REVIEW ARTICLE

Yogurt: The fermented milk

Nathanon Trachoo

Yogurt has been known to mankind for advocated the health benefits of yogurt.
over 6,000 years. The word “yogurt” is possibly Yogurt was first introduced to the U.S. in
th
derived from the Turkish word “jugurt” which the early 20 century and gained significant con-
th
first appeared in the 8 century (Rasic and sumer popularity during the 1960’s and 1970’s.
Kurmann, 1978) but today various names are Sales in the U.S. increased from 141 million kg
used to refer to yogurt or similar products. These in 1974 to 616 million kg in 1995 (Anon, 1996).
names include Dahi or Dahee in India, Roba in Yogurt has now become a popular subject for
Iraq, and Fiili in Finland (Tamime and Deeth, researchers nationwide as it has been claimed to
1980; Tamime and Robinson, 1985) and several be a healthy food.
others. It is likely that yogurt originated in the During the past decade, full fat yogurt con-
Middle East where there was a limited availa- sumption has declined due to changes in dietary
bility of milk due to the desert environment. habits of consumers, in particular, reduction in
Ancient Turks who lived as nomads possibly in- milkfat consumption. Many modifications in
troduced yogurt to village people as a preserved yogurt manufacturing have therefore been de-
milk product (Akin and Rice, 1994; Rasic and veloped to reduce milkfat content in yogurt
Kurmann, 1978; Tamime and Robinson, 1985). resulting in the availability of nonfat and lowfat
Popularity of yogurt is greatly attributed to Pro- yogurt.
fessor Elie Metchnikoff of the Pasteur Institute
in Paris, who shared the Nobel Prize in Phy- Definition of yogurt
siology and Medicine in 1908 and authored the According to the Code of Federal Regula-
book, “The Prolongation of Life” in which he tions of the FDA (FDA, 1996c), yogurt is defined

Ph.D. (Food Science and Technology), Department of Food Technology and Nutrition, Faculty of Technology, Maha-
sarakham University, Mahasarakham 44000 Thailand.
Corresponding e-mail: nathanon.t@msu.ac.th
Received, 15 February 2002 Accepted, 25 June 2002
Songklanakarin J. Sci. Technol. Yogurt: The fermented milk
728 Trachoo, N.
Vol. 24 No. 4 Oct.-Dec. 2002

as the “food produced by culturing one or more oculated milk was kept overnight at room temp-
of the optional dairy ingredients (cream, milk, erature (Tamime and Deeth, 1980; Tamime and
partially skimmed milk, and skim milk) with a Robinson, 1985). Since the first commercial pro-
characterizing bacteria culture that contains the duction of yogurt by Danone in Spain in 1922,
lactic acid-producing bacteria, Lactobacillus yogurt manufacturing has expanded dramatically
delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and Streptococcus and quality has improved. Some guidelines for
thermophilus”. Other descriptions are included yogurt manufacturing have been described by
as follows. “To increase the nonfat solids content Norling (1979) and White (1995).
of the food, other optional ingredients (concen- Raw materials. Yogurt was traditionally
trated skim milk, nonfat dry milk, buttermilk, made from milk with no added ingredients. To
whey, lactose, lactalbumins, lactoglobulins and improve yogurt texture, milk or skim milk was
modified whey) may also be added and shall be fortified with other materials such as nonfat dry
included in the culturing process. Yogurt, before milk (NDM), whey protein concentrate (WPC)
the addition of bulky flavors, contains not less and some other dairy or plant-based ingredients.
than 3.25% milkfat and not less than 8.25% milk Milk from at least nine different species is used
solids not fat, and has a titratable acidity of not commercially; cow, mare, ass, goat, buffalo, yak,
less than 0.9%, expressed as lactic acid. Yogurt ewe, reindeer and camel (Kehagias and Dalles,
may be heat treated after fermenting to destroy 1984; Kroger et al., 1989; Rasic and Kurmann,
viable microorganisms for a longer shelf life of 1978; Tamime and Robinson, 1985). These milks
the food”. differ in composition from each other, which con-
Lowfat yogurt and nonfat yogurt are siderably affects yogurt qualities. For example,
similar in description to yogurt but contain 0.5 yogurt made from milk of ewe, buffalo, yak or
to 2% and less than 0.5% milkfat, respectively reindeer is high in fat (6.5 to 11.0%) and has
(FDA, 1996a; FDA, 1996b). better consistency than that made from milk of
In many other countries, regulatory agents cow, goat and ass (1.4 to 4.0% fat) (Rasic and
follow the definition of yogurt defined by Food Kurmann, 1978).
and Agriculture Organization/World Health Preparation of yogurt mix often involves
Organization (FAO/WHO). The FAO/WHO Co- addition to milk of milk powder, sweet buttermilk
dex Alimentarius Commission defines yogurt as powder (BMP), whey powder, WPC, casein pow-
“a coagulated milk product obtained by lactic der or plant protein, and concentration by evapo-
acid fermentation through the action of Lb. del- ration, reverse osmosis or ultrafiltration (Broome
brueckii subsp. bulgaricus and St. thermophilus et al., 1982; Bundgaard et al., 1972; Chapman et
from milk (pasteurized or concentrated milk) al., 1974; Jepsen, 1979; Kolar et al., 1979; Mistry
with or without additions (milk powder, skim and Hassan, 1992; Norling, 1979; Tamime and
milk powder, etc.). The microorganisms in the Deeth, 1980; Tamime and Robinson, 1985; White,
final product must be viable and abundant” (Ma- 1995). The addition of 3 to 4% of NDM to yogurt
reschi and Cueff, 1989; Rasic, 1987). mix is common to increase total solids (TS) for
lowfat, nonfat and low calorie yogurt (Morris and
Manufacture of yogurt Ghaleb, 1995; Tamime et al., 1994). Researchers
Although, yogurt was accidentally discov- (Harwalkar and Kalab, 1986) found that yogurt
ered in ancient times through natural processes, with a higher TS content was less susceptible to
yogurt manufacturing procedures are now highly syneresis and had shorter casein particle chains.
developed. Before yogurt bacteria were discov- Modler et al. (1983) compared the physical and
ered, no one knew what caused milk to coagulate. sensory properties of yogurt fortified with casein-
Yogurt was traditionally made from boiled milk based proteins (sodium caseinate, ultrafiltered
inoculated with yogurt from the previous day. In- milk and NDM) and whey proteins concentrated
Songklanakarin J. Sci. Technol. Yogurt: The fermented milk
Vol. 24 No. 4 Oct.-Dec. 2002 729 Trachoo, N.

by three different methods (ultrafiltration, ion stability to syneresis can be obtained (Rasic and
exchange and electrodialysis/lactose crystalliza- Kurmann, 1978; Tamime and Deeth, 1980; Tam-
tion) to increase protein content by 0.5 and 1.0% ime and Robinson, 1985). Furthermore, homo-
in yogurt mixes. It was found that yogurts with genization of yogurt mix breaks up powdered
added casein-based proteins had a coarser texture ingredients resulting in uniform distribution of
than those with added WPC. To increase gel the ingredients (Vedamuthu, 1991). According to
strength and reduce syneresis of yogurt, sodium Schmidt and Bledsoe (1995), homogenization
caseinate was the most effective supplement. has an adverse impact on yogurt with a lower fat
However, they did not recommend the use of content; it increases syneresis or reduces water-
WPC as a replacement for starch and hydrocol- holding capacity due to empty spaces between
loids because of excessive syneresis (Modler and casein matrices, and lack of native milkfat glo-
Kalab, 1983; Modler et al., 1983). bule membrane (FGM) (Schmidt and Bledsoe,
Nonfat and lowfat yogurt can also be made 1995). In higher fat yogurts clusters of fat glob-
from plant-based ingredients such as soybean ules can fill up these spaces, thus syneresis can be
milk. However, such yogurt has a beany flavor and minimized. Darling and Butcher (1978) studied
produces flatulence. Soybean yogurt mix with FGM in homogenized cream and reported that
added NDM, evaporated milk or whey-based in- caseins and whey proteins were adsorbed on the
gredients can reduce beany flavor and flatulence fat-serum interface. The whey proteins in unpas-
due to improved fermentation by yogurt cultures teurized cream could be easily removed from the
(Buono et al., 1990; Granata and Morr, 1996; interface, but after pasteurization they strongly
Karleskind et al., 1991). Sufficient yogurt flavor bonded and were more difficult to remove.
intensity cannot be obtained in soy milk-based Heat treatment. The objectives of heat
yogurt (Lee et al., 1990). To increase amounts of treatment of yogurt mix are to kill pathogenic
nutrients such as vitamin A, C and dietary fiber, microorganisms, to minimize spoilage microor-
Collins et al. (1991) used milk with added sweet ganisms and to inactivate lipase and hence to
potato as raw material for yogurt production. This prevent lipolysis (Rasic and Kurmann, 1978).
yogurt received a mean score of 7.7 out of 10 for Yogurt mix is normally heated at a higher temp-
flavor. Soy protein isolates have also been in- erature and longer time than normal pasteuriza-
o
vestigated to replace NDM in yogurt manufac- tion, ranging from 90 to 95 C for 5 to 10 min, to
turing to improve viscosity and reduce syneresis help improve product consistency through whey
(Kolar et al., 1979). protein denaturation (Mottar et al., 1989; Rasic
A scientist in Cornell University’s Food and Kurmann, 1978; Tamime and Deeth, 1980;
Science and Technology Department (Kosikow- Tamime and Robinson, 1985). The degree of de-
ski, 1979) used diluted ultrafiltered skim milk naturation depends on the intensity of heat
for low-lactose yogurt production. The yogurt applied. Low TS yogurt may require more whey
flavor was flat, thus BMP and/or sodium citrate protein denaturation than high TS yogurt (Rasic
were added to improve lactic acid fermentation. and Kurmann, 1978). Whey proteins which par-
Becker and Puhan (1989) reported that using ultra- ticipate in casein aggregation in yogurt are α-
filtered milk in yogurt manufacturing could in- lactalbumin (α α-LA) and β-lactoglobulin (β β-LG).
crease the nutritional value of yogurt because of The former has a denaturation temperature of
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higher protein, calcium and phosphorus content 62 C and the latter, 78 C (Wong et al., 1988).
in the product. Denaturation of whey proteins is determined not
Homogenization. Homogenization breaks only by heat treatment but also by other condi-
down fat into smaller globules which prevents tions. For example, the removal of calcium pre-
the formation of a cream line. This improves the vents α-LA redenaturation. The native tertiary
consistency and viscosity of yogurt, thus a greater structure of heat treated α-LA can be recovered
Songklanakarin J. Sci. Technol. Yogurt: The fermented milk
730 Trachoo, N.
Vol. 24 No. 4 Oct.-Dec. 2002

upon cooling because of its high affinity to bulgaricus and S. thermophilus, which are ther-
calcium. Thus calcium aids in reconstruction of moduric, homofermentative lactic acid bacteria
the tertiary structure of α-LA (Bernal and Jelen, (Tamime and Deeth, 1980). Some other strains
1984). β-LG accounts for 50% of whey proteins such as L. helveticus, L. jugurti, L. acidophilus
in skim milk or 9% of total protein, two times and Bifidobacterium spp. are also sometimes
more than α-LA, therefore it plays an important used as adjuncts.
role in casein aggregation (Wong et al., 1988). Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus
When κ-casein is heated in the presence of β-LG, can ferment glucose, fructose, galactose and lac-
κ-casein - β-LG complex is formed via disulfide tose to lactic acid. It produces D (-)-lactic acid up
bonds (Davies et al., 1978; Elfagm and Whee- to 1.7% in milk and has a growth temperature of
o
lock, 1978; Long et al., 1963; Tessier and Rose, 22 to 60 C (Rasic and Kurmann, 1978) with an
1964). β-LG could also react with α-LA during
o
optimum growth temperature of 40 to 50 C
heating (Elfagm and Wheelock, 1978; Elfagm (Mayra-Makinen and Bigret, 1993). The growth
and Wheelock, 1978; Tamime and Deeth, 1980; temperature for St. thermophilus ranges from 20
o o
Tamime and Robinson, 1985). Mottar et al. (1989) to 50 C with an optimum of 40 to 45 C. It can
indicated that the ratio of β-LG to α-LA at mi- ferment glucose, fructose, lactose and saccharose
cellar surface and the level of heat treatment and produces L (+)-lactic acid up to 0.7 to 0.8%
affected yogurt texture. Rasic and Kurmann in milk. It can grow in the presence of bile salts,
(1978) indicated that during heat treatment there but is very sensitive to antibiotics. Both yogurt
were two possible events depending on heat organisms are non-motile. The average size of L.
o
intensity; very high heat treatment such as 90 C delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus is 0.8 to 1.0 × 4 to
for 10 min induces both α-LA and β-LG to parti- 6 µm, and that of S. thermophilus is 0.7 to 0.9 µm
cipate in protein aggregation resulting in less in diameter (Rasic and Kurmann, 1978).
susceptibility to syneresis in yogurt, but a lower When a single strain of either L. delbruec-
heat treatment (vat pasteurization) causes β-LG kii subsp. bulgaricus or S. thermophilus is used,
to participate rather than α-LA because 80 to lactic acid and acetaldehyde production is lower
90% of denatured α-LA is reversible after heat- compared with that in a mixed culture (Hamdan
ing (Wong et al., 1988). Incorporation of β-LG et al., 1971; Rasic and Kurmann, 1978). There
at the micellar surface gives a long chain casein are two stages involved in yogurt fermentation.
micelle linked by a finely flocculated protein In the first stage, L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgari-
resulting in a loose structure and an increase in cus stimulates the growth of S. thermophilus by
syneresis (Modler and Kalab, 1983). liberating essential amino acids from casein by
proteolytic activity (Sandine and Elliker, 1970).
Microbiology of yogurt In this stage, L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus
Early investigations of yogurt microorgan- grows slowly because it is microaerophilic
isms were conducted by a number of scientists (Vedamuthu, 1991). At the end of the first stage,
such as Metchnikoff (1904, 1907), Grigoroff the growth of S. thermophilus is slowed down
(1905), Maze (1905) and Guerbet (1906). They because of the high lactic acid concentration.
found rod and coccal-shaped bacteria, yeasts When S. thermophilus produces enough formic
and molds in yogurt (Rasic and Kurmann, 1978; acid, which stimulates growth of L. delbrueckii
Tamime and Robinson, 1985). Much of the credit subsp. bulgaricus, the second stage begins. By
for the study of yogurt bacteria was contributed this symbiotic action, the desirable acidity of the
to Orla-Jensen. Yogurt bacteria are now charac- final yogurt can be achieved (Rasic and Kurmann,
terized as lactic acid bacteria belong to the Lac- 1978). Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulga-
tobacillaceae and Streptococcaceae genera. Gen- ricus and S. thermophilus are proteolytic bacte-
erally, yogurt cultures are L. delbrueckii subsp. ria. The former has a higher proteolytic activity.
Songklanakarin J. Sci. Technol. Yogurt: The fermented milk
Vol. 24 No. 4 Oct.-Dec. 2002 731 Trachoo, N.

Slocum et al. (1988) reported that in yogurt with delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus is more capable in
10.0 to 17.5% total solid (TS) maximum proteo- both acid and acetaldehyde production compared
lysis occurred at 14.5% TS. to S. thermophilus (Singh and Sharma, 1982).
Although, there is no regulatory require- Acetaldehyde is mainly produced from glucose
ment in the U.S. regarding the number of viable via pyruvate catabolism (Keenan and Bills, 1968;
L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and S. thermo- Lees, 1969; Lees and Jago, 1978). Yogurt bacteria
philus, it has been established with respect to also have threonine aldolase, which converts
therapeutic properties that yogurt should contain threonine to acetaldehyde and glycine. Strepto-
live lactic acid bacteria (Roberts and Maust, coccus thermophilus may be responsible for
1995). In countries such as Japan, South Korea increased acetaldehyde production as its threo-
and Poland, legislation requires viable lactic acid nine aldolase is stimulated by the addition of
6
bacteria in the final product ranging from 10 to threonine (Wilkins et al., 1986). Marranzini et al.
8
10 cells/g (Hamann and Marth, 1984; Orihara (1989) used ultrafiltration to deplete free amino
et al., 1992). acids in the skim milk in their study. Lactose and
Media for rods and cocci. Media for standard free amino acids except threonine and
differentiation of rods and cocci in yogurt have glycine were added to skim milk. They found that
been studied. Lee et al. (1974) differentiated rod threonine aldolase activities of L. delbrueckii
and coccus colonies based on the capability for subsp. bulgaricus and S. thermophilus were re-
saccharose utilization of L. delbrueckii subsp. duced in the high glycine and low threonine
bulgaricus and S. thermophilus. In the presence media, but increased in high threonine and low
of saccharose in a basal media with added brom- glycine media. Threonine and glycine concentra-
cresol purple indicator, referred to as Lee’s media, tions did not affect yogurt bacteria growth and
S. thermophilus ferments both saccharose and acid production. Marshall and El-Bagoury (1986)
lactose and lowers pH to change the color of the increased acetaldehyde level in goat’s milk
bromcresol purple indicator, and thus forms yogurt by adding 0.1% threonine to yogurt mix
yellow colonies. Although L. delbrueckii subsp. made by ultrafiltered milk.
bulgaricus is a stronger acid producer, it can
ferment lactose but not saccharose. Thus, it pro- Textural properties of yogurt
duces less acid, and forms white colonies in this Textural properties for yogurt include vis-
media. Matalon and Sandine (1986) modified cosity, firmness and syneresis. Measuring viscos-
Elliker’s lactic agar by addition of 0.1% Tween ity of yogurt is challenging because it is non-
80 and 7.0% sterile reconstituted NDM. This Newtonian, i.e. viscosity changes as shear stress
media was referred to as Yogurt Lactic Agar. As changes (Charm, 1971). Therefore, in order to
L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus can produce report on the apparent viscosity of yogurt, one has
more lactic acid, its larger colonies have cloudy to precisely specify the measurement conditions
zones, which result from casein precipitation, used.
whereas colonies of S. thermophilus in the same Viscosity of yogurt is affected by compo-
media are smaller and lack cloudy zones. sition, type of starter cultures, heat treatment and
stabilizer. As the TS increase, viscosity and firm-
Acetaldehyde production in yogurt ness increase (Becker and Puhan, 1989; Guirguis
Generally yogurt flavor, other than lactic et al., 1984). Ropy strains of L. delbrueckii subsp.
acid, consists of acetaldehyde, acetone, acetoin bulgaricus and S. thermophilus have been studied
and a small amount of diacetyl (Sandine and and used to produce smooth and viscous yogurt
Elliker, 1970). Among these, acetaldehyde is be- (Hess et al., 1997; Vedamuthu, 1991). These bac-
lieved to be responsible for typical yogurt flavor teria, often called slime-producing bacteria, pro-
(Bottazzi and Dellaglio, 1967). Lactobacillus duce exopolysaccharides, which help increase
Songklanakarin J. Sci. Technol. Yogurt: The fermented milk
732 Trachoo, N.
Vol. 24 No. 4 Oct.-Dec. 2002

viscosity. resulted in decreased syneresis. Interestingly,

Heat treatment affects textural properties casein particles of 30% TS yogurt were finer than
of yogurt. Labropoulos et al. (1981) indicated that those of 10% TS yogurt. Yogurt made by fermen-
o
yogurt made from UHT-treated milk (149 C, tation to pH 3.85 was more porous and firmer
3.3 s) had lower viscosity than that made from than that made by fermentation to pH 4.5.
o o
vat-treated milk (63 C and 82 C, 30 min). This was Heat treatment of a yogurt mix causes
confirmed by Salji et al. (1984). When less intense changes in the microstructure of finished product.
heat treatment was used (Schmidt et al., 1985), As previously mentioned, denaturation of whey
o
yogurt made from UHT-treated milk (138 C, 3 proteins is responsible for the changes in gel
to 6 s) had lower viscosity and firmness but less formation. Protein micelles in yogurt mix when
o
syneresis than that made from vat-treated milk heated at 90 C for 10 min have appendages
which are complexes of whey proteins and κ-
o
(82 C, 20 min). Whey protein denaturation was
believed to be responsible for this phenomenon. casein, but without casein fusion (Davies et al.,
Becker and Puhan (1989) noted that yogurt 1978). During the fermentation process, these
fortified with ultrafiltered milk had higher vis- appendages inhibit casein fusion resulting in a
cosity and firmness compared to yogurt fortified loose structure (Davies et al., 1978; Mottar et al.,
with NDM and evaporated milk with similar 1989). Davies et al. (1978) noted that not only
composition. Susceptibility to syneresis of 2.0% temperature of heat treatment but holding time
fat and 5.0% protein yogurts fortified with va- was also an important factor influencing the ap-
rious dairy ingredients including NDM, BMP, pendage formation on the micelle surface. Mistry
sodium caseinate and WPC (35 to 75% protein) and Hassan (1992) studied the use of high milk
were studied by Guinee et al. (1995). They reported protein powder (18.9% protein) in the production
that BMP yogurt yielded the least syneresis. of nonfat yogurts (5.04 to 7.39% protein). They
During cold storage of milk that has been indicated that a high protein yogurt (7.39%)
contaminated by psychrotrophic bacteria, κ-casein yielded a less porous structure and had lower
is subjected to break down by proteolysis. This syneresis than lower protein yogurts.
causes the yogurt made from such milk to be The existence of FGM in reconstituted
firmer, more viscous and sensitive to syneresis; BMP and yogurt made from such powder was
however, sensory qualities of the yogurt were not confirmed by TEM (Kalab, 1980). Tamime et al.
reported (Gassem and Frank, 1991). (1989) noted that FGM of large fat globules
(5 µm) in Labneh (6.8 to 8.2% protein and 9.2 to
Microstructure of yogurt 10.5% fat) were broken by homogenization,
Microstructure of yogurt is usually studied whereas FGM of small fat globules were intact
by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of but they could not conclude if incorporation of
thin section and scanning electron microscopy FGM improved yogurt quality (Tamime et al.,
(SEM) (Kalab et al., 1983). Sample preparation 1991). Aguilera and Kinsella (1991) reported that
for TEM is time consuming but it allows for the recombined fat globules with diameters < 1.26 µm
visualization of casein aggregation, whereas with increased the compression stress of a gel consist-
SEM sample preparation is easier and aids in the ing of 8.3% NDM, 3% whey protein isolate
study of gel structure (Kalab and Harwalkar, (92.7% protein) and 4.4% fat.
1973). Skriver et al. (1995) used SEM to differen- In a recent development, confocal scanning
tiate the microstructure of yogurt made with ropy laser microscopy was used to study the micro-
and nonropy strains of L. delbrueckii subsp. structure of yogurt during fermentation in real
bulgaricus and S. thermophilus. Harwalkar and time without sample preparation (Hassan et al.,
Kalab (1986) found that an increase in TS in- 1995). It was noted that there were three stages
creased the density of yogurt matrices which involved in yogurt fermentation: lag phase, ag-
Songklanakarin J. Sci. Technol. Yogurt: The fermented milk
Vol. 24 No. 4 Oct.-Dec. 2002 733 Trachoo, N.

gregation and contraction of milk proteins. acid bacteria (Barrantes et al., 1996; Barrantes
et al., 1996).
Nonfat and lowfat yogurt Nonfat yogurt is normally low in TS (10 to
Nonfat and lowfat yogurts were introduced 12%) and consequently suffers from whey sepa-
to meet consumer needs. During the past decade, ration or syneresis (Harwalkar and Kalab, 1986;
many attempts have been made to produce nonfat Schellhaass and Morris, 1985). To reduce syner-
and lowfat yogurts which are similar in quality to esis, thickening agents such as gelatin, starch,
full fat yogurt. In order to be able to state “nonfat” cellulose derivatives, alginates and carrageenan
or “lowfat” on the label, a yogurt manufacturer can be legally added (FDA, 1996b). Gelatin and
must produce yogurt conforming to fat content carrageenan result in the clustering of casein
requirements. Roberts and Maust (1995) meas- micelles (Kalab et al., 1983), therefore potentially
ured fat content in nonfat, 1% and 1.5% fat reducing syneresis (Modler et al., 1983). As indi-
yogurts and reported that 50% of these commer- cated earlier, yogurt texture may also be improved
cial yogurts did not meet the requirements for by the utilization of ropy strains of yogurt bacteria
fat content. (Hess et al., 1997; Teggatz and Morris, 1990).
To manufacture reduced fat yogurt, proper
ingredient selection is important such as use of Summary
skim milk and NDM. However the consequences
can be undesirable. Adding NDM increases ca- Yogurt manufacturing has long been known
loric value of yogurt and acid production as to mankind. Yogurt gained its popularity from
about 50% of NDM is lactose (Kalab et al., 1983). health-concerned consumers worldwide. Due to
A powdery flavor can be detected in yogurt the presence of cholesterol in milkfat, nonfat and
fortified with too much NDM (Tamime and lowfat yogurt were invented. Similar to Bulgarian
Robinson, 1985). Using fat replacers is another milk, other nutritive and therapeutic properties
effort to reduce fat content in yogurt. Farooq and are of significance.
Haque (1992) reported that nonfat low calorie
yogurt produced by adding a sugar ester as a fat References
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like substance as a flavor enhancer had a better strength of dairy gels and microstructural inter-
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without the fat substitute. Microstructure of yo- Akin, N., and Rice, P. 1994. Main yogurt and related
gurt containing whey protein-based fat substitute, products in Turkey. Cult. Dairy Prod. J. 29: 23,
Simplesse 100TM , or anhydrous milkfat were 25-26, 28-29.
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substitute with 0.1 to 3 µm diameter and the an- Washington, DC.
hydrous milkfat interacted with protein matrices, Barrantes, E., Tamime, A. Y., Sword, A. M., Muir,
but yogurt with the fat substitute was softer and D. D., and Kalab, M. 1996. The manufacture of
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olive, groundnut, sunflower and maize differed set-type natural yoghurt containing different
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hydrous milkfat but the oils did not affect lactic ture. Int. Dairy J. 6: 827-837.
Songklanakarin J. Sci. Technol. Yogurt: The fermented milk
734 Trachoo, N.
Vol. 24 No. 4 Oct.-Dec. 2002

Becker, T., and Puhan, Z. 1989. Effect of different Elfagm, A. A., and Wheelock, J. V. 1978. Interaction
process to increase the milk solids non-fat con- of bovine α-lactalbumin and β-lactoglobulin
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