FLUID MECHANICS - THEORY

In this section, a method called dimensional

analysis along with the Buckingham Pi theorem will
    be introduced to identify the important
dimensionless parameters governing a particular
problem.
    
Dimensional Analysis 
   
Since analytical solutions are not available for the
majority of real fluids problems, experimental work
plays a vital role in the study of fluid mechanics.
Before setting up an experiment, it is important to
identify all dimensionless parameters that govern a
system or problem, and ultimately obtain a
correlation to relate those parameters.
Dimensional analysis is one such method that can
be used to minimize the time and expenses spent
on experiments and yet obtain valuable information
from the fewest number of experiments possible.

To better understand the need for dimensional

analysis, consider flow through a simple pipe. As
one might imagine, pressure is critical to pipe flow.
But how is the change in pressure related to the
  pipe and liquid? What pipe parameters effects
pressure changes in a pipe? Some obvious
parameters are velocity, density, pipe diameter,
and viscosity. To isolate and test for each of these
parameters independently with an experiment may
be impossible. Besides, the number of
experiments would be vast.

To minimize the experimental effort, the dependent

variables are group together to form dimensionless
parameters that can be used for other similar
pipes. While simple, this is a important tool in
developing models for fluid dynamics. An example
of five factors that influence pipe flow is shown in
the diagram on the left. Two possible
Dimensionless Parameters for dimensionless parameters are plotted, using
Pipe Flow experimental data points.
    
Dimensional Analysis Procedure Steps
    (using Buckingham Pi Theorem) 

Basic Dimensions  Step 1: The first step of dimensional analysis is to

FLT MLT identify all independent parameters for the system
Quantity
System System or study. These parameters generally include fluid
(US) (SI) properties (e.g., density, viscosity and surface
Acceleration LT -2 LT -2 tension), system geometry (e.g., length, area and
Angular Velocity T -1 T -1
volume) or flow conditions (e.g., velocity, pressure
2
change and applied force).
Area L L2
-4  2
Mass Density FL  T ML-3
Step 2: The second step is to determine the
Weight Density FL-3 ML-2T -2 number of basic dimensions involved. Two sets of
Force (weight) F MLT -2 basic dimensions can be used: 
      (i) Force (F), Length (L) and Time (T)
     (ii) Mass (M), Length (L) and Time (T)
For example, the basic dimensions for density can
be expressed in terms of FL-4T 2 or ML-3. Some of
the basic dimensions for common parameters
encountered in fluid mechanics problems are
summarized in the table. Temperature (T) and
charge (q) dimensions can be added when
considering heat transfer and electrical problems,
respectively.

Step 3: The next step is to determine the number

of dimensionless parameters (pi terms, denoted
Kinematic Viscosity L2T -1 L2T -1 by Π) through the Buckingham pi theorem.
Length L L
According to the Buckingham pi theorem, the
number of pi terms is equal to (n-k) where n is the
Mass FL-1T 2 M
number of independent parameters involved
Power FLT -1 ML2T -3 (determined in step 1) and k is the number of basic
Pressure FL-2 ML-1T -2 dimensions involved (determined in step 2).
Surface Tension FL-1 MT -2 Hence, for a given system, one can write
Velocity LT -1 LT -1
Viscosity FL-2T ML-1T -1      Π1 = function (Π2, Π3, ..., Πn-k)
Volume L3 L3
Volume Flowrate L3T -1 L3T -1
Step 4: From the list of parameters determined in
step 1, select k number of repeating parameters.
Work, Energy FL ML2T -2
These repeating parameters must include all the
Basic Dimensions of basic dimensions, but they cannot be
Common Parameters
dimensionless or have the same basic dimensions
(i.e., do not include both L (length) and L3 (volume)
as repeating parameters). In other words, the
repeating parameters cannot form dimensionless
parameters by themselves.

The pi terms are then formed by multiplying the

remaining parameters with the repeating
parameters raised to a certain power. The
exponents of the repeating parameters are
determined such that the pi terms are
dimensionless. Once the pi terms are determined,
this concludes the dimensional analysis.
Experiments can then be conducted to find a
correlation among the pi terms.
    
An Example: Flow in a Circular Pipe
   

Quantity Symbol MLT  For a better illustration of the use of dimensional

analysis, take fluid flow in a circular pipe.
Pressure Drop Δp -1
ML T -2

Pipe Length l L
Step 1: The parameters that are involved in the
Pipe Diameter D L pipe flow problem are the pressure drop (Δp), pipe
Fluid Velocity V LT -1 length (l), pipe diameter (D), fluid velocity (V), fluid
Fluid Density ρ ML-3 density (ρ), fluid viscosity (μ) and pipe surface
Fluid Viscosity μ ML-1T-1 roughness (ε). A total of 7 parameters (n = 7) is
involved in this problem.
Pipe Surface
Roughness ε L
Step 2: The basic dimensions involved are
summarized in the table on the left. All three of the
 basic dimensions, M, L, and T (k = 3) are involved
in this problem.

Step 3: According to the Buckingham pi theorem,

the number of pi terms is 4 (n - k = 7 - 3 = 4).
    
 Step 4: The next task is to determine the form of
the pi terms. Select the pipe diameter (D), fluid
velocity (V) and density (ρ) as the repeating
parameters.

The pi terms are then given by:

Fluid Flow in a Circular Pipe
Click to view movie (28k)      Π1 = ΔpDa1Vb1ρc1
     Π2 = lDa2Vb2ρc2
     Π3 = μDa3Vb3ρc3
     Π4 = εDa4Vb4ρc4

The exponents of the first pi terms are determined

as follows:

     Π1 = ΔpDa1Vb1ρc1 = (ML-1T-2)(L)a1(LT-1)b1(ML-3)c1
             
= M(1 + c1) L(-1 + a1 + b1 - 3c1) T(-2 - b1)

In order for Π1 to be dimensionless:

     M:     1 + c1 = 0
              c1 = -1

     T:     -2 - b1 = 0
             b1 = -2

     L:     -1 + a1 + b1 -3c1 = 0

             a1 = 3(-1) - (-2) + 1 = 0

Hence, Π1 is determined to be Δp/ρV2.

Since the basic dimension for the pipe length l is L,

by inspection, the second pi term is given by (a2 =
-1, b2 = 0 and c2 = 0):

     Π2 = l/D

Similarly, the last pi term is given by (a4 = -1, b4 =

0 and c4 = 0):

     Π4 = ε/D

The exponents of the third pi terms are determined

as follows:

     Π3 = μDa3Vb3ρc3= (ML-1T-1)(L)a3(LT-1)b3(ML-3)c3
             
= M(1 + c3) L(-1 + a3 + b3 - 3c3) T(-1 - b3)
 In order for Π3 to be dimensionless:

     M:     1 + c3 = 0
              c3 = -1

     T:     -1 - b3 = 0
             b3 = -1

     L:     -1 + a3 + b3 -3c3 = 0

             a3 = 3(-1) - (-1) + 1 = -1
    
Hence, Π3 is determined to be μ/ρDV. Recognizing
that the inverse of the pi term is also
dimensionless, the third pi term can also be written
as ρDV/μ, which is the Reynolds number (Re).

For flow in a circular pipe, the pressure drop is

then given by

     Δp/ρV2 = function(l/D, ε/D, Re)

 
As is discussed in the Viscous FLow in
Moody Chart* Pipe section, flow in a circular pipe can be solved
Click to view Large chart with the aid of the Moody chart (obtained from
experiments) where the pressure drop term is
Interactive Moody Diagram expressed in terms of the friction factor (f). As
shown in the Moody chart, the friction factor is a
[*Reference: Moody, L. F., "Friction Factors for function of the entrance length (l/D), relative
Pipe Flow," Transactions of ASME, Vol. 66, roughness of the pipe (ε/D) and the Reynolds
1944.] number (Re).