Tnarusronuens [Anr. 1.

5] E
(b) The primary current component Il, required to
neutralise the effect of secondary current Ir= 60 A, is given
by
Ir' Nr= IzNz
I,'=220(60)=6A.
' 2200
v,
vt =N'
Note that
N1
The currents d, 12, IL' and .I, are indicated in the
phasor diagram of Fig. L.Lz.
The vertical component of I"= /" = 0.164 A
The horizontal component of
I"= I*= 0.577 A.
Vertical component of
Ir = /rcos 0r =.fr'cos 0r+ I"
Fig. 1 .12. Phasor diagram for
=6x0.8+0.164=4.964l^. Example 1.3.
Horizontaf component of
lr= It sin 0, - Ir'sin 0, +.I-
=6x0.6+0.577=4.L77l..
Primary current It= u,-'e,l,nu,tt"ortr
@.g1qz + @.177)2
.I, cos 0,-- 4.964
Primary power factor =cos0.=
I ' = 0.766 lagging.
Ir 6.47

Example !.4. A transforrner is d,esigned to haue hot-rolled steel larninations, with a

flux density of 1.2 T and thc weight of core and wire is found to be 100 kg and 80 kg
respectiuety. If the transforntcr is redesigned with cold-rolled grain oriented (CRGO) steel
laminatrons, which permit a hi.ghcr flux density of 1.6 T ; find tlw 'w in core ond wire
materials. The two types of core materials haue the same den.ritrcs and the total flux
remains the same. Make suitable assumptions whereuer required.
Solution. With hot-rolled steel laminations:
Total flux 0-* -- Flux density B*rx AreaA,
or 0-r, = L.%, or A,,L2
=
Oif *'
' ^e
diameter of the circle around the core is given by
Lal=A,=Q.*
I
4I L2
) E o-".
_r_I; n
Length of the turn around the core is

Lt=dt-fr'
f [Anr. 1.5] EucrRrcel MacxnenY

With CRGO laminations :

or *flil
0-* = 1.6 A, Az= -'
Diameter of the circle around the core is
) _ ,l;
*, E 0",u,,
t6
Length of the turn around the core is

Lz=nd,r=n. .E-9*''
Ym to
Now for laminations,
Weight of CRGO laminations (l7z) _ (Core volume)z (Density)
Weight of h.r.laminations (![) (Core volume)1 (Density)

_ (Az ) (Height of the limb) = 0-o/L6 = L2 =3

(A1) (Height of the limb) Q^ulLz t6 4

w,z = 9trool = 75 ks.

4'
Percdntage saving in core material

- 1oo-75
100
x 1oo =25vo.
Height of the limbs are assumed equal in both cases. Now forwire,
Weight of wire when using CRGO laminations (ru2 )
Weight of wire when using h.r. lamination (ror)
(22 ) (Wire cross-{ection) (Turns)
(21 ) (Wire cross--section) (Turns)

n,tun.O-o/L6
Y 'u6 Jd
--
nluni^Jtz- =-=0.966
nrlAn.O,,,,,,lL2 2 -v'vvv
2
wz= 80 x 0.866 = 69.28 kg.
Percentage saving in wire material
80 69'28
- - x 1oo = LB.4vo.
80
Wire cross-section and the number of turns are assumed equal in both the cases.

Example 1.6. A single phase transformer is designed to operate ot 2401 120 V, 50 Hz.
Calculate tlw secondary no loaduoltage and its frequenq if the h.u. sid.e of the transformcr
is connected to :
@) 240 V, 40 Hz; (b) 120 v, 25 Hz; (c) 120 V, 50 Hz ;
(d) 480 v, 50 Hz; (e) 240 V, dc.

Solution. Primary voltage V, at frequency f1 is Vr= Jinf, p-"*rNr.

Let the primary voltage at frequency fzb" %, so that %r = Jin6 0*"*z Nr
Vr, fz $^ue
Vt = /r O*u"r
...(r)
TnnrsronueRs [Anr. 1.5] El
(40) (0","*z)
(o) From Eq. (i),
' '' 240
- ?19^ =
(50x0*r"r)
or = 1.25 0ma*1.
0max2
Secondary no load voltage at frequency fr is

Jinlr 0,
Ez=
"*rN,
and at frequency fris Ezz= Jin fz[^ *zNz
Er, fz Q^u*z .. .(i, )
Ez = /r0-*r
t% o--"
Ezz=rzo
-- (. 5o x Q-*, ]/ = ,ro volts at 40 Hz.
[10'
This shows that the magnitude of the secondary voltage remains unaffected, even if the
supply frequency changes.
(i), or
(b) From Eq.
#=ffi omaxz = o-,*r

From Eq. (rr), Ezz= L2O x-qgO'"")

(b0) (0*""r)
= 60 volts at 25 Hz'

240=g'-4
(c) From Eq. (i), !+ or 0ma*2 = 0.5 q-u*r
(50) (0--,r)
Ir

50 x 0.5 Q,ou*r
From Eq. (ll), Ezz= 120 x
(50) x (0^or) =60Vat50Hz.

(d) From Eq, (i), or 0*"*z = 2Q-"*r.

#=##*
For the same core area, the flux density is doubled, the magnetizing current becomes
quite larle (refer to B-H curye) and the transformer may get damaged.
(e) The direct current is alternating current at zero frequency. In other words, there is
no change of flux. As a result, secondary induced e.m.f., Ezz= 0. Further the counter e.m.f. E1,
which oppo.". the applied voltageVtis also zero. Therefore, the primary no load current is
limited o"ty by the pri*..y windingiesistance r,. Since r, is quite small, the current 240lrt
will be tremendously high and transformer will definitely get burnt.
Example 1.6. An ideal transforrner has three windirrys : 100 turns on priruary
wind,ing P,-160 turns on. secotndary winding S and 60 turns on tertiary winding T, Ftg. 1.13
(a). Wiaing S feed,s 10 A to a resistive load whereas a pure'copacitanae l@d oano99
winding T takes 20 A.
(a) Calculate thc cuTent in the primary winding and its pf in case transformer
magnetizing current is neglected.
(b) With tlw polarity markings on P as shown, mark the polarities on windings S and
T also.
Solution. Applied voltage V, and mutual flux Q are shown in the phasor diagram of
Fig. 1.13 (c). EmfJinduced in windings S and ? are indicated as E, and E, respectively.
Current Iz= lO A and therefore secondary winding mmf F, =_I?Nr= 10 x 160 = 1600 ATs is
shown in'phase with E, because load is resistive in nature. Likewise, current Is = 20 A'and
f [Anr. 1.6] Euecrnml Mecxrnenv

therefore tertiary winding mmf f', = /, N, = 20 x 60 = 1200 ATs must lead E, by 90o as the load

is a pure capacitance. Resultant of load mmfs F, and F, gives Fzs = = 2000

ATs.
v1
Fi

Fs = 1200 ATs

E3

F2

= 1600 ATs

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.13. Pertaining to Example 1.6.

Principle of transforrner action requires that primary winding must balance the load
mmf F*produced by the combined action of currents in two windings S and ?.
Primary winding mmf, Fr= Fzs = 2000 ATs
F,
Current in primary winding, I,=
' N,=4oo 100
=2oA
Power factor on the primary side = cos g, = Y= +9 = 0.8 leading.
' F, 2000
(b) Polarity markings and direction of cur-rents are indicated on the secondary and
tertiary windings in Fig. 1.13 (b).

The equivalent circuit for any electrical engineering device can be drawn if the equations
describing its behaviour are known. If any electrical device is to be analysed and investigated
further for suitable modifications, its appropriate equivalent circuit is necessary. The
equivalent circuit for electromagnetic devices consists of a combination of resistances,
inductances, capacitances, voltages etc. Such an equivalent circuit (or circuit model) can,
therefore, be analysed and studied easily by the direct application of electric circuit theory.
As stated above, equivalent circuit is simply a circuit representation of the equations
describing the performance of the device. Eqs. (1.20) and (1.21) describe the behaviour of the
transformer under load. These equations are, therefore, helpful in arriving at the transformer
equivalent circuit of Fig. L.L4 (a). In this equivalent circuit, (rr + jx1) and (r, + jxr) are the
leakage impedances of the primary and secondary windings respectively. The voltage Vr' is
treated as a voltage drop in the direction of .Ir. Recall that the magnitude of Vr' does not
change appreciably from no load to full load in large transformers. The magnitude of Vr'
depends on f, N, and 0-u*, since lVr'| = lEr | .
The primary current /, consists of two components, see Fig. 1.11 (o). One component ^Ir'
is the load component and counteracts the secondary mmf I, N, completely. The other
component is exciting current d which is composedrf /. and I *. The current { is in phase with
 Tn*rsronuens [A.nr. 1.6] W
.%'i^ Fig. 1.8 (b) and product Vr'I, gives core loss. The resistance.R. in parallel with Vr'
represents the core loss {, such that

P"=I? R"=Vr'I"=#l
and R,=+ |
...(L.22)

The current I^lags Vr' by 90" and this can, therefore, be represented in the equivalent
circuit by a reactanc@X^such that
x^=y-
I^
.(1.23)

R. and X* are shown in Fig. 1.14 (b), which is the exact equivalent circuit of a
transformer. The resistance R, and reactance X* are called core-loss resistance and
magnetizing reactance respectively.
For minor changes in supply voltage and frequency, which is common under normal
operation, .B, and X^ ate treated constant.
In Fig. L.l4 (a) and (b) (see figure on next page), the ideal transformer has been
introduced to show the transformation of voltage and current between primary and secondary
windings. Even at this stage, the transformer magnetization cun/e is assumed linear, since
the effect of higher order harmonics can't be represented in the equivalent circuit.
In transformer analysis, it is usual to transfer the secondary quantities to primary side
or primary quantities to secondary side. Secondary resistance drop lrrrwhen transferued to
primary side, must be multiplied by the turns ratio NLlNz.
Secondary resistance drop, when transferred to primaryr = (Irr)
_ . 4. *
Nz

=[', # r)# [r,r*,r,*

Iz= Ir#)

=,,[[#)'*)=,,,;
where t2' =r, . [lL']'j
Iiv,
If resistance rr'is placed in the primary circuit, then the relation between voltages V,
and V, is uneffected. This resistance rr' is called the secondary resistance referred to primary.
Therefore, the total resistance in the primary circuit is

tel= rL+ 12
( ar, )' =lt*fz' ,.,(1.24)
t&l
Hence rr, is called the transformer equivalent (or total) resistance referred to primary

winding. Similarly the pt'imary resistance referred to secondary is rt' [+]' and the
INr./
equivalent (or total) resistance referred to secondary is
@ [Anr. 1.G] Eucrnrcat- Mecxnenv

= lZ* ...tr.20)

N1

(a) Exciting current neglected

Ideal transformer
(b) Exact equivalent circuit

*FJ
+cJ
(c) Referred to primary

+
1(5"J l2

T;

ix*

(d) Referred to secondary

Fig. 1.14. Development of the exact equivalent circuit of a transformer.

 Tnmrsronuens [Anr. 1.6] Eil

v1 v2

I
t_
d---
(e)

Fig. 1 .14. Equivalent circuit in a general form.

Secondary leakage reactance drop l*r,when transferred to primary is

,,.,(#) = r, xz= r,,c2,

[#)'
The quantity xr' is called the secondary leakage reactance referred to primary. Total
primary leakage reactance is

, xe,= xL*,, * xz' ...(1.26)

[#)'=,,
where rr, is called the equivalent or total leakage reactance refemed to primary. Likewise, the
equivalent or total leakage reactance referred to secondary is

tez= x2+ xt[ffi)' = )c2 * xr' ...(L.27)

The equivalent (or total) leakage impedance referred to primary is

zet=rrr+ix"1
The equivalent (or total) leakage impedance referred to secondary is
. ze2 = tez + jx"z'
Following the above procedure, it can be shown that
(ry'\'-
-[ar'\'
z"L=ttr] z"randZez=t zer'

Simplification of the exact equivalent circuit. ^rr,l The equivalent circuit of Fig. 1.14
(b) can be simplifred by referring all the quantities to primary or secondary and at the same
time, moving the ideal transformer to one side. If the secondary quantities are referred to
primary, the equivalent circuit of Fig. 1.14 (c) is obtained. Since it is usual to omit the ideal
transformer, it is shown dotted in Fig. 1.14 (c) for the sake of completeness. When the primary
quantities are referred to the secondary side, the equivalent circuit of Fig. l.L4 (d) is obtained.

x::
jll*"*l,sk:*.,3[*,t]];l:;:#T::,'ff H::::".J*T]
respectively.
In the equivalent circuits of Fig. 1.14 (c) and (d), the referred quantities with suitable
notation, have been used. A more general equivalent circuit can be drawn as shown in
Fig. 1.14 (e), where for simplicity, (i) a particular notation for'referred quantities has been
dropped (ii) the complex notation (bar over.I,7 with reactances etc.) has been given up and (ill)
the ideal transformer is not shown. If the general equivalent circuit refers to the primary, one
@ [Anr. 1.6] Elecrnrcll MlcxtnenY

has to keep in mind that the secondary quantities have been referred to the primary side. On
the other hand, if the general equivalent circuit refers to the secondary, then the primary
quantities must be referred to the secondary side. Thus in the general equivalent circuit of a
transformer, one has merely to keep in mind about the side to which all the quantities have
'been referred.
It may be interesting at this stage to draw the phasor Vl
diagram for the equivalent circuit of Fig. L.L4 (e) from a
iltxt
knowledge of the electric circuit theory. Assume that the
secondary load voltage V, load current ^[, and angle 0, by
rtlt
which /, lags V, ate known. First of all draw /, laggin g Vz
by an angle 0, and then add /2 Qr+ jxr) to V, to obtain E2 or
7r', Fig. 1.15. It is obvious from Fig. 1.14 (e) that current ^I-
due to voltage E2 or 71' must lag it by 90" and further /,
t )

muit be in phase with E2 or Vr'. The phasor sum of /, and

.I,, girres /, and phasor sum of 12 and /. gives fr. ffre voltage
drop f, (r, + jxr) is now added to Vr' to obtai" 71as shown in
Fig. 1.15. The 'secondary p.f. is cos 0z lagging and the
primary p.f. is cos 0, lagging.
The voltage drops l, {r, + jxr) and /, (r2 + jxr) have
Fig. 1 .15. Phasor diagram for
been drawn to a much larger scale, in comparison with V, or equivalent circuit of Fig. 1 .14 (a).
Vrfor the sake of clarity.
Approximate Equivalent circuit. Approximate
equivalent circuit is obtained from the exact equivalent circuit of Fig. 1.L4(e), if the shunt
branch (^B" and X* in parallel) is moved to the primary or secondary terminals as shown in
Fig. 1.16 (o) and (b) respectively. It may be seen from Fig. 1.16 (a) that the exciting current I,
does not flow through r, and r, whereas.I. does flow through r, and r, in the exact equivalent
circuit. Thus the primary leakage impedance drop due to the exciting current,i.e.,Ir(rr+ jxr)
has been neglected in Fig. 1.16 (o), though it is not so actually.
It mpy also be seen from Fig. 1.16 (b) that { flows through r, and r, whereas d does not
flow through r, and r, in the exact equivalent circuit. Thus the secondary leakage impedance
drop due to Ir, i.e. I" (r, + jxr) has been included, though Ir(r, + ixr) is actually zero. Since the
exciting current is only about 2 to 6 per cent of the rated winding current in power and
distribution transformers, the error introduced by neglecting I" (r, + jxr) or including lr(r, +
jxr) is insignificant. However, the computational labour involved is reduced considerably by
the use of approximate equivalent circuits of Fig. 1.16 (a) and (b). As before, one must keep in
mind about the side to which all the equivalent-circuit quantities have been referred.
Still further simplification is achieved by neglecting the shunt branch.B, andX- in Fig.
1.16 (o) and (b) and this leads to equivalent circuit of Fig. 1.16 (c). This simplifrcation is
tantamount to neglecting exciting current I, in comparison with rated currents, which is
almost justifiable in large transformers, say over 100 kVA or Bo. For transformers having
ratings near 500 kVA or more, the equivalent resistance r, is quite small as compared with
equivalent leakage reactance xe. Consequently re may be neglected, leading to the equivalent
circuit of Fig. 1.16 (d). Thus, when a large power system is.studied, a transformer is usually
replaced by its equivalent circuit of the form shown in Fig. 1.16 (d).
 Tnrursronueng [Anr. 1.6] !!!
l. l^ /1* f2= l, fl+ fZ= fe Xl + XZ= Xe
l2

[*-- I-.-*,,S;J. h -\ 4 , -
lr,
+ 'iJin\-
i'*tI lt,
','*'*
t?al
I i-+-r$*"
u;

t_tt_
a'- a
I

(b)

11 * /2= f, Xl+ XZ= Xe X7 + X2= Xe

, (c) (d)

Fig. 1.t e. (a) and (D) Approximate equivalent circuits of a transformer.

(c) and (d) Simplified forms of the approximate equivalent circuit.

The equivalent circuit of Fig. L.L4 (e) should be used only when the exciting current is a
large percentage of the rated current e.g., in audio-frequency transformers used in electronic
circuits, in transformers used for relaying and measurement purposes etc. For high voltage
surge investigations, the transformer equivalent circuit must be modi{ied to include the
effects of inter-turn and turn to earth capacitances.
The equivalent circuit developed in Fig. 1.14 can also be arrived at by following the
classical theory of magnetically coupled circuits. This is done in Art. 1.16.

Exampl e l.Ii For o iwo winding transfornler, deriue an expression for tfu total ohmic
loss, in terms of thc equiualent resistance, refened to eitlur sidc.
Solution. Total ohmic loss in a transformer
+ Ilr') watts
Expressi ns rzin terms ,i;:;$'J'
Poh=rtr, +[r, rr .,, I? r",
[f))',,= [n [#)'] =
If Poh is expressed in terms of 12, then

p.h=[, (ffi)]' ,, +rtr,=r,z[[*)' 11*,2f=,r,*

Thus the total ohmic loss in a transformer = (Equivalent resistance referred to either
side) (Square of the current on that side).
f [Anr. 1.6] Eucrnrcru- MlcxrxenY

Example 1.8. A 33 kVA" 22001220 V, 50 Hz single phase transformer has the

following param,eters :
Primary winding (h.u. sidc) : resistance rt = 2.4 Q; leakoge reactawe xt = 6.00 {1,
. Secondary winding (1.u. sidp) : resistance rz = 0.03 Q; leakoge reactonce xz = 0.07 SL
(a) Find the primary resistance and leakage reactance referred to *condary.
(b) Find tIrc secondary resistonce g,nd leakoge reactance refened to priruary.
(c) Find tlrc equiualent resistance and equiualent leakage reactance referred to
(i) prirnary and (ii) secondary.
(d) Calculate thc total ohmic loss at full load.
(e) Calculate thc uoltage tobe applicd to the h.u. sidc, in order to obtain a slwrt cireuit
current of 160 A in the l.u. windirry. Undcr tlrcse conditions, find th,e power input alao.

Solution. (o) Primary resistance referred to secondary

-,t'=,,(*l'= f*) =0.024e.

(Nr/ rz.+)'(2200)
Primary leakage reactance referred to secondary

= *t'=,,[#) =6.00 (#)' =o.o6e.

(b) Secondary resistance referred to primary

- =,r(*l'
tz'
tNr/ = o.o, [#)'
\220 )
= B.oo e.
Secondary leakage reactance referred to primary

r^(\l
''2 -= *,
-= r^' \rv/' = z.oo e.
v'v ' (10)2
-= o.oz
U% J
(c) (i) {quivalent resistance referred to primary
= re.- = rt * ,2' = 2.4 + 3.00 = 5.4 Q.
Equivalent leakage reactance referred to primary
= I"L = 11 * *2' = 6.00 + 7.00 = 13 Q.
(ii) Equivalent resistance referred to secondary
= r"2= '2* rr' = 0.03 + 0.024 = 0.054 Q.
Equivalent leakage reactance referred to secondary
= xe2= *z* xr' = 0.07 + 0.06 = 0.13 Q.
(d) Primary full load current /, = # = 15 A.
2200 t6A
33ooo
Secondary full load current.I, = = 1so A.
220
Ohmic loss at full load
= I?ra= (15)2 x 5.4 = L2L6 watts.
Fig. 1.17. Equivalent circuit
referred to h'v' side' Ex' 1'8'
or = *;;r=(150)2 x 0.054 = L2llwatts.
(e) A current of 160 A in the l.v. winding is equivalent
to 16 A in the h.v. winding. The
equivalent circuit of the transformer, referred to h.v. side is' illustrated in Fig. t.L7, from
which equivalent leakage impedance referred to h.v. side is
= z"t= 5.4 +7 13
J
 Tnarusronuens [Anr. 1.6] @
or z"L=1[5'A2+(13f = 14.08 Q.
The voltage to be applied to the h.v. side,.V = (16) (z,r)
= (16) (14.08) = 225.28 volts.
Power input = I? rr, = (16)2 (5.4) = L382.4 watts

or Power input = V.[ cos g = (225.28) (16) , -5.'!^= = l382.4watts.

14.08

Example 1.9. A 10 kVA, 25001250 V, single phase transformcr has resistances and
leakage reactances as follows :
r, = (.8 dl, rz = 0.048 dl
xt 77.2 Sl,
= xz 0.112 gl,
=
Subscripts 7 and 2 denote hish uoltage and low uoltage windings respectiuely.
With primary supply uoltage held constant at 2500 V, calculate thc secondary
terminal uoltoge, whcn
(a) the l.u. winding is eonnccted to a load irnpedance of 5 + j 3.5 A
(b) tttc transformcr deliuers its rated cunent at 0.8 p.f. lassing on tlrc l.u. sidc.

Solution. (o) All the quantities may be referred to either the h.v. side or the l.v. side. In
this example, l.v. winding is the secondary winding since load is connected across it. With all
the quantities referred to the l.v. side, the equivalent circuit of Fig. 1.18 (o) is obtained, where

,"2= 12+ r, = 0.048 + 4.8(*)' = 0.0e6 e

[#)'
and xe2= x2 + x,t [+l' = o.Lr2 + Lt.2f+]'
\1oi
= 0.224 e.
[Nr/
The transformer leakage impedance re2 + jxrz and the load impedance are in series.
Therefore, the total impedance in the secondary winding circuit is,
) = 5.096 + j 3.724= 6.31 Z 36.2'.
o'oe5 o o'224a
f+ ' .-..--+
^r(fi" - -riftft.--
f+ I F--ffi-F- ,r=4oA
| /, | | I
Ez=250v v2 fi
lnl 2sov v2 _l_,
lEl
Itl Ljl
t__
I

(a)
r-? L__
]-__l L__ (b) -l_-l
Fig. 1.18. Equivalent circuit for Example 1.9.

250
Hence the load current.' I^ - = 39.65 A.
' 6.31
The secondary terminal voltage Eris Vz = I{,

= (Be.6E) = tas.ob) (0. L) =z4zy.

[Cffi]
f [Anr. 1.6] ElEcrnrcn- Mlcxrnenv

(b) The equivalent circuit with all the quantities

referred to l.v. side is given in Fig. 1.18 (b). The rated current
on the l.v. side is
1o'ooo
r. = = 4o A.
"
250
The phasor diagram for Fig. 1.18 (b) is illustrated in Fig.
1.18 (c).
From the geometry of this diagram,
oB2=oA2+AB2
or (250) =

or (250) =
or Q5U2 =VB + 16.90V, + 95.55
or Vl * 16.90 V2- 62,404 = 0

v2- - ro'go + 1@616 = 24L.55 Y.

2 Fig. 1.18. (c) Phasor diagram
Alternatively, the secondary terminal voltage V, can be for circuit of Fig. 1.18 (b). i
obtained as follows:
From the phasor diagram, it may be seen that OD is approximately equal to OB =
250 volts.
Vz= OD - CD = 250 - CD.
Now CD=CE+ED
= Izr"2cos 0, + I*rzsin 0,
= (3.84) (0.8) + (8.96) (0.6) = 8.448 = 8.45 volts.
Secondary terminal voltage,
V2=250 -8.45 =24L.55Y.
The magnitude of the secondary voltage Y, turns out to be same in both the methods.
However, the computational labour in the second method is less than in the frrst method,
therefore, the second method should be preferred.

Erample 1.10. Tlw equiuolent circuit refened, to ttw low-teneion eidc of o 260 t25OO V
eingle phase tronsformer is ehown in Fig. 1.18 (o), The lood impedonce connpcted to the
j
high-tenaion terminale ie 880 + 230 Q. For a primary uoltage of 260 V, eornpute
(d the secondary tcrminol uoltage,
G) prirrury current ond, power foctor, and
(c) power output ond efficicney.

Solution. (o) The load impedance referred to l.t. side is

zr' =(s8o + j 2Bo) = (8.8 +7 2.8) e.

[#)'
Transformer leakage impedance 0.2 + jO'.7 ohm and the load impedance 3.8 + j 2.3 Q are
in series as shown in Fig. 1.19 (b). Therefore, total series impedance is 4 + jB = 5 Z 36.9".
Taking % the reference phasor,
"r
Vt = 250 Z' 0''
Tnrnsroauens [Anr. 1.6] Eil

Fig. 1.19. (a) Transformer equivalent circuit for Example 1.10. (b) Pertaining to Example 1.10.

I,'=25ozo
' 5Z 3.690 =bo z-g1.g"
= 50 (cos 36.9o -7 sin 36.9') = (40 -j 30) A.

Ir' =boA and Ir=ry#=bo' * =EA

Secondary tenninal voltage = IzZt
= 5 [3802 + 23021u2 = 5 x 444 = 2220Y

(b) The core loss current I" = !='u-9',9: = 0.b zoo= 0.b j o
" R" Soo zo
+

Themagnetizingcurrent f-"-= Vn ='uo1:: =Lz-g0"=0-./1

ix,^-zsozgoo ^-
Yrr

Exciting current I" =f + I* = (0.5 -j1) A.

"
Hence total r.l*rO ._]rr"::
Ir=I{+1"
= (40 -730) + (0.5 -jl)
= 40.5 -j
3L = 51 Z-37.4"
Primary current fr = 51 A
primary p.f. = cos 0, = cos 37.4" = 0.794lagging.
380
(c) Load p.f. =coso-=
" lgg,,- * Zgyrl* =
0'855

Power output = Vzf, cos 0z= 2220 x 5 x 0.855 = 9500 watts.

Also power output = (11')z Rr= (50)2 (3.8) = 9500 watts.
(250)2
Core loss P = t-- = t2Swatts
" R" 5oo
P" -- *R" = (0.5)2 (5oo) = L25 watts.
Ohmic loss Poh = (Ir')2r", = (50)2 (0.2) = 500 watts.
Power input =Vrltcos 0, = (250) (51X0.794) = 10,125 watts.
Also power input = Power output + Losses
= 9500 + L25 + 500 = 10,125 whtts.
f [Anr. 1.7] EucrRrcrl MecxrreRv

outPut Input - Losses

Efficiencr,- =
Input
- Inpqt
--.I.- i
LOSSeS
=
-| - 500
--,-. +',i-I-
L25
= 0.9383 p.u. or 93.83Vo.
Input LO,L25

These two tests on a transformer, help to determine (i) the parameters of the equivalent
circuit of Fig. 1.16, (ii) the voltage regulation and (iii) efficiency. The equivalent circuit
parameters can also be obtained from the physical dimensions of the transformer core and its
winding details. Complete analysis of the transformer can be carried out, once its equivalent
circuit parameters are known.
The power required during these two tests is equal to the appropriate power loss
occurring in the transformer.
Open circuit (or No-load) test. The circuit diagram for performing open circuit test
on a single phase transformer is gtven in Fig. L.20 (a).In this diagram, a voltmeter, wattmeter
and an ammeter are shown connected on the low voltage side of the transformer. The high
voltage side is left open circuited. The rated frequency voltage applied to the primary, i.e. low
voltage side, is varied with the help of a variable ratio auto-transform. When the voltmeter
reading is equal to the rated voltage of the l.v. winding, all the three instmment readings are
recorded.
The ammeter records the no-load current or exciting current.[r. Since d is quite small (2
to 6Vo of rated current), the primary leakage impedance drop is almost negligible, and for all
practical purposes, the applied voltage % i. equal to the induced emf Vr'. Consequently, the
equivalent circuit of Fig. l.L4 (e) gets modifred to that shown in Fig. 1.20 (b).

r------{
I

b
to
to
to
)o
)o vr
)o
lo
)o
tHV

(a\ (b)

Fig. 1.20. (a) Circuit diagram for open-circuit test on a transformer and
(D) approximate equivalent circuit at no load.
The input power given by the wattmeter reading consists of core loss and ohmic loss.
The exciting current being about 2to 6 per cent of the full load current, the ohmic loss in the

^ cent (+
primary (= I"zrr)varies from 0.04 per
\100" +x
100
fOO) to 0.36 per cent of the full-load
)
primary ohmic loss. In view of this fact, the ohmic loss during open circuit test is negligible in
comparison with the normal core loss (approximately proportional to the square of the applied
voltage). Hence the wattmeter reading can be taken as equal to transforrner core loss. A
negligible amount of dielectric loss may also exisJ. Error in the instrument readings may be
 Tmnsponmens [Anr. 1.7] f
eliminated if required. Let
Vr = applied rated voltage on l.t. side,
I, = current (or no-load current),
and
"".iting
P" = cote loss-
Then P"=V,I" cos 0o ...(1.28)

No load p.f. =cose^= 4

" VrI"
From the phasor diagram of Fig. 1.8 (c), it follows that
I"= { cos 0o and I* =^I" sin 0o
From Fig. 1.20 (b), I"=
+
Core loss resistance Rcr=+=,fr,
=
v,2 =tv,2 ...(L.29 a)
ynr,;.%
Also 1"2 R"r= P"

Rct = &_=
- (/,
P,
...(1.29 b)
tr .* odE
Magneti zing reactance,
tl Vr Vl
mrJ I* ...(1.30)
^I, sin 0g
The subscript Z with ^8" and X- is used merely to emphasize that these values are for
the l.t. side.
This must be kept in mind that the values of.B" andX*, in general, refer to the side, in
which the instmmgnts are placed (the l.t. side in the present case). A voltmeter is sometimes
used at the open-circuited secondary terminals, in order to determine the turns ratio.
' Thus the open-circuit test gives the following information : (i) core loss at rated voltage
and frequency, (a) the shunt branch parameters of the equivalent circuit, i.e. R, andX- and
(iii) turns ratio of the transformer.
Short-circuit test. The low voltage side of the transformer is short-circuited and the
instruments are placed on the high voltage side, as illustrated in Fig. l.2l (a). The applied
voltage is a{iusted by auto-transformer, to circulate rated current in the high voltage side. In
a transformer, the primary mmf is almost equal to the secondary mmf, therefore, a rated
current in the h.v. winding causes rated current to flow in the l.v. winding.
A primary voltage of 2 to L2Vo of its rated value is suffrcient to circulate rated currents
in both primary and secondary windings. From Fig. 1.21 (b), it is clear that the secondary
leakage impedance drop appears across the exciting branch (R, andX*in parallel). About half
(1 to 6Vo) of the applied voltage appears across the secondary leakage impedance and,
therefore, across the exciting branch. The core flux induces the voltage across the exciting
branch and since the latter is 1 to 6Vo of rated voltage, the core flux is also Lto 6Vo of its rated
value. Hence the core loss, being approximately proportional to the square of the core flux, is

0.01 percent
' (= +, + x r0o) b 0.36 percent
^ (= *, *100x r00) of its value at rated
-[100
\100 100 ) )
Eil [Anr. 1.7] ElEcrnrc* Mncxrnenv

'voltage. The wattmeter, in short circuit test, records the core loss and the ohmic loss in both
the windings. Since the core loss has been proved to be almost negligible in comparison with
the rated-voltage core loss, the wattmeter can be taken to register only the ohmic losses in
both the windings.

L
I

lo
)o a
lo k
lo tJ
E
)o o
e ,E
CA

HV

xz rz
-n A -{I6U\- f;-1AAA-'0i

x^6
.:a
tJ
tsr

L
lrr a
Li
U

o
.tr
cr)
s(ho

Fig. 1 .21, (a) Connection diagram for short circuit test on a transformer. (b) Equivalent circuit with short-
circuit on the secondary side. (c) Transformer equivalent circuit with secondary short-circuited.
At rated voltage, the exciting current is 2 to 6Vo of full load current. When the voltage
across the exciting branch is Lto 6Vo of rated voltage, the exciting current may be 0.02 percent

l=3, r-- - - (=L,.

+ x r00l b o.Bilvo- percent g x --- of-- its full-load current and can,
\ 100 100 ) \. 100 100 r00'l
)
therefore, be safely ignored. As a result of this, the equivalent circuit of Fig. l.L4 (e), with the
secondary short-circuited, gets modifred to that shown in Fig. 1.21 (c).
The instrument readings may be corrected, if required. Let Vr", I;and {" be the
voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter readings; then from Fig. 1.21 (c), equivalent leakage
impedance referred to h.v. side
_ vr"
t"r-T ...(1.31 (a))

equivalent resistance referred to h.v. side, ,"n = k ...(1.31 (b))

and equivalent leakage reactance referrea to rr.rrlllu",

x"H= rl"?, -rh ...(1.32)
In teH, xeH and, z"s, the subscript I/ is used to indicate that these quantities are referred
.to h.v. side. These parameters can, however, be referred to the l.v. side, if required.

:'The short-circuit current be, either equal toor near to the rated current.
d" should