and a contribution can be assumed from each leg
2954 provided their areas of influence do not overlap. In cases of doubt, these systems should be
2955 modelled using appropriate computer software, or measurements carried out, taking care to
2956 use a method appropriate to the size of the network.
2957 Calculated values for network contribution are often pessimistic in dense urban areas, where
2958 numerous parallel contributions (such as water and gas pipes, building foundations, etc.) may
2959 exist. If this is so, the designer may commission a measurement of network contribution (if
2960 possible), or may use an estimated value for network contribution, or may be able to
2961 demonstrate that the area is a global earthing system (GES).
2962 9.4.4 Global earthing systems (GES)

2963 A GES is a system where all equipment is bonded together, and the ground is saturated with
2964 metallic electrode contributions in the form of metallic cable sheaths or bare conductors laid
2965 direct in soil. In such a system, the soil surface potential will rise in sympathy with that of
2966 bonded HV steelwork under fault conditions, and the potential differences (leading to touch
2967 potential risk) are minimal. The term is often used to describe dense urban networks where
2968 measurements or detailed calculation of network contribution is not practical. See Annex O of
2969 BS EN 50522 for more detail.
2970 Network operators may wish to designate certain geographic areas as a GES, in which case
2971 they will need to carry out measurements or analysis to demonstrate that the designation is
2972 appropriate. In addition, they should carry out calculations to assess the target resistance
2973 required in these areas; this is most easily achieved by assuming a low value of network
2974 contribution and designing an electrode system that is sufficient to satisfy protection operation,
2975 current density and thermal ratings in the absence of this network contribution. A standard
2976 design using perimeter electrode/re-bar mesh etc. is usually still warranted for these reasons,
2977 using an appropriate resistance value to ensure safety.
2978 Networks within a GES by definition operate with combined HV/LV earthing. Islands of higher
2979 potential, and consequently touch and step potentials, within a GES can arise from transferred
2980 sources that may not be locally bonded, e.g. cable sheaths bonded to remote systems, metallic
2981 gas/water pipes with insulated covering, pilot/communications cables, and HV or LV insulated
2982 sheathed cables connected to metallic plant that is not locally bonded to the GES. In these
2983 cases, the benefits of a GES do not apply.
Page 87
2984 9.5 Transfer potential onto LV network

2985 9.5.1 General
2986 ESQC Regulations require that danger will not arise on the LV system as a consequence of
2987 HV faults. In practice, this means that the HV and LV earthing systems should be separated if
2988 the HV EPR exceeds the applicable limit.
2989 NOTE: Previously, a design limit of 430 V has been applied, i.e. the HV and LV systems could be combined if the
2990 HV EPR was <=430 V; in practice, this EPR would be impressed on the LV neutral/earth (distribution transformer
2991 star point). The voltage ultimately transferred to a consumer’s LV earth terminal would be less than this, and the
2992 touch potential appearing within an installation would be even lower.
2993 9.5.2 Touch potential on LV system as a result of an HV fault
2994 Table 2 of BS EN 50522 introduces the concept of an F factor for TN LV systems. In order to
2995 combine HV and LV earthing systems, the HV EPR should not exceed F x UTp, where UTp is
2996 the permissible touch potential related to the appropriate HV fault clearance time.
2997 The F factor relates to the percentage of EPR that will appear as a touch potential on the LV
2998 network; it also relates to the potential grading that will occur within an installation and the
2999 decay in exported potential along a multiple earthed neutral conductor. The resultant touch
3000 potential within the consumer’s installation is necessarily subject to a number of factors beyond
3001 the control of any Network Operator.
3002 It is recommended that in the UK, a value of F = 2 is used unless:
3003 • The LV neutral/earth conductor is earthed at only one point, and

3004 • The LV supplies only a small system that is isolated from the general mass of earth (e.g. a
3005 metal pillar on a concrete plinth without outgoing circuits).
3006 In such circumstances, Note (d) to Table 2 of BS EN 50522 applies, which states: “If the PEN
3007 or neutral conductor of the low voltage system is connected to earth only at the HV earthing
3008 system, the value of F should be 1.” A reduced EPR limit is applicable (e.g. 233 volts for a 1
3009 second fault, see Table 1), because it should be assumed that the full EPR could appear as a
3010 touch potential.
3011 In practice, for typical arrangements in the UK where F = 2, and assuming a 1 s fault clearance
3012 time, the HV EPR should not exceed 466 volts if the systems are to be combined. Lower limits
3013 will apply for longer fault durations.
3014 9.5.3 Stress voltage

3015 The stress voltage is the voltage across any two points in a substation or connected circuits.
3016 The stress voltage limit relates to the insulation withstand requirement of cables and equipment.
3017 If HV and LV systems are combined, the stress voltage limits are unlikely to be exceeded in
3018 the substation.
3019 For segregated HV and LV systems, stress voltage includes the difference in potential between
3020 the HV and LV earths, and may be assumed equal to the EPR of the substation. Typically, this
3021 should be considered in the insulation withstand of the LV neutral bushing, LV neutral busbar
3022 supports, and LV cable screen where these are in close proximity to HV steelwork (a value of
3023 2 kV or more is often quoted for modern equipment).
3024 Care is needed if bringing (remotely earthed) LV supplies into such sites, particularly if feeding
3025 into metal equipment cabinets that are earthed to HV steelwork. In such circumstances, the
3026 insulation withstand within the equipment should be verified to ensure that that breakdown
3027 between LV phase/neutral/earth and HV steelwork cannot occur internally. Isolation
Page 88
3028 transformers may be required to ensure that HV and LV systems do not flash across under HV
3029 fault conditions.
3030 Where these criteria are met, the requirements of Table 2 of BS EN 50522 will be achieved.
3031 9.6 Combined HV and LV earthing

3032 HV and LV earthing systems will generally be combined if the EPR on HV steelwork does not
3033 exceed LV transfer potential limits described in Section 9.5.
3034 In general:
3035 • combine HV & LV earths if the potential rise due to an HV or EHV earth fault is safe to
3036 apply to the transformer LV earth;
3037 • segregate HV & LV earths if the potential rise on the transformer LV earth is unacceptable.
3038
3039 A substation with EPR limited to 466 V will usually be suitable for combined earthing if
3040 supplying a PME network5 and the HV fault clearance time does not exceed 1 s. This limit is
3041 subject to the caveats given in Section 9.5.2.
3042 9.7 Segregated HV and LV earthing

3043 For segregated earth systems, it is necessary to ensure that the LV electrode system is sited
3044 at sufficient distance from the HV electrode so that the potential rise on the LV network is
3045 acceptable.
3046 9.7.1 Separation distance

3047 Table 11 gives an approximate minimum separation distance based on the EPR and
3048 acceptable LV transfer limits. The values are not significantly dependent on soil resistivity
3049 once the EPR is known, although a uniform soil model is assumed.
3050 The tables are calculated for 3x3 m substations and 5x5 m substations, assuming both have
3051 a perimeter electrode. These are calculated values as given by formula P3 in Appendix B of
3052 ENA EREC S34. They have been compared with modelled results for uniform soil and the
3053 most conservative values are presented here; this represents the voltage contour furthest from
3054 the substation, such that any LV electrode beyond this distance from the substation boundary
3055 will be at or below the stated ,- figure under HV fault conditions.
3056 Table 11 – Separation distance (m) from 3x3 m substation
EPR(V)
1000 2000 3000 5000
./ (V)
233 3.0 7.6 12.2 21.5
324 1.8 5.0 8.3 15.0
376 1.4 4.2 7.0 12.7
466 0.8 3.0 5.3 9.9
5 An F-factor of 2 can be assumed for PME networks compliant with ENA EREC G12/4, i.e. the voltage appearing
at the customer’s earth terminal is expected to be no more than 50 % of the substation EPR. This paragraph also
assumes that HV faults will clear within 1 s.
Page 89
3057 Table 12 – Separation distance (m) from 5x5 m substation
3058
EPR (V)
1000 2000 3000 5000
./ (V)
233 5.0 12.7 20.4 35.8
324 3.0 8.4 13.9 25.0
376 2.3 6.9 11.7 21.2
466 1.4 5.1 8.9 16.6
3059
3060 NOTE: The following limits are tabulated. For other values, see Table 1.
3061 233 V = touch potential limit on soil for 1 s fault duration (or EPR limit with F=1);
3062 324 V = 162 V x 2, EPR limit applicable to 3 s fault duration with F=2;
3063 376 V = 188 V x 2, EPR limit applicable to 1.5 s fault duration with F=2;
3064 466 V = 233 V x 2, EPR limit applicable to 1 s fault duration with F=1.
3065
3066 These figures relate to the distance of the voltage contour at its furthest point from the
3067 substation. In some cases (multiple earthed systems) the first LV neutral/earth electrode may
3068 be sited inside the appropriate contour. See Section 9.7.4 and worked examples in ENA EREC
3069 S34.
3070 9.7.2 Transfer potential to third parties

3071 For substations that are close to third parties, consideration should be given to railways,
3072 pipelines, telecommunications, cable TV, etc. if such utilities pass through an area of high
3073 potential. The formulae in Appendix I of ENA EREC S34 may be used to provide an indication
3074 of the EPR that may be transferred to nearby objects.
3075 9.7.3 Further considerations

3076 The precise separation distance to be maintained between the HV and LV earthing systems is
3077 dependent on the EPR, the soil layer structure, and the physical layout of the earth electrodes.
3078 If necessary, it should be calculated during the design phase using the methods given in ENA
3079 EREC S34 or via detailed simulation and should include the effect of electrodes located away
3080 from the substation (See Section 9.7.4).
3081 For existing substations or during commissioning of a new installation, the transfer potential
3082 should be determined by measurement where practicable to confirm the calculated value. A
3083 separation factor of 0.9 or greater should be achieved (see Section 7.10).
3084 9.7.4 Multiple LV electrodes on segregated systems

3085 The separation distances above are those relating to the potential contour, such that the LV
3086 electrode or electrodes are sited beyond this. In practice, if these distances cannot be
3087 maintained, one or more electrodes on a multiple earthed neutral (e.g. a PME system) may be
3088 sited within a higher voltage contour (but no closer than 3 m) provided that the majority of the
3089 PME LV electrodes are sited beyond this. An above-ground separation of 2 m or more should
3090 be maintained to prevent simultaneous (hand-hand) contact between the systems.
3091 This assumes that the remainder of the LV system as a whole will have a resistance lower
3092 than that of the LV neutral electrode. The LV earthing system will have a centre of gravity that
Page 90
3093 lies outside the relevant contour, i.e. the transfer potential will be the weighted average of that
3094 appearing at all LV electrodes. Any design based on these assumptions should be backed up
3095 by a measurement of separation factor for the installed arrangement.
3096 See also ENA EREC S34 for calculations / worked examples.
3097 This relaxation does not apply to SNE systems, or PNB systems where the neutral/earth is
3098 earthed at only one point.
3099 Where calculations based on the local LV electrode (i.e. the electrode closest to the substation)
3100 indicate impractical separation distances or excessive transfer potentials, the design should
3101 be reviewed and further LV electrodes installed at the end of LV feeder cables, connected via
3102 the PEN conductor. To maximise this beneficial effect, they should be located as far away from
3103 the HV electrode as possible and have a lower resistance than the LV electrode at the
3104 substation.
3105 9.8 Situations where HV/LV systems cannot be segregated

3106 In some situations, it is not possible to segregate HV and LV systems safely without additional
3107 measures. One example is where an LV system exists within a HV system, or there are other
3108 similar physical constraints meaning that systems cannot reasonably be kept apart. See BS
3109 EN 50522.
3110 In such circumstances, consideration should be given to combining the HV and LV systems
3111 and augmenting the electrode system(s) such that EPR and HV-LV transfer potential is
3112 acceptable. If this is not practical, insulated mats/barriers could be considered in relevant
3113 areas.
3114 If necessary, the building or area could operate with a combined HV/LV system safely yet with
3115 a high EPR, provided all sources of transfer potential into and out of the HPR area can be
3116 excluded, and touch potentials are managed in and around the building. See guidance on
3117 stress voltage given in Section 9.5.3.
3118 9.9 Practical considerations

3119 HV networks are usually capable of being manually or automatically reconfigured. The change
3120 in running arrangements will affect various parameters including fault level, protection
3121 clearance time, and the sheath return current as a percentage of fault current IF.
3122 This complication means that a bespoke design for a distribution substation may not be valid
3123 if the running arrangement changes, and therefore the value of detailed design calculations on
3124 a dynamic network is questionable. It is recommended that the design considers all
3125 foreseeable running arrangements, or for simplicity makes worst-case assumptions regarding
3126 fault level, protection clearance time, and ground return current IE.
3127 A network operator may wish to adopt or provide a target resistance value (tailored to different
3128 geographic areas and different system earthing/protection scenarios), or other simplification of
3129 these design rules, for these reasons.
3130 9.10 LV installations near HPR sites

3131 LV electrodes (segregated systems) as described above should be clear of the relevant
3132 voltage contour. The consideration also applies to any customer’s TT system earth electrode.
3133 If necessary the electrode(s) should be relocated or the shape of the HPR zone altered by
3134 careful positioning of HV electrodes. In addition, where possible, LV electrode locations should
3135 place them clear of any fallen HV or EHV conductors.
Page 91
3136 The siting of LV earths should consider zones with elevated potential e.g. some properties
3137 close to HPR substations or EHV towers may themselves be in an area of HPR, in which case
3138 provision of an LV earth derived from outside that zone may introduce a touch potential risk at
3139 the installation, due to the LV earth being a remote earth reference. The arrangement can also
3140 pose a risk to other customers on the LV network if it will permit dangerous voltages to be
3141 impressed on the LV neutral/earth.
3142 Detailed modelling of HV/LV networks may demonstrate that potential differences are not
3143 significant, due to the influence of the network on the shape of the contours; however, such
3144 modelling may not be practicable. If any doubt exists, customers should not be offered an earth
3145 terminal, and no LV network earths should be located in the area of HPR. Cables passing
3146 through the area should be ducted or otherwise insulated to limit stress voltage to permissible
3147 limits. Typically a customer will use their own TT system earth electrode; however if properties
3148 are in an area where EPR exceeds 1200 V, it is possible that they will experience L-E or N-E
3149 insulation failures under HV or EHV fault conditions and isolation transformers or careful siting
3150 of HV:LV transformers and electrode systems may be required. See Section 9.11 and the case
3151 studies in Section 11.
3152 For PME electrode locations, see ENA EREC G12.
3153 9.11 Supplies to/from HPR sites

3154 Network supplies into HPR sites invariably need care if the network earth is to remain
3155 segregated from the HPR site earth. In remaining separate, this can introduce touch potential
3156 risk within the site. It is normally necessary to use a careful combination of bonding and
3157 segregation to ensure that danger does not arise within the site, or on the wider network.
3158 Sheath breaks, insulated glands or unearthed overhead line sections are often convenient
3159 mechanisms to segregate the earthing systems.
3160 Similar considerations are required for LV supplies derived from HPR sites if these are to
3161 export to a wider area. Typically, the LV neutral will be earthed outside the contours of highest
3162 potential and will be kept separate from all HPR steelwork in accordance with normal best
3163 practice. It may be necessary to apply ducting or additional insulation to prevent insulation
3164 breakdown and resultant fault current diversion from the HPR site into the wider network.
3165 See ENA EREC S34 for specific examples, and the case studies in Section 11 below.
3166 9.11.1 Special arrangements

3167 Where a standard substation earthing arrangement is not applicable, other options may include:
3168 • combining HV and LV earths and managing touch and step potentials by installing an
3169 earthing system to enclose the installation supplied, i.e. effectively producing a large
3170 equipotential safe zone, irrespective of EPR. The design should take into account any
3171 metallic services such as Telecoms entering or leaving the installation, and is most useful
3172 in rural areas.
3173 • using an isolation transformer with a separate earthing system where an LV supply has to
3174 be taken outside a HPR substation site with a bonded HV/LV earth system;
3175 • using isolation transformers to provide small capacity LV supplies to HPR ground-mounted
3176 substations, e.g. LV supplies to telecontrol equipment located within substations with
3177 segregated HV/LV earths (see 9.5.3). The alternative use of TT supplies (derived outside
3178 the High EPR zone) in such circumstances does not protect against insulation
3179 failure/flashover between the LV phase/neutral conductors and HV steelwork and could
3180 lead to the systems becoming inadvertently combined.
3181 • For supplies to mobile phone base stations see ENA EREC G78.
Page 92
3182 See Section 11.2 for examples of LV supplies into HPR sites.
3183 10 Earthing of pole-mounted substations and associated equipment

3184 This section describes earthing associated with HV distribution overhead line networks
3185 (excluding tower lines).
3186 10.1 General

3187 Extreme care should be taken when replacing pole-mounted equipment with ground-mounted
3188 equipment, since any existing earthing system is unlikely to be adequate to limit touch
3189 potentials to safe levels on the new installation.
3190 10.2 Pole-mounted transformers

3191 Pole-mounted transformers (PMTs) typically operate with a segregated HV and LV earthing
3192 system (see Section 9.7) and, since the metalwork is out of reach, a high EPR can be tolerated
3193 on the HV steelwork, provided that the LV electrode system is suitably separated from the HV
3194 system. Figure 8 shows a typical arrangement where the main LV electrode is at the first pole,
3195 i.e. one span away, from the HV pole.
3196
3197 Figure 8 - Typical PMT earthing arrangement
3198 The limiting factor for EPR is usually insulation withstand voltage of the LV cables, insulators
3199 and bushings at the pole-top; often a design value of 2 kV to 5 kV is assumed, depending on
3200 equipment specifications. A high EPR (with a small electrode system) is often inevitable on
3201 systems supplied by unearthed overhead lines as these do not enjoy the return path offered
3202 by a metallic cable sheath/armour.
3203 The HV electrode should be sited and designed so that it will not present a danger in terms of
3204 hazardous step potentials (potential gradient) around it. In this respect, it is no different to that
Page 93
3205 of ground-mounted systems described above, except that PMTs are often in fields, close to
3206 livestock/animals, and with high ground return currents. See Section 10.3.
3207
3208 10.3 Electrode configuration for pole-mounted equipment
3209 The following earth electrode designs assume that the overhead network does not have a
3210 return earth conductor. With this type of system, the EPR of the local earth electrode typically
3211 will exceed tolerable touch, step and transfer potentials under earth fault conditions.
3212 Due to the possible hazardous touch potentials, earth conductors above ground should be
3213 suitably insulated and provided with mechanical protection for a minimum height of 3 m or
3214 above the height of the anti-climbing device, whichever is greater. In addition, the main earth
3215 conductor should be suitably insulated for a minimum of 500 mm below ground level. Where
3216 the separation of electrodes is required, guidance is given below.
3217 It is not always reasonably practicable to ensure in all situations that step potentials directly
3218 above an installed earth electrode system remain below permissible limits under earth fault
3219 conditions6. It is generally considered that the probability of an earth fault occurring whilst an
3220 individual happens, by chance, to be walking across the earth electrode at the same time, is
3221 extremely small. Therefore, in most circumstances no special precautions are required.
3222 However, at sensitive locations that are often frequented7 by people, particularly children, and
3223 concentrations of livestock in stables or pens for example, precautions may be justified to
3224 eliminate or minimise the risk. This can usually be achieved by careful site selection or at the
3225 time of installation by installing the earth electrode in a direction away from the area of concern,
3226 burying the electrode as deep as practicable, and/or fencing the electrode off to prevent access.
3227 A similar situation also applies to personnel carrying out live operations such as HV drop-out
3228 fuse replacement, live-line tapping at earthed locations or ABSD switching using hook stick
3229 (hot-stick or insulated rods) techniques on earthed poles.
3230 10.4 HV earth electrode value

3231 The HV electrode is usually the only return path for HV fault current, except for relatively rare
3232 instances of cable fed PMTs, or cable terminations, and its resistance should generally be
3233 sufficiently low to operate HV protection within design limits for the network (typically 1 to 1.5
3234 s maximum); electrode resistance values between 10 Ω and 40 Ω are often quoted for design
3235 purposes, with lower values providing increased resilience to lightning strikes. Lower
3236 resistance values will limit the potential rise on HV steelwork, and can prevent back flashover
3237 across LV bushings resulting from lightning surges, which would otherwise destroy the
3238 transformer winding.
3239 In general, the lower the earth electrode resistance, the more earth fault current will flow,
3240 resulting in more reliable operation of the circuit protection. Where surge arrestors are used it
3241 is generally accepted that 10 Ω is the preferred maximum value of earth electrode resistance
3242 for satisfactory operation of the arrestor. This is in line with the preferred 10 Ω value in BS EN
3243 62305-1 for high-frequency lightning earth electrodes.
3244 10.5 Electrode arrangement selection method

3245 A common arrangement of rods used for earth electrodes associated with overhead line
3246 equipment is a run of parallel rods interconnected with a horizontal conductor.
6 This is now less of an issue as step potential limits have been considerably relaxed compared with
previous versions of this specification.
7 See BS EN 50341-1 clause 6.2.4.2 for definition
Page 94
3247 Resistance values may be calculated using formulae in Appendix B of ENA EREC S34. The
3248 calculated values are considered to be conservative and are based on uniform soil resistivity.
3249 Calculated resistance values for the same rod and soil arrangements, using earthing design
3250 software are approximately 30% lower. Where the ground conditions are difficult, i.e. of high
3251 resistivity and/or rocky, the cost of obtaining the required earth electrode resistance value may
3252 warrant carrying out a site-specific design.
3253
3254 10.6 Earthed operating mechanisms accessible from ground level
3255 This section deals with pole-mounted auto-reclosers (PMAR), sectionalisers, and air break
3256 switch disconnectors, all of which are capable of being manually operated via an earthed
3257 metallic control box or switch mechanism. It is important to note that where an LV supply is
3258 required for control circuits, the supply should be derived from a dedicated transformer whose
3259 LV neutral is earthed directly to the installation’s main HV earth conductor.
3260 There are several methods of minimising the risk from any hazardous touch and step potentials
3261 at such installations. In selecting the most appropriate method, due account should be taken
3262 of the nature of the site, the accessibility of the equipment to third parties and the EPR under
3264 Use of wireless remote control for a unit mounted on the pole out of reach from ground
3265 level. With this method, an HV earth electrode system may be required where surge
3266 arrestors are fitted or where the manufacturer of the equipment specifies. Where
3267 equipment is unearthed its mounting height should comply with the relevant regulations.
3268 Place the control box out of reach from ground level, access being via an insulated
3269 ladder. Again, with this method an HV earth electrode system may be required where
3270 surge arrestors are fitted or where the manufacturer of the equipment specifies. Where
3271 equipment is unearthed its mounting height should comply with the relevant regulations.
3272 Install an operator’s earth mat and grading conductors to help provide an equipotential
3273 zone for the operator. Figure 9Figure 9 and Figure 10 show an example of how this
3274 may be achieved. Whilst this minimises the hazards for the operator, it requires that the
3275 installation be carried out with great diligence. It is also important that the future integrity
3276 of the earth electrode is ensured. Misplacement of the earth electrode conductors can
3277 result in the operator being exposed to hazardous touch and step potentials.
3278 Consideration should be given to the selection of the site prior to installation to ensure
3279 that the required earth electrode configuration can be installed correctly and maintained
3280 adequately into the future. Use of suitable personal protective equipment for switching
3281 operations may also be considered as an additional risk control measure; dielectric
3282 (insulated) footwear rated at >7 kV is now commonly used to protect operators against
3283 step potentials when stepping on/off the platform.
3284 Where mechanical damage is likely, for example in farmland, protective measures need to be
3285 considered to ensure the integrity of the earth electrode and the earth mat. An example would
3286 be to install and fix the earth mat on or in a raft of concrete or fence off the area surrounding
3287 the earth mat.
3288 The use of grading conductors to minimise step potentials in the immediate vicinity of the
3289 operator’s earth mat may prove impractical in some circumstances, particularly where there is
3290 a danger of them being damaged by ploughing. Burying the grading conductors at a greater
3291 depth will significantly reduce their effectiveness. Keeping step potentials within tolerable limits
3292 can be extremely difficult and in some case impracticable. In such circumstances, alternative
3293 mitigation should be considered.
Page 95
3294 Soil structure, operating voltage, type of HV system earthing (solid or resistance) and system
3295 impedance all have an effect on the value of step and touch potentials created around the
3296 earth electrode, whereas protection clearance times will have a bearing in determining the
3297 tolerable touch and step potential limits. At some sites, it may be prudent to restrict access to
3298 the control box, for example by use of insulating barriers or fences, so that it is not possible for
3299 third parties to touch the control box and where operators can only touch the control box when
3300 standing on the earth mat.
3301 It should be noted that burying the operator’s earth mat will increase the touch potential
3302 between the control box and the surface of the ground above the earth mat; the greater the
3303 depth of the mat, the greater the potential difference between the soil surface above the mat
3304 and the control box. The hazard this presents can be managed by covering the mat with a
3305 high resistivity material which will increase the impedance path between the hands and feet.
3306 Burying the mat will also have the effect of reducing the step potentials for an operator stepping
3307 off the mat. However, the prime concern is to minimise the touch potentials, as these are
3308 considered to be more hazardous than step potentials. Where the mat is buried, the touch
3309 potential and the hazard it presents will be site-specific, being dependent upon the actual EPR
3310 and the protection clearance times for the given site, therefore a site-specific design is
3311 recommended. The surface mat shown in Figure 9 results in negligible touch potentials for the
3312 operator standing on the mat, irrespective of the EPR.
3313 In all cases it is an option to use control measures to mitigate risk if a company deems this is
3314 the most appropriate solution in the circumstances.
3315
Potential grading
conductors
Plan max. 300 mm deep
View
Operator's
access
route
Recommended pre-formed
1000 mm x 1000 mm metallic mesh earth mat
earth mat Min. 1000 mm x 1000 mm
Max. mesh size 100 mm x 100 mm
Extended electrode if
required to obtain correct Optional concrete
resistance value. support raft/slab
Min. depth 500 mm (1000 mm
in agricultural land)
Grading conductors
Soil level max. 300 mm deep
2000 mm
radius
3316
3317 NOTE: This arrangement does not exclude the use of a portable earth mat.
3318 Figure 9 - Earthing arrangement for a PMAR with ground-level control box
3319
Page 96
Insulated
Keep the HV and operator's insert in
earth mat conductors as far operating
apart as practicable on the pole rod
(at least 1/3 of the circumference)
Insulated conductor for

min. 3000 mm above
ground level Recommended pre-formed
Provide mechanical metallic mesh earth mat
protection at least as Min. 1000 mm x 1000 mm
high as the ACD. Max. mesh size 100 mm x 100 mm
Soil level
Min. 5000 mm
separation
Optional concrete
support raft/slab
Insulated
conductor
HV Earth Electrode in duct
Min. depth 500 mm
Deep earth (greater depth

preferable to extended
horizontal electrode)
3320
3321 Figure 10 - Alternative earthing arrangement for a PMAR with ground level
3322 control box
3323 10.7 Air break switch disconnector (ABSD) with an isolated operating mechanism
3324 There are several methods of controlling hazardous touch and step potentials, at pole-mounted
3325 ABSDs.
3326 Method 1 - Install an insulated rod-operated ABSD at high level that does not require an
3327 earth electrode. Where equipment is unearthed, its mounting height should comply with
3328 the relevant regulations. This option removes the risk of the operator being exposed to the
3329 hazard of touch and step potentials that could occur under certain earth fault conditions
3330 when adopting method 2 below.
3331 Method 2 - Install an ABSD that is operated manually from ground level with a separate HV
3332 earth electrode and operators earth mat. This approach relies on effective separation of
3333 the HV earth electrode that connects the HV steelwork to earth, and the operator’s earth
3334 mat connected to the operating handle. This arrangement is typical of existing earthed
3335 ABSD equipment found on rural overhead line distribution networks.
3336 Separation is achieved by placing the HV earth electrode a minimum of 5 m away from the
3337 base of the operator’s earth mat using insulated earth conductor from the electrode to the HV
3338 steelwork, and by insulating the operating handle from the switch mechanism using an
3339 insulating insert in the operating rod. The top of the insert should be a minimum of 3 m from
3340 ground level when in its lowest position. The operating handle should be connected to an
3341 earth mat positioned where the operator will stand to operate the handle. If the earth mat is
3342 installed such that it is visible, the operator can verify its existence and its connection to the
3343 handle prior to operating the handle. The continuing effective segregation of the HV earth
3344 electrode and the operator’s earth mat is the most important aspect of the way in which this
3345 arrangement seeks to control the touch and step potentials around the operator’s earth mat
3346 position. To minimise the possibility of contact between the buried insulated earth conductor
3347 and the surrounding soil, should the insulation of the earth conductor fail, the conductor could
3348 be installed in plastic ducting.
Page 97
3349 Where mechanical damage is possible, for example in farmland, protective measures may
3350 need to be considered to ensure the integrity of the earth electrode and the earth mat. An
3351 example would be to install and fix the earth mat on or in a raft of concrete or to fence off the
3352 area surrounding the earth mat using non-conducting fencing.
3353 Under earth fault conditions the HV earth electrode will rise in potential with respect to remote
3354 earth. A potential gradient will be produced around the electrode, the potentials being highest
3355 immediately above the electrode and reducing rapidly with distance. The earth mat will be
3356 located within the potential gradient surrounding the HV earth electrode, but due to the
3357 separation distance of 5 m the potential at that point with respect to remote earth will be
3358 relatively small. The surface level earth mat for the operating handle and the handle itself will
3359 rise in potential but there will be effectively no potential difference between the mat and handle.
3360 Under earth fault conditions, assuming the correct separation distance between the HV earth
3361 electrode and the operating handle earth mat, should the operator have one foot on the mat
3362 and one off the mat, touch and step potentials surrounding the earth mat should not exceed
3363 tolerable limits. However, there is a risk of hazardous touch and step potentials arising if the
3364 HV earth electrode short-circuits to the operating handle earth mat. The risk of such a short
3365 circuit occurring is extremely small provided that the earth installation is correctly installed,
3366 inspected and maintained.
3367 The actual size and shape of the earth mat should be such as to ensure that the operator will
3368 be standing towards its centre whilst operating the handle. Notwithstanding this requirement,
3369 the minimum size of earth mat should be 1 m by 1 m. Due consideration should be taken of
3370 the type of handle, whether it is a two-handed or single-handed operation and whether the
3371 operator may be left or right handed. A purpose-made mat is recommended in preference to
3372 a mat formed on site out of bare conductor, as this eliminates problems of variation in shape
3373 and size that can occur with the latter. Where a buried earth mat is used, the maximum depth
3374 of the mat should be no greater than 300 mm.
3375 Under normal earth fault conditions the touch potential for both buried and surface mounted
3376 scenarios will be negligible. When deciding between the use of a buried earth mat and a
3377 surface mounted mat the following issues should be considered:
3378 • A surface mounted mat will allow the operator to visually confirm both the position of the
3379 earth mat relative to the handle and also the integrity of the connection between the earth
3380 mat and the handle.
3381 • A surface mounted mat will minimise any touch potentials between the soil surface on the
3382 mat and the handle, both under normal earth fault conditions and under second fault
3383 conditions where the handle and the earth mat become energised, although this scenario
3384 should be less likely because effective segregation can be visually confirmed before
3385 operation.
3386 • Conversely, a surface mounted mat will maximise the step potential around the mat,
3387 although this will only be an issue if the mat and handle become energised under a second
3388 fault scenario.
3389 • A buried earth mat will not allow the operator to visually confirm either its position relative
3390 to the handle, or the integrity of its physical connection to the handle before operation.
3391 • Burying the earth mat will increase the value of any touch potential between the handle and
3392 the soil above the earth mat, and this potential will increase with depth.
3393 • To maintain the same effective soil surface area with a buried earth mat for the operator to
3394 stand on and minimise any resulting touch potentials requires a significantly larger mat
3395 than for a surface mounted mat.
Page 98
3396 • Where a second fault occurs that energises the operating handle and earth mat, with a
3397 buried earth mat the touch potential could exceed tolerable levels.
3398 • Conversely, burying the mat will have the effect of reducing the step potentials under such
3399 conditions for an operator stepping off the mat.
3400 The use of suitably rated PPE in these situations would assist in minimising the risk of exposure
3401 to possibly hazardous potentials.
Plan
View Potential grading
Obstruction such as hedge
conductors
max. 300 mm deep
Operator's
access
route
Recommended pre-formed
1000 mm x 1000 mm metallic mesh earth mat
earth mat Min. 1000 mm x 1000 mm
Max. mesh size 100 mm x 100 mm
Extended electrode if Optional concrete

required to obtain correct support raft/slab
resistance value.
Min. depth 500 mm (1000 mm
in agricultural land) Grading conductors
Soil level max. 300 mm deep
2000 mm
radius
3402
3403 Figure 11 - Recommended earthing arrangement for an ABSD
3404
3405 10.8 Surge arrestors
3406 The preferred value for the surge arrestor earth electrode resistance is 10 Ω or less. Ideally
3407 this electrode system should be installed as close to the base of the pole as possible. However,
3408 for some locations where it may be necessary for an operator to carry out switching operations
3409 on the HV networks at that pole this may create unacceptable step potential hazards. In such
3410 cases the HV earth electrode should be installed away from the pole at a location where the
3411 step potential is calculated to be safe (typically 5 m) for the operator to stand when carrying
3412 out any switching operations, see Section 6.14. It is preferable to have a small number of deep
3413 earth rods rather than many shallow rods or plain horizontal conductor. The earth conductor
3414 connecting the base of the surge arrestors to the earth electrode system should be as straight
3415 as possible, having as few bends in as is practicable.
3416 Where other HV equipment is situated on the same pole and requires an earth electrode, only
3417 one HV earth electrode should be installed.
3418 NOTE: This practice differs for that in substations as given in Section 6.14, where separate power-frequency and
3419 high-frequency earths are required.
Page 99
3420 The preference is to install an earth conductor directly from the surge arrestors to the buried
3421 HV earth electrode, and then connect the earths of the other items of HV equipment to it on
3422 the pole. At sites where switching may take place the earth lead should be insulated to the first
3423 earth rod which should be a minimum of 5 m from the operating mat for an ABSD or 5 m from
3424 the operating position for equipment that requires the use of hot-sticks or insulated rods.
3425 Additional protection may be achieved by placing the earth lead in ducting to that point.
3426 10.9 Cable terminations

3427 Typically, cable terminations on poles are associated with surge arrestors or other HV
3428 equipment, in which case the cable sheath or screen is connected directly to the surge arrestor
3429 or HV equipment main earth conductor. In the absence of surge arrestors or other earthed HV
3430 equipment, the cable will require the installation of an earth electrode.
3431 10.10 Operations at earthed equipment locations

3432 At earthed installations fed via overhead line systems, it is essential to have robust operational
3433 procedures to minimise the risk from the possible hazards associated with HPR under earth
3434 fault conditions. It should be noted that the risk increases during live fault switching operations.
3435 It is beyond the scope of this document to detail such procedures but consideration should be
3436 given to the following points:
3437 • Earth systems are usually designed to minimise hazards under main protection operation.
3438 They are not designed, unless specifically required, to minimise hazards under secondary
3439 or backup protection conditions. This is an important point to note when developing fault
3440 switching operational procedures. Temporarily disabling parts of the protection system,
3441 reconfiguring the network, or raising protection settings to aid in fault location during fault
3442 switching can give rise to touch, step and transfer potentials of a duration that the
3443 associated earth systems have not been designed to take account of.
3444 • Precautions should be taken, by virtue of the equipment design and earthing arrangements,
3445 to minimise any touch and step potential hazards. For example, where rod-operated
3446 (insulated hot-stick) equipment is used, the simplest way of minimising hazards from touch
3447 and step potentials is by, where practicable, placing the earthing electrode, not serving as
3448 grading conductors, away from the position where the operator will be standing. Where
3449 several people are present during operations, any person not actively carrying out
3450 operations should stand well clear of the installed earth electrode.
3451 10.11 Installation
3452 The following points should be considered when installing an earth electrode system for
3453 overhead line equipment:
3454 • Materials and jointing methods should comply with the requirements of BS 7430.
3455 • Installation teams should have a basic understanding of the functions of an earth system,
3456 and should carry out installations to a detailed specification.
3457 • Typically, installing a horizontal earth electrode system at a greater depth than 500 mm will
3458 not have any significant effect on reducing the value of earth electrode resistance. However,
3459 it is recommended that the electrode is buried as deep as is practically possible to minimise
3460 surface potentials and the possibility of mechanical damage. Where ploughing is a concern,
3461 the electrode should be buried at a minimum depth of 1 m.
3462 • Ensure maximum separation is achieved on the pole between HV earth conductors and
3463 ABSD handle earth mat conductors.
3464 • It is recommended that a test point is made available for future connection of an earth tester
3465 above ground so that the earth electrode resistance can be measured. This test point
Page 100
3466 should be installed and constructed so as to prevent unauthorised access, and on ABSDs
3467 prevent possible flashover to the operators handle and associated earth mat.
3468 • Welded, brazed or compression connections are preferable to bolted connections for
3469 underground joints.
3470 • Corrosive materials and high resistivity materials such as sand should not be used as a
3471 backfill immediately around the electrode.
3472 • The earth resistance of the installed electrode should be measured and recorded.
3473 • Where a buried operator’s earth mat has been installed, the mat should have two
3474 connections made to the operating handle.
3475 10.12 Inspection and maintenance of earthing installations
3476 10.12.1 Items to inspect
3477 During routine line inspections, it is recommended that the following items are visually
3478 inspected and their condition recorded, with any defects being rectified in a timely manner:
3479 • ABSD earth mat and connection to operating handle.

3480 • Separation of HV and operator’s handle earth on an ABSD.
3481 • Separation of HV and LV earth conductors on the pole.
3482 • Check that the anti-climbing device does not compromise the separation between the HV
3483 earth conductor and the operating handle.
3484 • Insulation of HV and LV earth conductors.
3485 • Mechanical protection of HV and LV earth conductors.
3486 • Bonding of plant and equipment.
3487 • State of connections, including any test point.
3488 • Signs of possible mechanical damage to earth electrode and buried earth mats.
3489 10.12.2 Items to examine
3490 Periodically, examine a random sample of buried earth electrodes and buried ABSD handle
3491 earth mats, and rectify any defects found. The examination should check for the following:
3492 • position of earth mat and electrode locations relative to ABSD handle and operator’s
3493 position.
3494 • insulating insert in the ABSD operating rod.
3495 • state of underground connections.
3496 • state of earth electrode components, particularly galvanised steel rods.
3497 • state of insulation on underground earth conductors where separation of electrodes is
3498 required.
3499 NOTE: When carrying out this work, protective measures should be taken to ensure the safety of personnel during
3501 The results of the examinations can be used to assist in developing ongoing inspection and
3502 maintenance policy, and procedures.
3503 10.12.3 Items to test

3504 • Periodically test the earth electrode resistance. For the relatively small earth systems
3505 typically associated with overhead line equipment, a small 3-terminal earth tester is
3506 adequate. The test should be carried out in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
Page 101
3507 • Regularly test the continuity between operating handle and the operator’s earth mat.
3508 • Regularly test the continuity of buried earth mats.
3509 • Periodically test a random sample of insulating inserts used in ABSD operating
3510 mechanisms.
3511 IMPORTANT: When carrying out these measurements, the equipment should be made dead
3512 or where this is not practicable a risk assessment should be carried out and suitable test
3513 procedures should be adopted which safeguard the operator from any rise of earth potential.
3514 Such procedures may, for example, include the use of insulating gloves and boots, mats and
3515 / or fully insulated test equipment.
3516 11 Case studies / examples

3517 11.1 Risk assessment – third-party metallic fence near substation
3518 This case study concerns a third-party metallic fence that has been erected close to (within 4
3519 metres of) a primary substation. The EPR at the substation in this case is 3 kV, and generic
3520 fault data suggests that EPR events may occur up to 2.1 times per year on average (due to a
3521 combination of local and remote faults).
3522 In this example, the substation measures 30 x 30 m. The slowest (normal) fault clearance time
3523 is 0.5 s.
3524 In this case, hand-to-hand touch potential is not an issue between the substation fence and
3525 the third-party fence (because the above-ground separation exceeds 2 m). However, a hand-
3526 to-feet touch potential can exist at the third-party fence during substation fault conditions, and
3527 this is assessed below.
3528 This case study is representative of various scenarios where a transfer potential is introduced
3529 from a remote source; in this case the metallic fence will adopt a potential that may differ from
3530 the ground potential, particularly if the fence is on insulated supports and in contact with a
3531 remote earthy structure. Similar principles can be applied to any telecoms circuits, LV cables,
3532 etc. which encroach on an area of high potential rise.
3533
3534 Figure 12 - Third-party fence close to substation
3535
3536 In Figure 12, UT represents the highest touch potential that may be assumed to be present; as
3537 shown it represents the difference between the ground potential at the point nearest to the
3538 substation, compared with a remote (zero-volt) reference on the fence.
3539 In practice, the touch potential will be lower, however, this is sufficient for an initial worst-case
3540 estimate.
Page 102
3541 Simplified calculations (rearranging formula P7 in appendix B of ENA EREC S34) give the
3542 surface potential rise ,- at a point 0 4 m from the substation boundary:
:;
2 ,- 3
3543 0= 456 −1
3 289
3544
3545 where 89 = 3 kV and 2 = 900 m 2 . This rearranges to:
3546
:;
289 0
3547 ,- = . ?@A456 +1
3
2
3
3548 Thus the surface potential at a distance 4 m from the substation, ,- = 1799 V.
3549 This could be taken as the hand-to-feet touch potential at the point where the fence is closest
3550 to the substation, assuming the fence will adopt zero-volts during the fault. Alternatively, due
3551 to the close proximity to the substation and the non-circular contours at that point, computer
3552 modelling of the soil surface potential should be more accurate; this shows that the ground
3553 potential rise at the closest point of the fence is 1720 V.
3554 Using either value for 0.5 s, and comparing to Table 1, shows that this touch potential is above
3555 acceptable deterministic limits for soil (578 V), chippings (650 V), or concrete coverings (753
.
3556 V) Having carried out this first estimate, it is apparent that a quantified risk assessment (QRA)
3557 is appropriate to quantify the level of risk to members of public.
3558 A QRA can proceed on the basis of worst-case estimated data, provided these estimates are
3559 justifiable and proven not to underestimate the overall risk. It is preferable, however, where
3560 possible, to collect further information to inform studies. This data could include
3561 measurements, modelling, mapping/cable plans, collection of fault statistics, fault level
3562 analysis, EPR calculation/checks, interrogation of protection relay data or power quality
3563 monitors (historic fault rates and/or fault levels), aerial imagery / satellite imagery or other
3564 online sources. Video, or other data sources may assist with an estimate of likely human
3565 exposure.
3566 In this case, the third-party fence is a metal palisade type with metal uprights that may be
3567 assumed to be buried at a depth of up to 0.5 m. The panels are 2.5 m wide and supported
3568 clear of the ground. The local soil resistivity is 100 Ω·m. The fence is 50 m in length and
3569 effectively runs radially from the substation.
3570 The fence is on the edge of an industrial area with a footpath nearby, but not adjacent to the
3571 fence. Individuals contacting the fence can be assumed to be wearing normal footwear (4 kΩ
3572 per shoe) whilst (in this example) standing on soil/grass (i.e. a shoe-to-soil contact resistance
3573 of 300 Ω per foot), giving an additional circuit resistance of 2150 Ω to the body and hand-to-
3574 feet contact impedances.
3575 Because of the coupling between the fence and the soil along its length, the fence will not
3576 adopt a true zero potential during EPR events at the substation but will instead adopt a
3577 weighted average value over its length. Figure 13 shows the result of computer modelling of
3578 touch potential along the fence, i.e. the difference in potential between the fence and the soil
3579 1 m from it. It can be seen that 18 m along the fence, the touch potential falls to a null point
3580 where the fence and soil potentials are equal. The maximum touch potential appears (in this
3581 case) at the end of the fence closest to the substation; a person standing 1 m from the end of
Page 103
3582 the fence could be subject to a touch potential of 970 V; this value, which is still worst-case,
3583 should be used in the assessment together with an appropriate probability for the exposure.
3584 NOTE: More accurate assessment could use a probability distribution function for the potential along the fence; this
3585 is beyond the scope of this example.
3586
1200
Touch potential (V)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
3587 -1 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51
Distance along fence (m)

3588
3589 Figure 13 - Touch potential along fence
3590 For shoes on soil conditions, the maximum permissible touch potential (0.5 s) is 578 V. This
3591 deterministic limit is based on the C2 curve from DD IEC/TS 60479-1 and the body impedance
3592 model for 95 % of the population, i.e. the same criteria used in the examples in the UK National
3593 Annexes in BS EN 50522.
3594 The touch potential (hand-to-feet) of 970 V is therefore still above the C2 curve and fails the
3595 deterministic test. Having established this, order of magnitude analysis can proceed with an
3596 assumed PFB = 1; more detailed analysis shows the body current to be around 354 mA, which
3597 is in the AC-4.2 region of Figure 20 of DD IEC/TS 60479-1, i.e. “Probability of ventricular
3598 fibrillation above 5 % and below 50 %”. Interpolation of the value gives PFB = 43.4 %, although
3599 due to uncertainties it is more appropriate to adopt the upper threshold for the region.
3600 Thus: PFB = 0.5.

3601 Note: Fibrillation current calculations use the same assumptions as outlined in Annex NA of BS EN 50522, i.e. using
3602 Table 1 from DD IEC/TS 60479-1 for values of human body impedance not exceeded by 95 % of population, and
3603 an additional 2150 Ω for the accidental circuit (shoes + soil contact patch). The body impedance is a function of
3604 voltage across the body, therefore it becomes necessary to go through some form of iterative loop to estimate the
3605 voltage drop across the body (and thus body impedance) in order to converge on the solution for final body current.
3606 An impedance factor of 0.75 is used to convert hand-to-hand impedances to hand-to-feet values. It is not normally
3607 necessary to consider wet values except in permanently wet locations.
3608
3609 The statistical fault rate (estimated significant EPR events per year) based on historical fault
3610 data is 2.1 faults/year.
Page 104
3611 !" = 2.1
3612 The probability of exposure (PE) relates to the time that an individual may be exposed to risk.
3613 The most significant, and obvious risk relates to contact with the fence. The fence is in a
3614 relatively remote location on an industrial area, with little footfall and only occasional contact
3615 with the fence. An initial estimate of 2 minutes contact with the fence, per individual, per day
3616 is based on anecdotal observations from the landowner:
3617 PE = 2 (minutes) /(24 * 60 minutes per day) = 1.39 x 10-3
3618
3619 The individual risk (IR) is calculated using the formula:
3620 #$ = !" ∗ () ∗ (*+
3621 where:
3622 !" = number of significant EPR events, on average per year.
3623 (*+ = probability of heart fibrillation.
3624 () = probability of exposure.
3625 HSE guidance [R2P2] defines an individual risk of 1 in 1,000,000 per person per year (pppy)
3626 as broadly acceptable, for which no further work is warranted. A risk between 1 in 10,000, and
3627 1 in 1,000,000 is tolerable for members of the public. A risk greater than 1 in 10,000 (or 1 in
3628 1000 for workers) is deemed unacceptable, and should be addressed regardless of cost.
3629 The overall individual risk in this case, using the assumptions above is 1.46 x 10-3, i.e.
3630 1.46/1000 fatalities pppy. This risk level is UNACCEPTABLE and should be addressed.
3631 The assessment at this stage is based on very conservative estimates. Having established
3632 that the risk may be significant, it becomes necessary to either carry out mitigation work, or
3633 reassess the risk with more accurate data.
3634 Given that mitigation work will in most cases be relatively expensive, this initial assessment
3635 provides justification for further analysis.
3636 In this example, the network operator opted to carry out a more detailed site survey and
3637 investigation. The following findings were noted:
3638 • Whilst earth faults were observed on average 2 to 8 times a year (based on historical data),
3639 it was found that significant EPR events (i.e. those producing EPR over the deterministic
3640 threshold) at this substation occurred, on average 0.9 times per year.
3641
3642 NOTE: In addition, the Network Operator also established that the full EPR for this site was 2400 V rather than 3
3643 kV as assumed; however the decision was taken to work with an assumed upper limit of 3 kV to allow for fault level
3644 growth. It was also found that only a small percentage of faults gave an EPR approaching 3 kV, but the data was
3645 not statistically significant. For this reason, the count of EPR events greater than deterministic limits is used in the
3646 analysis below.
3647
3648 • Over a 1 month video survey period, individual contact with any area of the fence was
3649 noted, on average twice per week, by the same individual, for a maximum of 10 s per
3650 occasion. Of these contacts, one third involved the portion of fence where touch potential
3651 exceeds the deterministic limit of 578 V. To simplify analysis, it has been assumed that all
Page 105
3652 contacts with this portion will give a touch potential of 970 V. The alternative is to assess
3653 the exposure and touch potential for each 1 m of the fence separately.
3654 Finally, some parts of the fence were found to be surrounded by concrete rather than soil.
3655 Calculation of PFB for these areas shows a reduced risk of fibrillation (21 % for 970 V), which
3656 is still in region AC-4.2. There is no difference if the upper bound (50 %) is used and this fact
3657 is ignored as of no consequence.
3658
3659 Using this updated data set:
Defect CD PFB PE Individual risk (IR) Risk Band

-5 -6
Close proximity to 0.9 0.5 1.099x10 4.95x10 per person Tolerable; requires
substation with per year ALARP assessment
HPR
3660
3661 The risk is not broadly acceptable, in that it exceeds 1 in 1,000,000 per person per year. It is
3662 tolerable for members of the public. An assessment is required to justify expenditure to reduce
3663 or mitigate this risk.
3664 The ALARP principle should be applied, which means that the justifiable cost of mitigation
3665 should be calculated based on current HSE guidance [R2P2] for the value of preventing a
3666 fatality, or VPF. This figure currently stands at £1,000,000 per life saved. The justifiable spend
3667 is calculated according to the loss of life that could occur during the lifetime of the installation,
3668 which for a substation may be taken as 100 years:
3669 Expected lifetime of installation: 100 years (assumed)
3670 Fatalities in 100 years: 4.95 x 10-6 x 100 = 0.000495
3671 Number of individuals exposed to same risk: 1 (this value is informed by observations / data)
3672 Justifiable spend (per individual exposed) = £1,000,000 x 0.000495 x 1 = £495
3673 Therefore, if the cost of reducing risk to broadly acceptable levels is less than this, mitigation
3674 of the hazard should be carried out. If the risk cannot be significantly reduced for this amount,
3675 the Network Operator may be able to justify the decision to do nothing.
3676 Risk reduction measures could include hazard warning signs (which may cause some
3677 reduction in PE), insulated paint (reduction in body current and PFB), modifications to the fence
3678 / addition of a grading electrode, use of asphalt ground coverings and so on. However, due to
3679 ownership / access issues, such measures may not be possible, in which case alterations to
3680 the substation MES / voltage contours, EPR / fault levels, protection clearance times or fault
3681 rates should be considered.
3682 Modifications to customer property (if permissible) should also consider the likelihood that they
3683 may become altered or compromised as they are beyond the control of the Network Operator.
3684 Before calculating the justifiable spend, any worst-case assumptions should be revisited.
3685 If there is robust data to justify it, a further reduction factor can be applied by looking at the
3686 relationship between exposure and fault. If for example, fence contact occurs only on dry sunny
3687 days, it may be that the fault rate is lower on those days. A correlation factor may be applied
3688 to account for this. In the example above, if the fault rate on dry days is one tenth of that for
Page 106
3689 the rest of the year, a factor of 0.1 may be applied to () ∗ (*+ , giving an overall risk (in this
3690 example) that becomes broadly acceptable.
3691 This case study considers only one aspect of overall risk, i.e. hand-to-feet touch potential on
3692 a relatively small section of a 50 m fence. All similar scenarios and related risks should be
3693 considered (e.g. hand-to-hand contact if appropriate, or transfer potential to/from other sources.
3694 Also, the possibility of bare feet / step potential and/or horse-riding accidents (if near a riding
3695 school) should be considered and an overall risk calculated by summing the individual risks
3696 from each scenario. In this case, there is no additional foreseeable likelihood of fibrillation or
3697 falls / injuries close to the substation or third-party fence but this could change and should be
3698 reviewed periodically as part of substation inspections.
3699 This study considers only fibrillation risk. Injuries from minor shocks (e.g. falls etc.) have not
3700 been considered. A tailored approach may be required for different circumstances or for
3701 vulnerable individuals, e.g. nurseries / playgrounds (especially those with pools or wet areas),
3702 nursing homes, riding schools, hospitals, etc.
3703 11.2 LV supply into HPR site

3704 This case study considers the provision of an LV supply into a transmission substation with an
3705 EPR which cannot safely be carried outside the substation boundary (i.e.the EPR exceeds 2
3706 x safe step and touch potential thresholds).
3707 The following parameters apply:
EPR 3 kV
Protection clearance time 0.2 seconds
3708
3709 The substation is in a suburban location with a local underground LV network and mixed
3710 overhead / underground 11 kV cable system. The LV network supplies nearby properties and
3711 remains outside the HOT zone (650 V) which is calculated to extend 150 m from the site.
3712 A 100 A, 3-phase LV supply has been requested by the substation operator, to provide a
3713 backup to local site supply transformers.
3714 The EPR exceeds that which can safely be imposed on the LV network under fault conditions.
3715 Therefore, taking a standard LV supply into the site from the nearby network is not an option
3716 as the LV neutral/earth would invariably become combined with the substation earthing.
3717 The available options, and the advantages/disadvantages of each, are given in Table 13.
3718
Page 107
3719
3720 Table 13 - Arrangements for LV supply into HPR site
3721
Arrangements Advantages / Disadvantages
11 kV cable to local transformer located in The 11 kV system can be assumed to be remotely

the transmission substation earthed and may therefore adopt a close-to-zero-
potential rise under transmission EPR events. If the
HV/LV
HV Earth cable is taken into the site, its sheath insulation could
Network puncture and a high EPR could be exported to the
R Normal 11 kV system.
M
U
Supplies
To avoid this, the cable should be ducted within the
highest voltage contours (dependent on its sheath
HOT Site withstand voltage). Extending ducting to the 2 kV
contour is a relatively common practice to avoid this.
R
M
U Any such cable connection into a HOT site requires
extreme care with the earthing of the
HV/LV Earth switchgear/transformer, as the earthing systems for
the 11 kV cable should not be combined with site
R Normal earths. It is often most practical to earth the
M
U
Supplies transformer HV and LV earths to the site earth, but
HV to introduce an insulated gland (sheath break) in the
Network HV/LV 11 kV cable(s) where they enter the plant. However,
Earth this can cause: a) touch potentials between cable
sheath and local steelwork, b) no metallic return for
11 kV faults beyond the break, requiring the
substation earth to be able to limit 11 kV EPR and of
sufficiently low resistance to operate 11 kV
protection, and c) operational issues if the
switchgear earth is applied, since the 11 kV cable
cores will become connected to the local site earth.
This could create a hazard for staff working on the
cable or elsewhere on the 11 kV network unless
specific operational practices are adopted.
11 kV overhead line supply to transmission An 11 kV supply to the substation, if via 3-wire
substation with a pole-mounted or ground- (unearthed) overhead construction, is a simple and
mounted transformer effective solution to the issues described above. The
overhead line can effectively be carried direct into
the site, where it can supply a ground-mounted or
HV Overhead Network pole-mounted transformer. For both arrangements,
the transformer HV and LV earths can be combined
and connected to the site earth. A 3 kV EPR on the
HOT Site
site earth is unlikely to initiate flashover between the
Pole Tx 11 kV phases and steelwork, or between any short
11 kV cable sheath-to-cores, although this possibility
should be considered in extreme EPR situations.
HV/LV (Similar insulation breakdown could occur internal to
Earth the transformer if the casing is elevated above phase
voltages). Care should be taken with operational
earth positions and procedures.
HV Overhead Network
The disadvantage of this method is that the supply
may be more vulnerable than underground supplies
and consequently might be unacceptable where a
highly resilient supply is necessary.
Page 108
Arrangements Advantages / Disadvantages
LV supply from network into the As previously stated, it is not possible to take a
transmission substation standard LV supply, as there is a real risk that the
high EPR could be transferred to other customers.
Similarly, providing an LV supply without an earth
LV Network
terminal (i.e. TT arrangement) also poses a
HOT Site significant risk of insulation breakdown / flashover to
Isolation Tx the LV system during transmission EPR events as
the LV neutral/earth will remain at close-to-zero
volts.
LV Earth An LV supply may be provided via an isolation

transformer, though care is required with the siting
and protection of the isolating unit itself.
LV Network
Dedicated off-site transformer and LV A dedicated off-site transformer offers no benefit

supply into transmission substation over the previous solutions, and introduces the risk
of exporting transmission EPR to the transformer.
HV Network
HOT Site
R
M
HOT Site
U
Supplies Only
HV Earth LV Earth
HV Network
HV Overhead
Network
HOT Site
Pole Tx
HV Earth LV Earth
HV Overhead
Network
3722
3723 The pole-mounted transformer and overhead 11 kV line solution (Figure 14) has been adopted
3724 as it is the minimum cost solution and (because it is a back-up supply) the reliability is
3725 acceptable to the transmission network operator. For operational reasons, an ABSD is best
3726 located outside the site boundary and will serve as a point of isolation and earthing point for
3727 the 11 kV network beyond that point.
Page 109
3728
3729 Figure 14 - Overhead supply into HPR site
3730
3731 Bibliography
3732 Standards publications
3733 For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition
3734 of the referenced document (including any amendments) applies.
3735 BS EN 2874, Bolts, large bihexagonal head, close tolerance normal shank, medium length
3736 thread, in heat resisting nickel base alloy, passivated. Classification: 1550 MPa (at ambient
3737 temperature) /315°C
3738 BS EN 62305-1, Protection against lightning. Part 1, General principles
3739 BS EN 62561-2, Lightning protection system components (LPSC). Part 2. Requirements for
3740 conductors and earth electrodes
3741 BS IEC 61000-5-2, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Installation and mitigation guidelines.
3742 Earthing and cabling
3743 PD IEC/TR 61000-2-5:2017, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Environment. Description

3744 and classification of electromagnetic environments
3745 IEC/TR 60479- 3, Effects of current on human beings and livestock - Part 3: Effects of currents
3746 passing through the body of livestock
3747 ITU-T: Directives concerning the protection of telecommunication lines against harmful effects
3748 from electric power and electrified railway lines: Volume VI: Danger, damage and disturbance
3749 (2008)
3750
3751 Other publications

Page 110
3752 ESQC (Electricity Safety, Quality, and Continuity) Regulations, 2002 (as amended) (ESQCR)
3753 ESQC (Electricity Safety, Quality, and Continuity) Regulations (Northern Ireland), 2012 (as
3754 amended) (ESQCR (NI))
3755 The Distribution Code and the Guide to the Distribution Code of Licensed Distribution Network
3756 Operators of Great Britain, (DCode)
3757 The System Operator Transmission Owner Code (STC).

3758 http://www2.nationalgrid.com/UK/Industry-information/Electricity-codes/STC/The-STC/
3759 ENA TS 09-15, Jointing instructions and procedures for mass impregnated and mass
3760 impregnated non-draining paper insulated 19/33kV cables
3761 ENA TS 41-21, Portable earthing equipment for open type HV apparatus in substations
3762 ENA TS 43-94, Earth rods and their connectors
3763 ENA EREC C55, Insulated sheath power cable systems
3764 ENA EREC G12/4, Requirements for the application of PME to LV Networks
3765 ENA EREC G78, Recommendations for low voltage supplies to mobile phone base stations
3766 with antennae on high voltage structures
3767 ENA EREC S36, Identification and Recording of 'Hot Sites'- Joint Electricity Industry / British
3768 Telecom Procedure
3769 ENA ETR 134, Lightning Protection for networks up to 132 kV
3770 CIGRE Working Group 23.10 (Metal enclosed substations), Paper 151 (044) (Dec. 1993),
3771 Earthing of GIS – An Application Guide
3772 IEEE 80, IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding (2013)
3773 IEEE 81, IEEE Guide for Measuring Earth Resistivity, Ground Impedance, and Earth Surface
3774 Potentials of a Grounding System (2012)
3775 HSE, Reducing Risk, Protecting People (R2P2) (2001)

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PRODUCED BY THE OPERATIONS DIRECTORATE OF ENERGY NETWORKS ASSOCIATION

Technical Specification 41-24

Guidelines for the design, installation, testing and

© 2017 Energy Networks Association

<Insert publication history here, e.g. “First published, December, 2011”>

Amendments since publication

Issue Date Amendment

88 6.4.2 Positioning of buried electrode ........................................................ 49

132 6.12.2 Fault-throwing switches (phase to earth) ......................................... 62

176 7.11 Buried earth electrode location .................................................................... 74

220 9.6 Combined HV and LV earthing .................................................................... 88

296 UK Adoption of BS EN 50522:2010, in particular with reference to acceptable touch/step

310 It also applies to:

316 2 Normative references

320 Standards publications

321 BS EN 50341-1:2012, Overhead electrical lines exceeding AC 1 kV. General requirements.

323 BS EN 50522:2010, Earthing of power installations exceeding 1 kV a.c.

326 BS 7430:2011+A1:2015, Code of practice for protective earthing of electrical installations.

327 Other publications

ALARP As low as reasonably practicable.

APPROVED EQUIPMENT Equipment approved in an operational policy document for

ASC Arc suppression coil. A tuned reactance used to limit earth

AUXILIARY ELECTRODE See SUPPLEMENTARY ELECTRODE.

BACKUP PROTECTION Protection set to operate following failure or slow operation of

be taken as a fixed (worst-case) clearance time appropriate to

BONDING CONDUCTOR A protective conductor providing equipotential bonding.

EARTH The conductive mass of earth whose electric potential at any

EARTH ELECTRODE A conductor or group of conductors in direct contact with, and

EARTH ELECTRODE The difference in potential between the EARTH ELECTRODE

EARTH ELECTRODE The resistance of an EARTH ELECTRODE with respect to

EARTH FAULT A fault causing current to flow in one or more earth-return

EARTHING CONDUCTOR A protective conductor connecting a main earth terminal of an

EARTH MAT A buried or surface laid mesh or other electrode, usually

EARTHING SYSTEM The complete interconnected assembly of EARTHING

EHV Extra high voltage, typically used in the UK to describe a

GLOBAL EARTHING An earthing system of sufficiently dense interconnection such

NORMAL PROTECTION Clearance of a fault under normal (usual) circumstances. The

NETWORK OPERATOR Owner or operator of network assets. Includes DNO

SUPPLEMENTARY An electrode that improves the performance of an earthing

SAFETY VOLTAGE(S) Permissible touch, step or transfer potential(s).

STRESS VOLTAGE Voltage difference between two segregated earthing systems,

TOUCH POTENTIAL (UT) voltage between conductive parts when touched

331 4 Fundamental requirements

361 4.2 Typical features of an earthing system

397 4.3 The effects of substation potential rise on persons

415 4.3.1 Touch potential

432 4.3.2 Step potential

438 4.3.3 Transfer potential

452 4.3.5 Limits for LV networks

455 4.3.6 Limits for other systems

460 4.3.7 Limits for telecommunications equipment (HOT/COLD sites)

475 4.4 Safety criteria

510 4.4.2 Effect of electricity on animals

Bare feet (with

A. Limits could not be foreseeably exceeded, i.e. 25 kV or greater.