INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL OF ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Alimannao Hills, Peñablanca, Cagayan

INSTRUCTIONAL
LEARNING GUIDE

RESEARCH IN EDUCATION 1
FIRST SEMESTER CLASS F.Y. 2022-2023
COMPILED BY:
JHOANNA PAULINE C. MAMANSAG, MAEd
Language Instructor
College of Arts, Sciences and Teacher Education
International School of Asia and the Pacific

Reviewer
MYRNA A. PAGULAYAN, Ph.D.
Dean, College of Arts, Sciences and Teacher Education
International School of Asia and the Pacific
 PREFACE
This Instructional Learning Guide shall serve as your guide in the completion of the
subject- Research in Education 1. This has been prepared to address your needs in the Distance
Learning Strategy. The contents of this guide have been carefully planned and reviewed to suit
your learning style. This guide is a collection of lectures from the different authors and lecturers
of this course; thus, this has been made to be useful for you, so that even in the midst of this
pandemic situation we are facing right now, you can still acquire knowledge and skills for the
course offline. Therefore, all lectures and activities given in this material should be followed
strictly.

Lecture Notes are also given based from the different references used for the subject
summarized by your teacher. Pictures will also be presented as examples for each topic presented,
for videos, you can watch the soft copies saved in your flash drive.

Self-reflection questions are given to evaluate your understanding on the lessons

presented. The teacher may opt to include your answers to be part of your learning portfolio or
may be the basis of exchange of ideas with your classmates.

How to Use this Learning Guide:

• Read carefully and understand its content; specific instructions are given in each topic or
activity. If you have any clarifications or questions, feel free to contact your subject
teacher- email add: pmamansag@mcnp.edu.ph Facebook messenger- (her complete
name) and her cell phone number 0906-530-7216.

• You may do the readings or activities synchronously or asynchronously meaning you may
do per chapter your readings on the lectures gradually not jumping to another chapter
and to another chapter. If you choose to do it asynchronously, meaning you want to finish
any of the chapters which you think is easy for you and you may just finish the difficult
ones later.
• Do all your portfolio (Relate to practice and Self-Reflection) in a whole short (8.5’ x 11.5’)
bond paper, you may write them legibly or you may encode and print them, the margins
on all sides should be normal, the font size should be 12 and the font style should be Arial.
The line and paragraph spacing should be 1.5 not double spacing or single spacing.

Features of the Instructional Learning Guide:

• Chapter Outcomes • Self-Reflection Questions
• Key Terms • Other Activities (to be included in Portfolio
• Lectures Notes Assessments)
• Discussion / Teachers Insights • Appendices
• Summary of Additional References
PRELIMS COVERAGE

Chapter 1- Overview of the Subject

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to:

a) Have a thorough understanding of the definition of Research

b) Trace the nature and characteristic of research
c) Have an ample foundation as regards the underlying rules in the research process
d) Have knowledge of the different types or Research and its functions
e) To have an awareness in the classifications of Research Methodology

Lesson 1- Definition, Types, and Methods

What is Research: Definition
A careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or problem using scientific
methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “Research is a systematic
inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon. Research involves
inductive and deductive methods.”

Inductive research methods are used to analyze an observed event. Deductive methods
are used to verify the observed event. Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative
research and deductive methods are more commonly associated with quantitative research.

Research is conducted with a purpose to understand:

• What do organizations or businesses really want to find out?

• What are the processes that need to be followed to chase the idea?
• What are the arguments that need to be built around a concept?
• What is the evidence that will be required for people to believe in the idea or concept?

Characteristics of research

1. A systematic approach must be followed for accurate data. Rules and procedures are an
integral part of the process that set the objective. Researchers need to practice ethics
and a code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.
2. Research is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive
methods.
3. The data or knowledge that is derived is in real time from actual observations in natural
settings.
4. There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies
associated with it.
5. Research creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create more
opportunities for research.
 6. Research is analytical in nature. It makes use of all the available data so that there is no
ambiguity in inference.
7. Accuracy is one of the most important aspects of research. The information that is
obtained should be accurate and true to its nature. For example, laboratories provide a
controlled environment to collect data. Accuracy is measured in the instruments used,
the calibrations of instruments or tools, and the final result of the experiment.

What are the types of research?

Following are the types of research methods:

• Basic research: A basic research definition is data collected to enhance knowledge.

The main motivation is knowledge expansion. It is a non-commercial research that
doesn’t facilitate in creating or inventing anything. For example: an experiment to
determine a simple fact.
• Applied research: Applied research focuses on analyzing and solving real-life
problems. This type refers to the study that helps solve practical problems using
scientific methods. Studies play an important role in solving issues that impact the
overall well-being of humans. For example: finding a specific cure for a disease.
• Problem oriented research: As the name suggests, problem-oriented research is
conducted to understand the exact nature of a problem to find out relevant solutions.
The term “problem” refers to multiple choices or issues when analyzing a situation.

For example, revenue of a car company has decreased by 12% in the last year. The following
could be the probable causes: there is no optimum production, poor quality of a product, no
advertising, or economic conditions.

• Problem solving research: This type of research is conducted by companies to

understand and resolve their own problems. The problem-solving method uses applied
research to find solutions to the existing problems.
• Qualitative research: Qualitative research is a process that is about inquiry. It
helps create in-depth understanding of problems or issues in their natural settings. This
is a non-statistical method.

Qualitative research is heavily dependent on the experience of the researchers and the
questions used to probe the sample. The sample size is usually restricted to 6-10
people. Open-ended questions are asked in a manner that encourages answers that lead to
another question or group of questions. The purpose of asking open-ended questions is to
gather as much information as possible from the sample.

The following are the methods used for qualitative research:

1. One-to-one interview
 2. Focus groups
3. Ethnographic research
4. Content/Text Analysis
5. Case study research

Learn more: Qualitative Research Methods

• Quantitative research: Qualitative research is a structured way of collecting data

and analyzing it to draw conclusions. Unlike qualitative methods, this method uses a
computational and statistical process to collect and analyze data. Quantitative data is all
about numbers.

Quantitative research involves a larger population — more people means more data. With
more data to analyze, you can obtain more accurate results. This method uses close-ended
questions because the researchers are typically looking to gather statistical data.

• Online surveys, questionnaires, and polls are preferable data collection tools used
in quantitative research. There are various methods of deploying surveys or
questionnaires.

Online surveys allow survey creators to reach large amounts of people or smaller focus
groups for different types of research that meet different goals. Survey respondents can receive
surveys on mobile phones, in emails, or can simply use the internet to access surveys.

Learn more: What is Quantitative Research?

What Is the Purpose of Research?

There are three purposes of research:

1. Exploratory: As the name suggests, exploratory research is conducted to explore a

group of questions. The answers and analytics may not offer a final conclusion to the
perceived problem. It is conducted to handle new problem areas which haven’t been
explored before. This exploratory process lays the foundation for more conclusive
research and data collection.
2. Descriptive: Descriptive research focuses on expanding knowledge on current issues
through a process of data collection. Descriptive studies are used to describe the
behavior of a sample population. In a descriptive study, only one variable is required to
conduct the study. The three main purposes of descriptive research are describing,
explaining, and validating the findings. For example, a study conducted to know if top-
level management leaders in the 21st century possess the moral right to receive a huge
sum of money from the company profit.
 3. Explanatory: Explanatory research or causal research is conducted to understand the
impact of certain changes in existing standard procedures. Conducting experiments is
the most popular form of casual research. For example, a study conducted to
understand the effect of rebranding on customer loyalty.

To understand the characteristic of research design using research purpose here is a

comparative analysis:

Exploratory Explanatory
Descriptive Research
Research Research

Research approach
Unstructured Structured Highly structured
used

Research conducted Asking research Asking research By using research

through questions questions hypotheses.

When is it Early stages of decision Later stages of decision Later stages of decision
conducted? making making making

Learn More: Primary Research – Examples, Methods and Purpose

Research method is defined as the tools or instruments used to accomplish the goals
and attributes of a study. Think of the methodology as a systematic process in which the tools
or instruments will be employed. There is no use of a tool if it is not being used efficiently.

Research begins by asking the right questions and choosing an appropriate method to
investigate the problem. After collecting answers to your questions, you can analyze the
findings or observations to draw appropriate conclusions.

When it comes to customers and market studies, the more thorough your questions, the
better. By thoroughly collecting data from customers through surveys and questionnaires, you
get important insights into brand perception and product needs. You can use this data to make
smart decisions about your marketing strategies to position your business effectively.
 Types of research methods and research example

Research methods are broadly classified as Qualitative and Quantitative.

Both methods have distinctive properties and data collection methods.

Qualitative Methods

Qualitative research is a method that collects data using conversational methods.

Participants are asked open-ended questions. The responses collected are essentially non-
numerical. This method not only helps a researcher understand what participants think but also
why they think in a particular way.

Types of qualitative methods include:

• One-to-one Interview: This interview is conducted with one participant at a given point
in time. One-to-one interviews need a researcher to prepare questions in advance. The
researcher asks only the most important questions to the participant. This type of
interview lasts anywhere between 20 minutes to half an hour. During this time the
researcher collects as many meaningful answers as possible from the participants to
draw inferences.
• Focus Groups: Focus groups are small groups comprising of around 6-10 participants
who are usually experts in the subject matter. A moderator is assigned to a focus group
who facilitates the discussion amongst the group members. A moderator’s experience in
 conducting the focus group plays an important role. An experienced moderator can
probe the participants by asking the correct questions that will help them collect a
sizable amount of information related to the research.
• Ethnographic Research: Ethnographic research is an in-depth form of research where
people are observed in their natural environment without This method is demanding due
to the necessity of a researcher entering a natural environment of other people.
Geographic locations can be a constraint as well. Instead of conducting interviews, a
researcher experiences the normal setting and daily life of a group of people.
• Text Analysis: Text analysis is a little different from other qualitative methods as it is
used to analyze social constructs by decoding words through any available form of
documentation. The researcher studies and understands the context in which the
documents are written and then tries to draw meaningful inferences from it.
Researchers today follow activities on a social media platform to try and understand
patterns of thoughts.
• Case Study: Case study research is used to study an organization or an entity. This
method is one of the most valuable options for modern This type of research is used in
fields like the education sector, philosophical studies, and psychological studies. This
method involves a deep dive into ongoing research and collecting data.

Quantitative Research Methods

Quantitative methods deal with numbers and measurable forms. It uses a systematic
way of investigating events or data. It is used to answer questions in terms of justifying
relationships with measurable variables to either explain, predict, or control a phenomenon.

There are three methods that are often used by researchers:

• Survey Research — The ultimate goal of survey research is to learn about a large
population by deploying a survey. Today, online surveys are popular as they are
convenient and can be sent in an email or made available on the internet. In this
method, a researcher designs a survey with the most relevant survey questions and
distributes the survey. Once the researcher receives responses, they summarize them to
tabulate meaningful findings and data.
• Descriptive Research — Descriptive research is a method which identifies the
characteristics of an observed phenomenon and collects more information. This method
is designed to depict the participants in a very systematic and accurate manner. In
simple words, descriptive research is all about describing the phenomenon, observing it,
and drawing conclusions from it.
• Correlational Research— Correlational research examines the relationship between two
or more variables. Consider a researcher is studying a correlation between cancer and
married Married women have a negative correlation with cancer. In this example, there
are two variables: cancer and married women. When we say negative correlation, it
 means women who are married are less likely to develop cancer. However, it doesn’t
mean that marriage directly avoids cancer.

Identifying Research Methodology

To choose the appropriate types of research, you need to clearly identify the objectives.
Some objectives to take into consideration for your business include:

• Find out the needs of your clients.

• Know their preferences and understand what is important to them.
• Find an appropriate way to make your customers aware of your products and services.
• Find ways to improve your products or services to suit the needs of your customers.

After identifying what you need to know, you should ask what research methods will offer
you that information.

Organize your questions within the framework of the 7 Ps of marketing that influence your
company – product, price, promotion, place, people, processes, and physical tests.

A well-organized customer research process produces valid, accurate, reliable, timely,

and complete results. Results that rigorously reflect the opinions and needs of your clients will
help you grow your sales and improve your operations. To obtain the results, you need to
establish and follow the processes that you have detailed out for your organization:

Set your goals

Consider the client’s objectives and define those that identify with yours. Make sure that
you set smart goals and objectives. Do not presume the results of your surveys.

Plan your research

Good planning allows the use of creative and logical approaches to select the methods
that gather the most accurate information. Your plan will be influenced by the type and
complexity of the information you need, the skills of your market research team, and how soon
you need the information. Your budget also plays a large role in your ability to collect data.

Collect and collate your results

Make a list of how you are going to carry out the research process, the data you need to
collect, and collection methods. This will help you keep track of your processes and make sense
of your findings. It will also allow you to verify that your research accurately reflects the
opinions of your clients and your market. Create a record table with:
 • The consumer research activity
• The necessary data
• The methods for data collection
• The steps to follow for data analysis.

Remember, research is only valuable and useful when it is valid, accurate, and reliable.
Relying on imperfect research is dangerous. Incorrect results can lead to customer churn and
a decrease in sales.

It is important to obtain information about how the collection of customer information was
carried out, and to ensure that your data is:

• Valid – founded, logical, rigorous, and impartial.

• Accurate – free of errors and including required details.
• Reliable – that can be reproduced by other people who investigate in the same way.
• Timely – current and collected within an appropriate time frame.
• Complete – includes all the data you need to support your business decisions.

Analyze and understand your research

Analysis of the data can vary from simple and direct steps to technical and complex
processes. Adopt an approach, and choose the method of data analysis based on the
methods you have carried out.

Keep the findings ready

Choose a spreadsheet that allows you to easily enter your data. If you do not have a
large amount of data, you should be able to manage them with the use of basic tools available
in survey software. If you have collected more complete and complex data, you may have to
consider using specific programs or tools that will help you manage your data.

Review and interpret the information to draw conclusions

Once you have gathered all the data, you can scan your information and interpret it to draw
conclusions and make informed decisions. You should review the data and then:

• Identify the main trends and issues, opportunities, and problems you observe. Write a
sentence describing each one.
• Keep track of the frequency with which each of the main findings appears.
• Make a list of your findings from the most common to the least common.
• Evaluate a list of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats that have been
identified in a SWOT analysis.
• Prepare conclusions and recommendations about your research.
ACTIVITY
Relate your experience before doing your research. What was your research all about? What is
the title of your research? Reminisce the step-by-step procedure you did with your group in
order for you and your group to accomplish your research.

Do not be afraid to be creative in your thoughts

thinking already of what research you are going to do for
this semester. As you have read and understood our lesson
above. I know you are already thinking about the research
you would want to do.

REFERENCE:

https://www.questionpro.com/blog/what-is-research/

Lesson 2- Quantitative Research & Qualitative Research

Value, Nature, and Classification

DEFINITION OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

What is Quantitative Research?

• It is a systematic scientific investigation of data and their relationships.

• It is used to quantify the problem by the way of generating numerical data or data that
can be transformed into useable statistics.
• It is used to quantify attitudes, behaviors, and other defined variables – and generalize
results from a larger sample population.
• It uses measurable data to formulate facts and uncover patterns in research.
• It involves the collection and study of numerical data.

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

1. It usually deals with the hard sciences or natural sciences (e.g., Physics, Biology,
Chemistry, and Medicine) not in soft sciences (e.g., Humanities, Social Sciences,
Education, and Psychology)
2. It focuses on concise and narrow topics, not complex and broad ones.
3. It has a reductionistic, not holistic, perspective. This means that it reduces complex
ideas into simple terms.
 4. It is objective, not subjective.
5. It make use of logistic, deductive reasoning (proceeding from general to specific), not
dialectic, inductive reasoning (proceeding from specific to general).
6. It is used as a basis of establishing cause-and-effect relationship, not a basis for creating
meaning and discovery.
7. It is a theory-testing endeavor, not a theory-developing activity.
8. It is characterized by the researcher’s control of data, not by shared interpretation of
data.
9. It gathers data with the use of appropriate instruments, not through communication and
interpretation.
10. It uses numbers, not words, in the analysis of data.
11. It requires statistical analysis of data, not the researcher’s individual interpretation of
data.
12. It presents as an ultimate output a generalization regarding a problem, not the
uniqueness of one’s experience or of a phenomenon.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH VS. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

To acquire a more profound understanding of the characteristics of quantitative
research, one must know how it greatly differs from qualitative research. The following table
of differences between qualitative research and quantitative research is adapted from the
combined tables presented by Hennink et al. (2011) and Romeo Santos (2011).

POINT OF
CONTRAST
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

(In terms of:)

• a means for exploring and • a means for testing
understanding the objective theories by
meaning individuals or examining the relationship
Meaning
groups ascribe to a social between measurable
or human problem variables.

• to gain a detailed • to quantify data and

understanding of extrapolate results to a
Objective
underlying reasons, broader population
beliefs, motivations
• to understand why? How? • to measure, count, quantify
Purpose
What is the process? What a problem: How much? How
 are the influences of often? What proportion?
contexts? relationships in data

• textual data (words) • numerical data (numbers)

Data

• quality (nature, essence) • quantity (how much, how

Focus of Research many)

• understanding, description, • prediction, control,

Goal of discovery, hypothesis- description, confirmation,
Investigation gathering hypothesis-testing

Design • flexible, evolving, emerging • predetermined, structured

Characteristics
• familiar, natural • unfamiliar, artificial
Setting

• participants or interviewees • subjects or respondents

Study population

• small, non-random, • large, random,

Sample theoretical, purposive representative

• researcher as primary • inanimate instruments

instrument, in-depth (scales, tests, surveys,
Data Collection
interviews, observation, questionnaires, computers)
focus group discussions
• inductive (by researcher), • deductive (by statistical
Mode of Analysis interpretative analysis method)

• comprehensive, holistic, • precise, reductionist, narrow

Findings
expansive
• to develop an initial • to identify prevalence,
understanding; to identify averages, and patterns in
Outcome and explain behavior, data; to generalize to a
beliefs, or actions broader population

STRENGTH AND WEAKNESSES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

STRENGTHS:
 • Testing and validating already constructed theories about how and why phenomena
occur
• Testing hypotheses that are constructed before the data are collected
• Can generalize research findings when the data are based on random samples of
sufficient size.
• Can generalize research finding when it has been replicated on many different
populations and subpopulations
• Useful for obtaining data that allow quantitative predictions to be made
• The researcher may construct a situation that eliminates the confounding influence of
many variables, allowing one or more credibly established cause-and-effect relationships
• Data collection using some quantitative methods is relatively quick (e.g., telephone
interviews)
• Provides precise, quantitative, numerical data
• Data analysis is relatively less time consuming (using statistical softwares)
• The research results are relatively independent of the researcher (e.g., statistical
significance)
• It may have higher credibility with many influential people (e.g., administrators,
politicians, people who fund programs)
• It is useful for studying large population of people.

WEAKNESSES:

• The researcher’s categories that are used might not reflect local constituencies’
understandings
• The researcher might miss out on phenomena occurring because of the focus on theory
or hypothesis testing rather than on theory or hypothesis generation (called the
confirmation bias)
• Knowledge produced might be too abstract and general for direct application to specific
local situations, contexts, and individuals.

KINDS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

There are four main types of quantitative research designs: descriptive, correlational,
quasi-experimental and experimental. The differences between the four types primarily relate to
the degree the researcher designs for control of the variables in the experiment. Following is a
brief description of each type of quantitative research design.

FOUR TYPES:

1. Descriptive Design seeks to describe the current status of a variable or phenomenon.

The researcher does not begin with a hypothesis, but typically develops one after the
data is collected. Data collection is mostly observational in nature.
Examples:

1. A description of how second-grade students spend their time during summer vacation

2. A description of the tobacco use habits of teenagers

3. A description of how parents feel about the twelvemonth school year

4. A description of the attitudes of scientists regarding global warming

5. A description of the kinds of physical activities that typically occur in nursing homes, and how
frequently each occurs

6. A description of the extent to which elementary teachers use math manipulative.

2. Correlational Design explores the relationship between variables using statistical

analyses. However, it does not look for cause and effect and therefore, is also mostly
observational in terms of data collection.

Examples:

1. The relationship between intelligence and self-esteem

2. The relationship between diet and anxiety

3. The relationship between an aptitude test and success in an algebra course

4. The relationship between ACT scores and the freshman grades

5. The relationships between the types of activities used in math classrooms and student
achievement

6. The covariance of smoking and lung disease

3. Quasi-Experimental Design (often referred to as Causal-Comparative) seeks to

establish a cause-effect relationship between two or more variables. The researcher
does not assign groups and does not manipulate the independent variable. Control
groups are identified and exposed to the variable. Results are compared with results
from groups not exposed to the variable.

Examples:
1. The effect of preschool attendance on social maturity at the end of the first grade

2. The effect of taking multivitamins on a students’ school absenteeism

3. The effect of gender on algebra achievement

4. The effect of part-time employment on the achievement of high school students

5. The effect of magnet school participation on student attitude

6. The effect of age on lung capacity

4. Experimental Designs, often called true experimentation, use the scientific method to
establish cause-effect relationship among a group of variables in a research study.
Researchers make an effort to control for all variables except the one being manipulated
(the independent variable). The effects of the independent variable on the dependent
variable are collected and analyzed for a relationship.

Examples:

1. The effect of a new treatment plan on breast cancer

2. The effect of positive reinforcement on attitude toward school

3. The effect of teaching with a cooperative group strategy or a traditional lecture approach on
students’ achievement

4. The effect of a systematic preparation and support system on children who were scheduled
for surgery on the amount of psychological upset and cooperation

5. A comparison of the effect of personalized instruction vs. traditional instruction on

computational skill

The Center for Innovation in Research and Training also provides a table of the
classification of quantitative research designs with their corresponding purposes, other names,
key foci, interventions, examples, and subtypes.

CLASSIFICATION OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

QUASI-
KIND DESCRIPTIVE CORRELATIONAL EXPERIMNTAL
EXPERIMENTAL
Purpose • to describe • to explore • to establish a • to establish a
the current the cause-and- cause-and-
 status of a relationships effect effect
variable or between relationship relationship
phenomeno variables between/am between/amo
n using ong variables ng variables
statistical
analyses
Other • Causal- • True
names comparative experimental

Key Focus • observationa • explores and • tests • tests causality

and l; describes observes causality with optimal
Variable “what is”; relationships with variable
control variables not among suboptimal control;
controlled variables; variable independent
variables not control; variable is
controlled independent manipulated
variable not
manipulated
Interventio • No • No • Yes • Yes
n Applied
Example • A • A study of • A study of • A study of the
description the the effects of effects of a
of relationship an after- new diet
teenagers’ between IQ school treatment plan
attitudes and clinical physical on insulin level
towards depression activity in diabetics
smoking program on
child obesity
rates
Common • Comparative • Descriptive • Pre- and • Classic
Study descriptive correlation post-test experimental
Designs design, design, design, post- design,
cross- predictive test only randomized
sectional design, design, design, cross-
design, model- interrupted over design,
longitudinal testing time-series nested design
design design design

IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ACROSS FIELDS

Anthropology
 • In anthropology, a Quantitative research approach can be used to establish methods
that will help us find the bigger picture, create demographic characterizations that will
be helpful when understanding how a specific society is organized, or organize
reactions and opinions towards some critical topics in ways that we can be sure are
veridical among a society (for example, religious or political affiliations). Then, as
anthropologists, we can create contexts and explanations using qualitative research
methods. With a proper experimental design, we can justify and sustain both qualitative
and quantitative results between themselves and provide stronger results.

Economics

• With the application of quantitative methods, models and adequate algorithm, the more
complex phenomena and processes in Economics can be studied more efficiently and
more precisely, as well as their interrelationship, in order to reach decisions and
predicts movements of economic phenomena and processes.

Business

• Quantitative research is all about numbers. It uses mathematical analysis and data to
shed light on important statistics about your business and market. This type of data,
found via tactics such as multiple-choice questionnaires, can help you gauge interest in
your company and its offerings.

Education

• Quantitative methods in education engage in the science and practice

of educational measurement and evaluation, primarily through the development and
application of statistical methods, informed by the study of teaching and learning
statistics.

Art Disciplines

• These disciplines consist of different fields of fine arts and liberal arts including painting,
music, film, classic literature and music among the most popular ones on which research
is conducted. The researcher can use empirical approach to conduct surveys of public
opinion; conversely he can use the non-empirical approach to perform analysis on
application and theory of literature, music, etc.

Science Disciplines

• The scientific disciplines of medicine, mechanics, physics, and biology are just few
sciences on which researchers use the empirical modes to perform first hand research
 both in the field as well as in the laboratory. The applications of these areas of sciences
are endless and apt for students who prefer to spend time in laboratories.

Discipline of Philosophy

• The discipline of Philosophy does not have much application in the practical field, yet a
person can create a theoretical dissertation based on analytical thinking, metaphysical
interpretation and several hours of readings. Students who prefer to stay hours on end
in a library are suitable for research in this field.

Discipline of History

• The opportunities for a dissertation in this subject are spread far and wide. A student can
create a dissertation through the theoretical approach of compiling data from archives,
public courthouses, and from societies of history. For a more practical approach, a student
can participate in archeological expeditions or interview participants of past battles.

Discipline of Humanities

• The study of this area might start with researching in the library, but its practical
applications are not limited to it. A student has the opportunity to go out in the field and
observe the different cultures and societies, interview people and compile case studies
from real life experiences.

ACTIVITY

Based on the strengths and weaknesses of Quantitative Research, which among those happened
to you doing research. How did it happen to you?
What is Teacher Research?

Teacher research is intentional, systematic inquiry by teachers with the goals of gaining
insights into teaching and learning, becoming more reflective practitioners, effecting changes in
the classroom or school, and improving the lives of children.... Teacher research stems from
teachers' own questions and seeks practical solutions to issues in their professional lives.... The
major components of teacher research are: conceptualization, in which teachers identify a
significant problem or interest and determine relevant research questions; implementation, in
which teachers collect and analyze data; and interpretation, in which teachers examine findings
for meaning and take appropriate actions.... Teacher research is systematic in that teachers follow
specific procedures and carefully document each step of the process.

Teacher Research and Self-study

Teacher research refers to a form in which the teacher conducts research on or inquires
into his/her own practices. Self-study is the same process used by teacher educators. This trend
is a part of the action research movement that suggests that practitioners are in the best position
to inquire into their own practices for purposes of solving problems in the contexts in which they
reside and understand. The purpose of teacher research and self-study is primarily the
improvement of the teacher/teacher educator's teaching practice. However, there is some debate
about this, as a number of scholars suggest that research conducted by teachers is not only useful
for the teacher-researcher but of interest to others. There are also questions about the nature of
the research that is conducted, e.g., do teacher research and self-study warrant different methods
and procedures to research that leads to formal knowledge
 Research on teaching has shifted from an examination of effective teacher behaviors to
teacher cognitions and actions. This accompanies a revised vision of the teacher from that of a
teacher standing in front of the class and transmitting information and skills to students to one
of the teacher as facilitator of learning. Teaching requires complex thought and decision making
in situations of uncertainty with diverse student bodies and variable contexts. Research on teacher
change provides a naturalistic view of change rather than a notion of change in which someone
outside the classroom mandates a change. In the naturalistic model, teachers are not recalcitrant,
but change all the time. Research on staff development that operates within the newer model of
change appears to be very effective. Research also focuses considerable attention on practical
knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge. Areas of current research interest are
constructivist teaching, teaching to individual differences (gender and multicultural), and moral
development. Methodological breakthroughs include teacher research and self-study, narrative
research, and qualitative studies of teacher change.

The Nature of Teacher Research

Reacher research is intentional and systematic inquiry done by teachers with the goals of gaining
insights into teaching and learning, becoming more reflective practitioners, effecting changes in
the classroom or school, and improving the lives of children (Cochran-Smith & Lytle 1993; 1999).
Teacher research stems from teachers’ own questions

about and reflections on their everyday classroom practice. They seek practical solutions to issues
and problems in their professional lives (Corey 1953; Stringer 2007). The major components of
teacher research are: conceptualization, in which teachers identify a significant problem or
interest and determine relevant re- search questions; implementation, in which teachers collect
and analyze data; and interpretation, in which teachers examine findings for meaning and take
appropriate actions (McLean 1995). Teacher research is systematic in that teachers follow specific
procedures and carefully document each step of the process— from formation of a question,
through data collection and analysis, to conclusions and outcomes.

Teacher research takes many forms and serves a range of purposes, but it is conducted by
teachers, individually or collaboratively, with the primary aim of understanding teaching and
learning in context and from the perspectives of those who live and interact daily in the classroom
(Meier & Henderson 2007; Zeichner 1999). These studies thus provide unique insider perspectives
on meaningful issues in early care and education settings. A preschool or primary grade teacher,
an infant/toddler caregiver, a family child care provider, or a home visitor begins an inquiry by
asking a genuine question about the work in which she or he is engaged with children and
families. Research questions can begin simply enough: “Should we allow pretend gunplay in any
circumstances?” “How can
I use storytelling to build literacy among bilingual preschoolers?” “What is it about me or my
caregiving that helps me build securely attached relationships with toddlers?” Teacher researchers
learn about themselves as teachers as they try to understand children’s learning.

Let’s take a more detailed look at the teacher research process. After defining the problem
or interest, a teacher may draw upon a combination of theory and intuition, experience and
knowledge of children, observation and reflection, and perhaps the experiences of valued
colleagues to develop relevant questions and assumptions (hypotheses). These questions develop
gradually after careful observation and deliberation about why certain things happen in the
classroom. Questions are not formed with the goal of quick-fix solutions, but rather involve the
desire to understand teaching or children’s learning in profound ways. Information (data) is
collected through multiple means, which might include doing formal and informal observation,
conducting interviews, collecting artifacts, or keeping a journal, to name a few. Assumptions may
be reformed or reconstructed by gathering and analyzing evidence. Ultimately, discoveries are
used to further reflect on and address the original problem, and the cycle of inquiry continues as
the teacher lives out the process in the classroom. This process, often messier and more
disorderly than may be implied here, is nonetheless a process of reflective inquiry as shown in
“The Cycle of Inquiry.”

Because the word research is often

The Cycle of Inquiry associated with the use of rigorous scientific
methods, the term inquiry often has been
2. develop questions and preferred. However, the distinction between
examine assumptions teacher research and conventional outsider
research about teaching is less about
methodology and more about the very
1. identify prob- 3. gather data
nature of educational practice (Anderson &
lem of meaning
Herr 1999). According to Dewey ([1933]
1985), education is
4. analyze data
6. take action
best practiced as inquiry, and teacher
research employs the “scientific approach” to
inquiry. While some teachers regard inquiry
5. interpret data
as a natural part of their everyday work in
the classroom (e.g., Paley 1981), some
teachers collaborate with university researchers while teaching full time in their classroom or
center, contributing insights to the questions under investigation (e.g., Booth & Williams 1998;
Charlesworth & DeBoer 2000; Miller 1990; Nicholls & Hazzard 1993; Stremmel & Hill 1999).
Whether reflecting on experiences in the classroom or systematically

studying an issue, teachers are often in the best position to ask and answer questions about
children and learning.
Children are at the forefront of teacher research. The studies are usually designed to help teachers
gain new ways of seeing children, develop deeper understandings of children’s feelings and
growth, and become more responsive to children. Children’s voices are heard through their own
words and gestures, photos, drawings, and any other ways by which they are best portrayed.

As teachers begin to observe closely, they see children’s development played out in their own
unique classroom contexts, always influenced by the potentially overlapping cultures of home and
school lives. Unlike with conventional educational research, children and families are not just the
subjects of research; they are participants and often co-researchers. In this way teacher research
is participatory, inclusive of differences, and democratic in nature.

Teachers who research their classrooms are systematic and deliberate in their use of observation
and reflection to make sense of what they see and experience. Reflection involves a teacher’s
deliberate scrutiny of his or her own interpretive point of view, which is rooted in personal and
formal theories, culturally learned ways of seeing, and personal core values. What distinguishes
teacher research from teaching reflectively is the commitment to a disciplined method for gather-
ing and analyzing data, and that the research can be publicly shared (Borko et al. 2007).

Although the questions and reflections teacher researchers explore are specific to their own
classrooms, they enable teachers to relate particular issues to theories of teaching and learning
via documentation and analysis; hence, teacher research links theory with practice (Bullough &
Gitlin 2001). Teacher researchers attempt to create new knowledge (or what may be called local
knowledge) about teaching and learning that will contribute to improving classroom practice.

Teacher research and action research are often used interchangeably in the literature, the latter
being the preferred term in Britain (Cochran-Smith & Lytle 1993). Action research is broadly
defined as a reflective process of progressive problem solving undertaken by individuals working
with others as part of a community of practice to improve the way they address issues and solve
problems. It is employed in many disciplines and organizations outside of education, such as by
scientists or business leaders. As Meier and Henderson note (2007), not all teacher research is
action research, although teacher research frequently shares the goal of some type of action to
improve practice. Teacher research also flourishes when it is lodged within a supportive network
of colleagues and men- tors and becomes a collaborative activity.

Teacher research examples

The following brief examples illustrate the range of formats, teacher questions, and
methodologies that might be used in early childhood teacher research. More examples of and
information about teacher research can be found in this journal.
Example 1

Friendships: A critical incident study of two children

A teacher of toddlers presents a photo chronology of two children’s social interactions as they
use the classroom environment to promote their friendship. Six photos taken over two months
show critical incidents in the children’s budding friendship.

The teacher adds anecdotes to accompany the photos. She also includes her analysis of how
this research has increased her under- standing of how the toddlers’ nonverbal communication
within the environment impacts their relationship.

Example 2

Improving environments with voices and images of families

A Spanish/English bilingual teacher at a state-subsidized center serving a Latino population finds

ways to make her center more homelike and comfortable for children and their families. She
writes vignettes of her mother’s history as a teacher in rural Mexico and offers a narrative of how
this relates to her own personal growth as a preschool teacher.

These family memoirs help her understand and explore the kinds of changes she wants to make
in the classroom environment and why.

She documents the impact of the changes by recording conversations with families about
their feelings on the environment’s redesign and with photos of the children and their
families as they interact in the new environment.

Example 3

Understanding teaching through memories

A Filipina American teacher reflects on her English language learning as a first-grader and what
it was like to attend parent conferences with her Tagalog-speaking parents. In both English and
Tagalog, she tells a story of childhood shame and pride as her mother and teacher talked
together. She uses her writing to consider how she supports English learners and their families
in her own classroom.

Example 4

Seeing links through a home-based program

A home-based visitor from Early Head Start records and transcribes dialogues between a few
parents and children with whom she works to evaluate an emergent literacy curriculum she has
created. These transcripts allow her to document the effects of her intervention.

She sees results in parenting skills built through positive, low- stress opportunities for parent and
child to interact over books and writing. Using these experiences, she argues that home-based
pro- grams offer families a powerful way to bridge home and school, as literacy practices become
part of normal home life and parents see themselves as their child’s first teachers.

Example 5

Children’s behavior prompts a valuable metaphor

A veteran preschool teacher working in an inclusive classroom for transitional kindergartners finds
a group of boys having persistent trouble concentrating during circle time. She begins taking field
notes on the children’s behavior and writes vignettes, which she shares with her colleagues. From
these comes a metaphor of the Rolodex card file (as in “OK, how do I respond to this challenge?
Let’s see . . .” [flip, flip, flip]).

Using this metaphor allows her to shift her relationship with one capable child as she sees her
own unintended rigidity. Instead of acting on how she thinks he should behave (“He can do
this!”), she attends

to his actual needs, which shifts his behavior and lets him build self- regulatory skills.

Narrative inquiry

Narrative inquiry, an important form of teacher research, is a process of studying and

understanding experience through storytelling or narrative writing. Information is gathered for
research through stories. The researcher then writes a narrative of the experience. “Humans are
storytelling organisms who, individually and collectively, lead storied lives. Thus, the study of the
narrative is the study of the ways humans experience the world” (Connelly & Clandinin 1990, 2).
Those engaged in narrative inquiry seek ways to enrich and transform lived experiences for
themselves and others. The process of story living and telling, and reliving and retelling, are
central themes in narrative inquiry. Stories are a powerful way to sharpen our inquiry skills,
bringing us closer to moments and incidents

of learning both for children and for ourselves. Teachers make a conscious and deliberate effort
to embed stories into daily observations of children at work and play and to use stories as a way
to reflect and change their teaching. In the process, they can experience shifts and changes in
their identities, shifts that create changes in the way they see themselves as teachers or see
children as learners.

In inquiry, teacher researchers use field notes, interviews, journals, letters, oral stories, and
autobiographical memories when collecting and representing their data. Two good examples are
“Understanding teaching through memories” in this article and another article in VOP, “Exploring
the Forest: Wild Places in Childhood.” In the latter study, Anna Golden incorporates memories of
her own childhood and work as an artist with stories of the children’s and teachers’ explorations
and understanding of the importance of natural places to young children.

There are connections between narrative inquiry and action research primarily in that both are
focused on change and action (Connelly & Clandinin 2006; Pushor & Clandinin 2009). For
example, both narrative inquiry and action research can bring to light practitioner knowledge
gained through the inquiry process. In particular, narrative inquiry enables practitioner
researchers to tell the stories of how they have taken action to improve their situations by
improving their own learning (McNiff 2007). Through telling their stories, they gain insights into
what they are doing and why they are doing it. The process provides critical “points of contact”
for deepening the curriculum, improving the quality of adult- child interactions, expanding
opportunities for play, and seeing more effective ways to observe children and use these
reflections for increasing teacher knowledge.

Perhaps nothing is more important than keeping track of the stories of who we are and who has
influenced us along the way. As Connelly and Clandinin (1990) note, narrative inquiry produces
a mutually constructed story out of the lives of both researcher and participants. It is through our
shared stories that we become fully known to ourselves and others, and see new possibilities for
educational change.

How do teachers benefit from doing teacher research?

Through teacher research, teachers have an opportunity to shape their professional development
and to validate, affirm, and improve their practice. In every teacher research project, the voice
or perspective of the teacher is as important as that of the children. Giving voice to an idea is
taking ownership. As Ritchie states:

Investigating their own questions, rather than waiting for someone to tell them what to do,
empowers teachers to generate their own knowledge about “what works” in teaching and
learning. Teachers who conduct research are engaging in ongoing, professional learning
embedded in the workplace. It encourages them to be reflective and adopt a questioning stance
toward teaching and learning—what Bob Fecho 92004) calls critical inquiry pedagogy. Teachers
who improve classroom teaching/learning through their inquiries become more accomplished
practitioners. And, accomplished practitioners have a positive impact on student learning. In
addition, the knowledge generated from classroom-based research can inform local policy
decisions, by providing the evidence to back up teachers’ claims about best practices. (2011)

As this book explores in Part II, teacher research benefits teachers, other professionals, and the
field of early childhood education as a whole by providing an inside view of the diversity of
teaching and learning in early education settings. When teachers undertake research, they
deepen and improve their teaching relationships with children and with one another as
professionals. The process offers an innovative approach to strengthening the professional
development of early childhood professionals.

References

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/teacher-research

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080430767024530

https://www.naeyc.org/resources/pubs/vop/about-teacher-
research#:~:text=Teacher%20research%20is%20intentional%2C%20systematic,teachers'%20
own%20questions%20and%20seeks

https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-
shared/downloads/PDFs/resources/pubs/Nature%20of%20Teacher%20Research.pdf

https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-
shared/downloads/PDFs/resources/pubs/Nature%20of%20Teacher%20Research.pdf

Anderson, G., & K. Herr. 1999. The new paradigm wars: Is there room for rigorous practi-
tioner knowledge in schools and universities? Educational Researcher 28 (5): 12–21.

Booth, C., & K.C. Williams. 1998. Research partners: A new look at faculty and classroom
teachers. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education 19 (3): 285–92.

Borko, H., D. Liston & J.Whitcomb. 2007. Genres of empirical research in teacher educa- tion.
Journal of Teacher Education 58 (1): 3–11.

Bullough, R.V., & A.D. Gitlin. 2001. Becoming a student of teaching: Linking knowledge produc-
tion and practice. 2d ed. New York: Routledge Falmer.

Charlesworth, R., & B.B. DeBoer. 2000. An early childhood teacher moves from DIP to DAP:
Self-Study as a useful research method for teacher researcher and university pro- fessor
collaboration. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education 21 (2): 149–54.
Cochran-Smith, M., & S. Lytle. 1993. Inside/outside: Teacher research and knowledge. New
York: Teachers College Press.

Cochran-Smith, M., & S.L. Lytle. 1999. The teacher research movement: A decade later.

Educational Researcher 28 (7): 15–25.

Connelly, F.M., & D.J. Clandinin. 1990. Stories of experience and narrative inquiry. Educa- tional
Researcher 19 (5): 2-14.

Connelly, F.M., & D.J. Clandinin. 2006. Narrative inquiry. In Handbook of complementary
methods in education research, 3d ed., eds. J.L. Green, G. Camilli & P. Elmore, 477–87.
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Corey, S.M. 1953. Action research to improve school practices. New York: Teachers College
Bureau of Publications, Columbia University.

Dewey, J. [1933] 1985. How we think, a restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the
educa- tive process. Boston: Heath.

Fecho, B. 2004. Is this English? Race, language, and culture in the classroom. New York:
Teach- ers College Press.

Hankins, K.H. 1998. Cacophony to symphony: Memoirs in teacher research. Harvard Edu-
cational Review 68 (1): 80–95.

McLean, J. 1995. Improving education through action research: A guide for administrators and
teachers. The Practicing Administrator’s Leadership Series: Roadmaps to Success. Thou- sand
Oaks, CA: Corwin.

McNiff, J. 2007. My story is a living educational theory. In Handbook of narrative inquiry:

Mapping a methodology, ed. D.J. Clandinin, 308–29. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Meier, D.R., & B. Henderson. 2007. Learning from young children in the classroom: The art and
science of teacher research. New York: Teachers College Press.

Miller, J. 1990. Creating spaces and finding voices: Teachers collaborating for empowerment.

Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Nicholls, J.G., & S.P. Hazzard. 1993. Education as adventure: Lessons from the second grade.
New York: Teachers College Press.
Paley, V.G. 1981. Wally’s stories. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Pushor, D., & D.J. Clandinin. 2009. The interconnections between narrative inquiry and action
research. In The Sage handbook of educational action research, eds. S. Noffke & B. Somekh,
290–300. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Ritchie, G. Teacher research. Accessed October 12, 2011. www.teacherscount.org/topic/ topic-

ritchie.shtml.

Stremmel, A.J., & L.T. Hill. 1999. Towards multicultural understanding: A reflective jour- ney. In
Affirming diversity through democratic conversations, eds. V.R. Fu & A.J. Stremmel, 141–55.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Stringer, E.T. 2007. Action research. 3d ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Zeichner, K. 1999. The new scholarship in teacher education. Educational Researcher 28 (9): 4–
15.

Copyright © 2012 by the National Association for the Education of Young Children. See
Permissions and Reprints online at www.naeyc.org/yc/permissions

Permissions: Excerpt from “Teacher research,” by G. Ritchie, available online at

www.teacherscount. org/topic-ritchie.shtlm, is used with permission of TeachersCount.org
(www.teacherscount.org)

Lesson 3- Action Research

What Is Action Research?

A succinct definition of action research appears in the workshop materials we use at the
Institute for the Study of Inquiry in Education. That definition states that action research is a
disciplined process of inquiry conducted by and for those taking the action. The primary reason
for engaging in action research is to assist the “actor” in improving and/or refining his or her
actions.

Practitioners who engage in action research inevitably find it to be an empowering

experience. Action research has this positive effect for many reasons. Obviously, the most
important is that action research is always relevant to the participants. Relevance is guaranteed
because the focus of each research project is determined by the researchers, who are also the
primary consumers of the findings.
 Perhaps even more important is the fact that action research helps educators be more
effective at what they care most about—their teaching and the development of their students.
Seeing students grow is probably the greatest joy educators can experience. When teachers
have convincing evidence that their work has made a real difference in their students' lives, the
countless hours and endless efforts of teaching seem worthwhile.

The Action Research Process

Educational action research can be engaged in by a single teacher, by a group of colleagues

who share an interest in a common problem, or by the entire faculty of a school. Whatever the
scenario, action research always involves the same seven-step process. These seven steps, which
become an endless cycle for the inquiring teacher, are the following:

1. Selecting a focus
2. Clarifying theories
3. Identifying research questions
4. Collecting data
5. Analyzing data
6. Reporting results
7. Taking informed action

Step 1 - Selecting a Focus

The action research process begins with serious reflection directed toward identifying a
topic or topics worthy of a busy teacher's time. Considering the incredible demands on today's
classroom teachers, no activity is worth doing unless it promises to make the central part of a
teacher's work more successful and satisfying. Thus, selecting a focus, the first step in the
process, is vitally important. Selecting a focus begins with the teacher researcher or the team of
action researchers asking:

What element(s) of our practice or what aspect of student learning do we wish to investigate?

Step 2 - Clarifying Theories

The second step involves identifying the values, beliefs, and theoretical perspectives the
researchers hold relating to their focus. For example, if teachers are concerned about increasing
responsible classroom behavior, it will be helpful for them to begin by clarifying which approach—
using punishments and rewards, allowing students to experience the natural consequences of
their behaviors, or some other strategy—they feel will work best in helping students acquire
responsible classroom behavior habits.

Step 3 - Identifying Research Questions

 Once a focus area has been selected and the researcher's perspectives and beliefs about
that focus have been clarified, the next step is to generate a set of personally meaningful research
questions to guide the inquiry.

Step 4 - Collecting Data

Professional educators always want their instructional decisions to be based on the best
possible data. Action researchers can accomplish this by making sure that the data used to justify
their actions are valid (meaning the information represents what the researchers say it does)
and reliable (meaning the researchers are confident about the accuracy of their data). Lastly,
before data are used to make teaching decisions, teachers must be confident that the lessons
drawn from the data align with any unique characteristics of their classroom or school.

To ensure reasonable validity and reliability, action researchers should avoid relying on
any single source of data. Most teacher researchers use a process called triangulation to enhance
the validity and reliability of their findings. Basically, triangulation means using multiple
independent sources of data to answer one's questions. Triangulation is like studying an object
located inside a box by viewing it through various windows cut into the sides of the box. Observing
a phenomenon through multiple “windows” can help a single researcher compare and contrast
what is being seen through a variety of lenses.

When planning instruction, teachers want the techniques they choose to be appropriate
for the unique qualities of their students. All teachers have had the experience of implementing
a “research-proven” strategy only to have it fail with their students. The desire of teachers to use
approaches that “fit” their particular students is not dissimilar to a doctor's concern that the
specific medicine being prescribed be the correct one for the individual patient. The ability of the
action research process to satisfy an educator's need for “fit” may be its most powerful attribute.
Because the data being collected come from the very students and teachers who are engaged
with the treatment, the relevance of the findings is assured.

For the harried and overworked teacher, “data collection” can appear to be the most
intimidating aspect of the entire seven-step action research process. The question I am repeatedly
asked, “Where will I find the time and expertise to develop valid and reliable instruments for data
collection?”, gives voice to a realistic fear regarding time management. Fortunately, classrooms
and schools are, by their nature, data-rich environments. Each day a child is in class, he or she
is producing or not producing work, is interacting productively with classmates or experiencing
difficulties in social situations, and is completing assignments proficiently or poorly. Teachers not
only see these events transpiring before their eyes, they generally record these events in their
grade books. The key to managing triangulated data collection is, first, to be effective and efficient
in collecting the material that is already swirling around the classroom, and, second, to identify
other sources of data that might be effectively surfaced with tests, classroom discussions, or
questionnaires.
Step 5 - Analyzing Data

Although data analysis often brings to mind the use of complex statistical calculations, this is
rarely the case for the action researcher. A number of relatively user-friendly procedures can help
a practitioner identify the trends and patterns in action research data. During this portion of the
seven-step process, teacher researchers will methodically sort, sift, rank, and examine their data
to answer two generic questions:

• What is the story told by these data?

• Why did the story play itself out this way?

By answering these two questions, the teacher researcher can acquire a better
understanding of the phenomenon under investigation and as a result can end up producing
grounded theory regarding what might be done to improve the situation.

Step 6 - Reporting Results

It is often said that teaching is a lonely endeavor. It is doubly sad that so many teachers
are left alone in their classrooms to reinvent the wheel on a daily basis. The loneliness of
teaching is unfortunate not only because of its inefficiency, but also because when dealing with
complex problems the wisdom of several minds is inevitably better than one.

The sad history of teacher isolation may explain why the very act of reporting on their
action research has proven so powerful for both the researchers and their colleagues. The
reporting of action research most often occurs in informal settings that are far less intimidating
than the venues where scholarly research has traditionally been shared. Faculty meetings,
brown bag lunch seminars, and teacher conferences are among the most common venues for
sharing action research with peers. However, each year more and more teacher researchers are
writing up their work for publication or to help fulfill requirements in graduate programs.
Regardless of which venue or technique educators select for reporting on research, the simple
knowledge that they are making a contribution to a collective knowledge base regarding
teaching and learning frequently proves to be among the most rewarding aspects of this work.

Step 7 - Taking Informed Action

Taking informed action, or “action planning,” the last step in the action research process,
is very familiar to most teachers. When teachers write lesson plans or develop academic
programs, they are engaged in the action planning process. What makes action planning
particularly satisfying for the teacher researcher is that with each piece of data uncovered (about
teaching or student learning) the educator will feel greater confidence in the wisdom of the next
steps. Although all teaching can be classified as trial and error, action researchers find that the
research process liberates them from continuously repeating their past mistakes. More important,
with each refinement of practice, action researchers gain valid and reliable data on their
developing virtuosity.

Three Purposes for Action Research

As stated earlier, action research can be engaged in by an individual teacher, a collaborative
group of colleagues sharing a common concern, or an entire school faculty. These three different
approaches to organizing for research serve three compatible, yet distinct, purposes:

• Building the reflective practitioner

• Making progress on schoolwide priorities
• Building professional cultures

Building the Reflective Practitioner

When individual teachers make a personal commitment to systematically collect data on

their work, they are embarking on a process that will foster continuous growth and development.
When each lesson is looked on as an empirical investigation into factors affecting teaching and
learning and when reflections on the findings from each day's work inform the next day's
instruction, teachers can't help but develop greater mastery of the art and science of teaching.
In this way, the individual teachers conducting action research are making continuous progress
in developing their strengths as reflective practitioners.

Making Progress on Schoolwide Priorities

Increasingly, schools are focusing on strengthening themselves and their programs

through the development of common focuses and a strong sense of esprit de corps. Peters and
Waterman (1982) in their landmark book, In Search of Excellence, called the achievement of
focus “sticking to the knitting.” When a faculty shares a commitment to achieving excellence with
a specific focus—for example, the development of higher-order thinking, positive social behavior,
or higher standardized test scores—then collaboratively studying their practice will not only
contribute to the achievement of the shared goal but would have a powerful impact on team
building and program development. Focusing the combined time, energy, and creativity of a
group of committed professionals on a single pedagogical issue will inevitably lead to program
improvements, as well as to the school becoming a “center of excellence.” As a result, when a
faculty chooses to focus on one issue and all the teachers elect to enthusiastically participate in
action research on that issue, significant progress on the schoolwide priorities cannot help but
occur.

Building Professional Cultures

Often an entire faculty will share a commitment to student development, yet the group
finds itself unable to adopt a single common focus for action research. This should not be viewed
as indicative of a problem. Just as the medical practitioners working at a “quality” medical center
will hold a shared vision of a healthy adult, it is common for all the faculty members at a school
to share a similar perspective on what constitutes a well-educated student. However, like the
doctors at the medical center, the teachers in a “quality” school may well differ on which specific
aspects of the shared vision they are most motivated to pursue at any point in time.

Schools whose faculties cannot agree on a single research focus can still use action
research as a tool to help transform themselves into a learning organization. They accomplish
this in the same manner as do the physicians at the medical center. It is common practice in a
quality medical center for physicians to engage in independent, even idiosyncratic, research
agendas. However, it is also common for medical researchers to share the findings obtained from
their research with colleagues (even those engaged in other specialties).

School faculties who wish to transform themselves into “communities of learners” often
empower teams of colleagues who share a passion about one aspect of teaching and learning to
conduct investigations into that area of interest and then share what they've learned with the
rest of the school community. This strategy allows an entire faculty to develop and practice the
discipline that Peter Senge (1990) labeled “team learning.” In these schools, multiple action
research inquiries occur simultaneously, and no one is held captive to another's priority, yet
everyone knows that all the work ultimately will be shared and will consequently contribute to
organizational learning.

Reference

http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/100047/chapters/What-Is-Action-
Research%C2%A2.aspx

TASKS

Below is sample template for your Research Proposal IMRAD type. Fill-out all the necessary
parts.

Date Completed:
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL OF ASIA AND
January 10, 2021
THE PACIFIC
College of Education Signature of Proponents
Alimannao Hills, Peñablanca, Cagayan

Proponents Last Name First Name MI

Ferrera Jan-Jan A.

Pamittan Gema B.
 Dela Cruz Joshua D.

Field of BSEd-III Filipino

Specialization

Research Deskriptib-Analitik
Method/Desig
n

Research Paggamit ng balbal na antas ng wika ng mga mag-aaral sa ISAP

Topic

Working
Title:
Diskriminasyon sa paggamit ng balbal na antas ng wika
(as proposed
by the
proponent)

Approved Paggamit ng balbal na antas ng wika ng mga mag-aaral sa ISAP

Title:

(as redirected
by the research
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References Valmoria, S.E., Jose, A.M., & Viernes, S.R. Ang pinakamababang Antas ng Wika: Mga Salitang
Balbal. Polytechnic University of the Philippines (PUP). https://www.docsity.com/en/ang-
(APA Style) pinakamababang-antas-ng-wika-mga-salitang-balbal/4200073/

Noval, Arnel. (2021). Pag-usbong ng balbal na pananalita bilang modernong wika ng kabataan:
Isang pagsusuri. International Journal of Research Studies in Education. 10. 1-12.
10.5861/ijrse.2020.5069.

Pinon, L. (2017) Ang epekto ng mga salitang balbal sa mga mag-aaral ng asignaturang Filipino
sa mga piling kurso : Isang pag-aaral. https://prezi.com/uwedxx_m_woe/ang-epekto-ng-mga-
salitang-balbal/?fallback=1
 Aldaca, B. B. & Villarin, I. J. (2012). Communication in Filipino academics: reference and book
of exercises in Filipino 1, tertiary level [Komunikasyon sa akademikong Filipino: batayan at
sanayang-aklat sa Filipino 1, antas-tersyarya]. Maxcor Publishing House Inc.

Mapa, K.K. (MAEd) 1, Marbella, F.D. (PhD) 2. (2019) Impluwensiya ng Midya sa Pag-Aaral ng
Wika. Asia Pacific Journal of Multidisciplinary Research Vol. 7 No.1, 33-44

Gallego, Kristina. (2016). Gallego - Isang pagsusuri sa korpus ukol sa pagbabago ng Wikang
Filipino, 1923-2013.

Blanch, A. (2012). PARE: Hayag at Lingid na Panawagan.

http://austinblanch.blogspot.com/2012/01/pare-hayag-at-lingid-na-panawagan.html

Bendal, R. (2018) Katuturan ng wika. https://web.facebook.com/notes/rene-bendal/katuturan-ng-

wika/523424134701313/?_rdc=1&_rdr

Nibalvos, Ian. (2019). Ang Wika sa Pampublikong Espasyo: Isang Pag-aaral sa Tanawing
Pangwika ng Maynila.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332258560_Ang_Wika_sa_Pampublikong_Espasyo_I
sang_Pag-aaral_sa_Tanawing_Pangwika_ng_Maynila

Ibay, Rey Mark. (2021). Kakayahan ng mga Guro sa Filipino: Susi sa Pagpapayaman ng
Kaalaman sa Gramatika ng mga Mag-aaral.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348349990_Kakayahan_ng_mga_Guro_sa_Filipino_
Susi_sa_Pagpapayaman_ng_Kaalaman_sa_Gramatika_ng_mga_Mag-aaral

Manaol, J. (2014). Ang Gramatika at ang Retorika. https://prezi.com/0shbedkdmiea/ang-

gramatika-at-ang-retorika/

Theoretical/C Ang konseptwal na balangkas ng pag-aaral na ito ay ginamitan ng input-process-output

onceptual model. Inilalahad ng input frame ang demograpikong profayl ng mga taga-tugon tulad ng
Framework
pangalan, edad, kasarian, kurso, at katayuan sa buhay. Ang process frame ay tumutukoy sa
hakbang na gagawin ng mananaliksik ukol sa pagkuha, pag-oobserba, at pag-aanalisa ng mga
datos sa pamamagitan ng serbey questionnaire sa pagkalap ng impormasyon at resulta. Ang
 output frame ay sumasaklaw sa mga epekto at impluwensiya ng paggamit ng Balbal na mga salita
ng mga mag-aaral sa International School of Asia and the Pacific.

Review of Lokal na Literatura

Literature

(Synoptic and Ayon sa pag-aaral ng mga mag-aaral ng Polytechnic University of the Philippines
Argumentative
(2013), ang mga Pilipino raw ay mahilig mag-imbento at manghiram ng mga salita mula sa mga
)
banyagang lengguwahe. At isa na nga dito ang mga salitang balbal na hiniram mula sa iba’t ibang

wika ng mga tao, na pinalitan ang bigkas o di naman kaya ay binago depende sa gamit ng mga

salita.

Binanggit naman ni Ocampo (2013), na ang salitang balbal ay naging bahagi na ng

bokabularyong Filipino na tumutugon sa kinakailangan ng lipunan. Masasabing ang wikang ito

ay pampersonal na pakikipagkomunikasyon at tinatawag ding “salitang kalye” (halaw sa

Estanislao et al., 2018).

Nakita naman sa pag-aaral ng mga mag-aaral mula sa San Sebastian College at

Dominican College (2013), na hindi basehan ang kasarian, edukasyon ng magulang, trabaho at

ang pook ng tirahan ng mga magulang para hindi matuto ang mga kabataan na gumamit ng

salitang balbal. Ito ay nagpapatunay lamang na ang lahat ay maaaring gumamit at matuto ng

salitang balbal, kahit pa ang mga mag-aaral sa kolehiyo na nag-aaral ng mga asignaturang may

kinalaman sa wika. Dagdag pa nila na ang mga salitang balbal ay itinuturing na personal na

pakikipagkomunikasyon sa lahat ng antas o uri ng pamumuhay sa isang lipunan. Ang paggamit

ng mga salitang ito ay isang mabisang paraan ng mga magulang upang makasabay o makasunod

sa pakikipag-ugnayan sa kanilang mga anak.

Ayon naman kay Noval (2021), ang kumbinasyong pamaraan ng pagkabuo ng mga

salitang balbal ay sa pamamagitan ng pagbabaligtad at pagdaragdag, pagpapaikli at pagdaragdag,

pagpapaikli at pagbabaligtad, panghihiram at pagpapaikli at panghihiram at pagdaragdag.

Kaugnay nito, binanggit din niya na ang salitang balbal ang pinakadinamiko sa lahat ng antas ng
wika sa kadahilanang ang usong salita sa kasalukuyan ay malalaos o mapapalitan naman sa

madaling panahon. (Aldaca at Villarin, 2012)

Ayon naman kay Gallego (2016), “Ang noo’y itinuturing na “balbal” na wika ay

maaaring maging istandard sa paglipas ng ilang panahon. Hindi mapipigilan ang pagbabago

sapagkat bahagi ito ng buhay ng anumang wika.” Ang mga pagbabagong ito ay dahilan kung

bakit ang lahat ay kinakailangan maging bukas ang isipan sa pagtanggap at pagkilala sa mga

pagbabagong panlipunan. Sinabi pa niya na sa kabila ng mga istandard na pinanghahawakan

tungkol sa wika, sa kabila ng hindi magandang pagtingin sa mga porma at salitang “balbal,” sa

kabila ng konsepto ng “puro” at “bulok” na anyo ng wika, mistulang namamayani ang pagiging

pagkamalikhain at daynamiko nito. Maaaring sa simula’y itinuturing ang isang salita, anyo, o

istilo bilang “balbal” at iniiwasan sa mga akdang pang-akademiko, propesyunal, o pampantikan,

kung madalas naman ang paggamit sa mga ito, papasok at papasok ito sa istandard na anyo ng

wika. Hindi maitatatwang malaki ang ambag ng mass media sa pagdikta kung ano ang istandard

sa hindi, at sa tulong nito, ang minsang maituturing na “balbal” na porma ng wika ay maaaring

umiral bilang istandard na porma sa hinaharap.

Samanatala, sa pag-aaral naman ni Noval (2021), sa kanyang pananaliksik na

pinamagatang “Pag-usbong ng balbal na pananalita bilang modernong wika ng kabataan: Isang

pagsusuri,” pinag-aralan at tinukoy niya ang klasipikasyon ng pamaraan at estruktura ng mga

makabagong salitang balbal sa kasalukuyang panahon at binigyan niya ito ng pagpapakahulugan

sa pamamagitan ng pagpapakita ng talahanayang nasa ibaba,

Talahanayan 1

Paraan at estruktura ng pagkabuo ng mga makabagong salitang balbal sa kasalukuyan

Estruktura ng Pagkabuo ng Salitang Balbal Mga Salita Kahulugan

Pagbabaligtad lodi (P1,2,6,7,11) idol

erpat (P3) father

werpa (P5,6)
power

abab (P5)
baba/bibig

nosi (P6) sino

petmalu (P5,6,7,11,13) malupet

bayu (P11)
uyab/kasintahan

imal (P9)
lami/masarap

yeko ar (P10) okey

lang

Paggamit ng Akronim SML (P3,7,13) share mo lang

SKL (P7) share

ko lang

LOL laugh
out loud

P.S. (P13) pahabol na

salita

Pagpapalit-pantig jowa (P8) asawa

juntis (P8) buntis

shofo (P6,9)
gwapo

shufa (P7,9)
gwapa/maganda

Kombinasyon angatch (P1,11) tanga/laging

sablay

gora tara
na

sinetch (P1) sino

charlangs (P1) joke lang

 aketch (P1) ako

beshy (P1,2,7,11,)
bestfriend

shudi abas (P2,5,10) wag

mag-ingay

aw na dutch (P2,5,10) walang

pera

nanatch (P2) lahat

yadz (P3,7,12) babae

siszum (P3)
kapatid na babae

gorabels (P4,11) tara n

gotch na oks (P4) tulog

na ako

ikal (P4,12) lalaki

mudrakels (P4) nanay

siszt (P4,5)
kapatid

mars (P6)
kumare

shookt (P8) takot

Inilalahad niya sa talahanayan 1 na ang pamaraan at estruktura ng mga salitang balbal

sa kasalukuyan ay klasipikasyon na pagbabaligtad, paggamit ng akronim, pagpapalit pantig at

kombinasyon. Ipinalulutang ng talahanayan 1 na ang estrukturang pabaligtad ay kinabibilangan

ng mga salitang lodi, erpat, werpa, abab, nosi, petmalu, bayu, imal at yeko ar. Sa kabilang banda

ang mga salitang SML, SKL, LOL at P.S. ay maikaklasipika sa paggamit ng akronim. Samantala,

ang mga salitang jowa, juntis, shofo at shufa naman ay mauuri na pagpapalit pantig na mga salita

habang ang mga salitang angatch, gora, sinetch, charlangs, aketch, beshy, shudi abas, aw na

dutch, nanatch, yadz, siszum, gorabels, gotch na oks, ikal, mudrakels, siszt, mars at shookt naman
 ay nasa estrukturang kombinasyon. Sa madaling salita, ang nangungunang paraan ng pagkakabuo

ng mga salitang balbal sa kasalukuyan ay sa pamamagitan ng kombinasyon.

Binanggit pa niya ang pahayag ni Zorc (1993), na ang mga Pilipinong mananalita raw

ay nakamit ang mga ganitong uri ng salita sa pamamagitan ng “paghiram sa ibang lenggwahe,

pagbigay ng bagong kahulugahan sa mga dating salita, paggawa ng orihinal na salita, o paggamit

ng mga numero na magsisilbing in-group code.” Sinabi rin niya na ang mga ito ay nagmumula

sa iba't ibang pangkat ng tao na lumilikha nito tulad ng mga salita na mag-aaral, drayber, artista,

military at mga bakla na nagiging laman o nakasulat sa iba't ibang magasin at pahayagan.

Sinabi naman ni Gallego (2016), na ang natural na aspeto ng anumang wika ay

nagbabago, at ang pagpigil sa pagbabago ay mismong pagpigil sa buhay ng wika. Makikita na

ang wika ay patuloy na nagbabago at patuloy na umuunlad sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng social

media dahil dito nakakasalamuha natin ang iba't ibang klase na lenggwahe at natututo tayo ng

mga bagong salita sa paggamit ng social media.

Kaugnay nito ay binanggit naman ni Nibalvos (2019), na mahalaga ang pag-aaral sa

mga tanawing pangwika upang mailahad ang kasalukuyang kalagayan ng wika sa mga

pampublikong espasyo. Sa tulong nito, masusubaybayan ang sigla at paglaganap ng wika upang

maiwasan ang pagkamatay nito gaya ng ibang wika at mga wikain sa iba't ibang panig ng mundo

Dagdag pa ni Ferrer (2019), dapat maging aktibo sa pagbabasa ang mga mag-aaral

ng iba’t ibang panitikang Filipino upang mas lumawak ang kanilang nalalaman sa mga

bokabularyo. Mainam din para sa kanila ang pagbabasa ng diksyunaryong Filipino para sa mas

ikauunlad pa ng kanilang bokabularyo.

Ayon kina Cruz at Bisa (2014), higit na mabisa at masining ang pagpapahayag kung isasaalang-
alang ang higit na natural na estruktura ng wika, wastong gamit ng mga salita at ang paraan ng
paghahanay ng mga salita sa isang pahayag.

Research Paglalahad ng Suliranin

Questions/
Objective
 Ang pangunahing layunin ng panimulang pag-aaral na ito ay upang malaman ang epekto

at impluwensiya ng paggamit ng balbal na antas ng wika sa mga mag-aaral ng International

School of Asia and the Pacific.

Naglalayon din ang pananaliksik na ito na masagot ang mga sumusunod na mga katanungan:

1. Ano ang demograpikong profayl ng mga mag-aaral na gumagamit ng balbal na antas ng wika

batay sa mga sumusunod:

1.1 Pangalan (Optional)

1.2 Edad

1.3 kasarian

1.4 kurso

1.5 Kabuuang sweldo ng magulang buwan-buwan

1.6 trabaho ng magulang

2. May masama o mabuti bang epekto ang antas na wikang balbal sa mga mag aaral?

3. Anu-Ano ang mga salik na maaring makaapekto sa resulta ng pananaliksik?

4. Ano ang mayroon sa balbal na salita at bakit ito ay madalas na gamitin ng mga mag-aaral sa

pakikipag-usap?

5. Makatutulong ba ang wikang balbal sa pag-unlad ng ating lipunan?

6. Paano nakaiimpluwensiya ang mga balbal na salita sa mga mag-aaral?

Significance Sa pananaliksik na ito, masinsinang pag-aaral ang gagawin ng mga mananaliksik upang
of the
Proposed malaman ang epekto at impluwensiya ng paggamit ng balbal na mga salita sa mga mag-aaral ng
Study
International School of Asia and the Pacific.
 Ang magiging resulta ng pag-aaral na ito ay makakabenipeta sa mga sumusunod:

Mag aaral. Makikinabang ang mga mag aaral sa pananaliksik na ito sapagkat binibigyang linaw,

katuturan at kawastuhan ang paggamit ng antas na wikang balbal upang sa pakikipag-usap ay

makapagpahayag ng malinaw at nauunawaan ng lahat.

Mga guro. Sa pamamagitan ng pananaliksik na ito ay mabibigyan ng wastong kaalaman ang mga

guro na siyang magiging gabay nila sa pagtuturo at magamit sa wastong paraan nila sa pagtuturo

sa loob ng klasrum.

Magulang. Ang mga magulang ay maaring makinabang sa pananaliksik na ito sa kadahilanang

magagamit nila ito upang paalalahanan ang kanilang mga anak sa wastong pakikipag-usap sa

mga taong kanilang makakasalamuha.

Sa administrasyon. Makakatulong ang pananaliksik na ito upang hikayatin ang mga mag aaral

na gumamit ng tamang paraan ng pakikipagkomunikasyon sa mga taong kanilang makakausap,

sa pamamagitan nito ay tataas ang moral ng instutusyon at makatutulong upang makahikayat pa

ng mga mag-aaral.

Research INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

Simulacrum/
• Mga mag- • Ang positibong
Research aaral sa epekto o
Paradigm ISAP impluwensiya ng
• Serbey
• Edad paggamit ng balbal
Questionnaire
• Kasarian na mga salita sa mga
• Kurso • Obserbasyon mag-aaral sa ISAP.
• Katayuan sa • Analysis • Ang negatibong
buhay epekto o
impluwensiya ng
paggamit ng balbal
na mga salita sa mga
mag-aaral sa ISAP.

Feedbac

k
 Larawan 1. Ang paradimo ng Pag-aaral

Methods Disenyo ng Pananaliksik

Ang disenyo ng pananaliksik na ito ay sa paraang deskriptib-analitik na pamamaraan.

Ang nasabing pamamaraan ay ginamit upang ilarawan ang epekto ng antas na balbal na wika sa

pag-aaral ng mga mag aaral sa ISAP. Mailalarawan din ang relasyon ng respondantes sa epekto,

kaangkupan at kahalagahan nito sa kanilang pag-aaral.

Lokal at Populasyon ng Pananaliksik

Ang mga respondente ng pananaliksik na ito ay tatlumpung (30) piniling estudyante mula sa

kursong Hospitality Management (5), Social Work (5), Criminology (5), Computer Engineering

(5), Customs Administration (5) at College of Arts, Sciences, and Teacher Education (5) ng

International School of Asia and the Pacific (ISAP), Penablanca Campus.

Instrumento ng Pananaliksik

Ang instrumentong gagamitin sa pagkuha ng datos sa mga mag-aaral ay ang sarbey kwestyuneyr

gamit ang makabagong teknolohiya sa pamamagitan ng google forms. Ang kwestyuneyr na

ginamit ay nahahati sa dalawang bahagi. Una, ang sosyodemograpikong estado ng respondente,

ang ikalawang bahagi naman ay nasa Likert-type scale upang masukat ang pananaw ng mga

respondente hinggil sa epekto ng paggamit ng mga salitang balbal sa piling mag-aaral ng ISAP.

Paraan ng Paglikom at Pagsusuri ng Datos

Matapos ang presentasyon at pagpapatibay ng panukalang pananaliksik, hinihingi ng

mga mananaliksik ang pagpapatibay ng kanilang guro sa kanilang asignaturang Research

Education 1 na si Gng.Pauline Mamansag ng ISAP na pamatnugutan ang nasabing pag aaral.

Matapos itong mapagtibay, ang mga ay mananaliksik ay magbibigay ng mga kwestyuneyr sa

 pamamagitan ng makabagong teknolohiya sa tulong ng google forms sa kanilang mga

respondentes.

SEMI-FINAL COVERAGE

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to:

a) Examine the process in researching;

b) Conceptualize a research topic in language that would lead to problem conceptualization;

c) Examine elements of research; and

d) Identify possible topics in language classroom research Distinguish between related literature
and related studies.

CHAPTER 3- The Research Process

Lesson 1 Selection and Identification of a Research Problem

Choosing a Research Problem / How to Begin

Do not assume that identifying a research problem to investigate will be a quick and easy task!
You should be thinking about it at the start of the course. Your professor leaves it up to you to
choose a topic and you only have to obtain permission to write about it before beginning your
investigation. Here are some strategies for getting started for each scenario.

I. How To Begin: You are given the topic to write about

Step 1: Identify concepts and terms that make up the topic statement. For example,
your professor wants the class to focus on the following research problem: “Is the European
Union a credible security actor with the capacity to contribute to confronting global terrorism?"
The main concepts is this problem are: European Union, security, global terrorism, credibility
[hint: focus on identifying proper nouns, nouns or noun phrases, and action verbs in the
assignment description].

Step 2: Review related literature to help refine how you will approach examining the
topic and finding a way to analyze it. You can begin by doing any or all of the following:
reading through background information from materials listed in your course syllabus; searching
the USC Libraries Catalog to find a recent book on the topic and, if appropriate, more
specialized works about the topic; conducting a preliminary review of the research literature using
multidisciplinary databases such as ProQuest or subject-specific databases from the "By
Subject Area" drop down menu located above the list of databases.

Choose the advanced search option in the database and enter into each search box the main
concept terms you developed in Step 1. Also consider using their synonyms to retrieve additional
relevant records. This will help you refine and frame the scope of the research problem. You will
likely need to do this several times before you can finalize how to approach writing about the
topic.

NOTE: Always review the references from your most relevant research results cited by the
authors in footnotes, endnotes, or a bibliography to locate related research on your topic. This is
a good strategy for identifying important prior research about the topic because titles that are
repeatedly cited indicate their significance in laying a foundation for understanding the problem.
However, if you’re having trouble at this point locating relevant research literature, ask a
librarian for help!

ANOTHER NOTE: If you find an article from a database that's particularly helpful, paste it
into Google Scholar, placing the title of the article in quotes. If the article record appears, look
for a "cited by" reference followed by a number [e.g., cited by 37] just below the record. This
link indicates how many times other scholars have subsequently cited that article in their own
research since it was first published. This is an effective strategy for identifying more current,
related research on your topic. Finding additional cited by references from your original list of
cited by references helps you navigate through the literature and, by so doing, understand the
evolution of thought around a particular research problem.

Step 3: Since social science research papers are generally designed to encourage you to develop
your own ideas and arguments, look for sources that can help broaden, modify, or
strengthen your initial thoughts and arguments. For example, if you decide to argue that
the European Union is ill prepared to take on responsibilities for broader global security because
of the debt crisis in many EU countries, then focus on identifying sources that support as well
as refute this position. From the advanced search option in ProQuest, a sample search would
use "European Union" in one search box, "global security" in the second search box, and adding
a third search box to include "debt crisis."

There are least four appropriate roles your related literature plays in helping you
formulate how to begin your analysis:
· Sources of criticism -- frequently, you'll find yourself reading materials that are relevant to
your chosen topic, but you disagree with the author's position. Therefore, one way that you can
use a source is to describe the counter-argument, provide evidence from your own review of the
literature as to why the prevailing argument is unsatisfactory, and to discuss how your approach
is more appropriate based upon your interpretation of the evidence.

· Sources of new ideas -- while a general goal in writing college research papers in the social
sciences is to examine a research problem with some basic idea of what position you'd like to
take and on what basis you'd like to defend your position, it is certainly acceptable [and often
encouraged] to read the literature and extend, modify, and refine your own position in light of
the ideas proposed by others. Just make sure that you cite the sources!

· Sources for historical context -- another role your related literature plays in formulating
how to begin your analysis is to place issues and events in proper historical context. This can help
to demonstrate familiarity with developments in relevant scholarship about your topic, provide a
means of comparing historical versus contemporary issues and events, and identifying key people,
places, and events that had an important role related to the research problem.

· Sources of interdisciplinary insight -- an advantage of using databases like ProQuest to

begin exploring your topic is that it covers publications from a variety of different disciplines.
Another way to formulate how to study the topic is to look at it from different disciplinary
perspectives. If the topic concerns immigration reform, for example, ask yourself, how do studies
from sociological journals found by searching ProQuest vary in their analysis from those in political
science journals. A goal in reviewing related literature is to provide a means of approaching a
topic from multiple perspectives rather than the perspective offered from just one discipline.

NOTE: Remember to keep careful notes at every stage or utilize a citation management system
like EndNotes or RefWorks. You may think you'll remember what you have searched and where
you found things, but it’s easy to forget or get confused. Most databases have a search history
feature that allows you to go back and see what searches you conducted previously as long as
you haven't closed your session. If you start over, that history could be deleted.

Step 4: Assuming you have done an effective job of synthesizing and thinking about the results
of your initial search for related literature, you're ready to prepare a detailed outline for your
paper that lays the foundation for a more in-depth and focused review of relevant research
literature [after consulting with a librarian, if needed!]. How will you know you haven't done an
effective job of synthesizing and thinking about the results of our initial search for related
literature? A good indication is that you start composing the outline and gaps appear in how you
want to approach the study. This indicates the need to gather further background information
and analysis about the research problem.
II. How To Begin: You are provided a list of possible topics to choose from

Step 1: I know what you’re thinking--you look at the list and think, which topic from this list my
professor has given me will be the easiest to find the most information on? An effective instructor
should never include a topic that is so obscure or complex that no research is available to examine
and from which to design an effective study. Instead of searching for the path of least resistance,
choose a topic that you find interesting in some way, or that is controversial and that you have a
strong opinion about, or has some personal meaning for you. You're going to be working on your
topic for quite some time, therefore, choose one that you find interesting and engaging or that
motivates you to take a position. Embrace the opportunity to learn something new!

Once you’ve settled on a topic of interest from the list, follow Steps 1 - 4 listed above
to further develop it into a research paper.

NOTE: It’s ok to review related literature to help refine how you will approach analyzing a topic,
and then discover that the topic isn’t all that interesting to you. In that case, you can choose
another from the list. Just don’t wait too long to make a switch and, of course, be sure to inform
your professor that you are changing your topic.

III. How To Begin: Your professor leaves it up to you to choose a topic

Step 1: Under this scenario, the key process is turning an idea or general thought into a topic
that can be configured into a research problem. When given an assignment where you choose
the research topic, don't begin by thinking about what to write about, but rather, ask yourself the
question, "What do I want to understand or learn about?" Treat an open-ended research
assignment as an opportunity to gain new knowledge about something that's new or exciting to
you related to the overall subject of the course.

Step 2: If you lack ideas, or wish to gain focus, try any or all of the following strategies:

· Review your course readings, particularly the suggested readings, for topic ideas. Don't
just review what you've already read but jump ahead in the syllabus to readings that have not
been covered yet.

· Search the USC Libraries Catalog for a good, recently published book and, if
appropriate, more specialized works related to the discipline area of the course [e.g., for the
course SOCI 335: Society and Population, search for books on "population and society"].
· Browse through some current journals in your subject discipline. Even if most of the
articles are not relevant, you can skim through the contents quickly. You only need one to be the
spark that begins the process of wanting to learn more about a topic. Consult with a
librarian and/or your professor about the core journals within your subject discipline.

· Think about essays you have written for past classes, other courses you have taken, or
academic lectures and programs you have attended. Thinking back, what interested you the
most? What would you like to know more about? Place this in the context of the current course
assignment.

· Search online media sources, such as CNN, the Los Angeles Times, Huffington
Post, Fox News, or Newsweek, to see if your idea has been covered by the media. Use this
coverage to refine your idea into something that you'd like to investigate further, but in a more
deliberate, scholarly way based on a particular problem that needs to be researched.

Step 3: To build upon your initial idea, use the suggestions under this tab to
help narrow, broaden, or increase the timeliness of your idea so you can write it out as a
research problem.

Once you are comfortable with having turned your idea into a research problem,
follow Steps 1 - 4 listed in Part I above to further develop it into a research paper.

Alderman, Jim. "Choosing a Research Topic." Beginning Library and Information Systems
Strategies. Paper 17. Jacksonville, FL: University of North Florida Digital Commons, 2014;
Alvesson, Mats and Jörgen Sandberg. Constructing Research Questions: Doing Interesting
Research. London: Sage, 2013; Chapter 2: Choosing a Research Topic. Adrian R. Eley. Becoming
a Successful Early Career Researcher. New York: Routledge, 2012; Answering the Question.
Academic Skills Centre. University of Canberra; Brainstorming. Department of English Writing
Guide. George Mason University; Brainstorming. The Writing Center. University of North
Carolina; Chapter 1: Research and the Research Problem. Nicholas Walliman. Your Research
Project: Designing and Planning Your Work. 3rd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications,
2011; Choosing a Topic. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Coming Up With
Your Topic. Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College; How To Write a Thesis
Statement. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana
University; Identify Your Question. Start Your Research. University Library, University of
California, Santa Cruz; The Process of Writing a Research Paper. Department of History.
Trent University; Trochim, William M.K. Problem Formulation. Research Methods Knowledge
Base. 2006.
Resources for Identifying a Topic

Resources for Identifying a Research Problem

If you are having difficulty identifying a topic to study or need basic background information, the
following web resources and databases can be useful:

· CQ Researcher -- a collection of single-themed public policy reports that provide an

overview of an issue. Each report includes background information, an assessment of the current
policy situation, statistical tables and maps, pro/con statements from representatives of opposing
positions, and a bibliography of key sources.

· New York Times Topics -- each topic page collects news articles, reference and archival
information, photos, graphics, audio and video files. Content is available without charge on
articles going back to 1981.

· Opposing Viewpoints In Context -- an online resource covering a wide range of social

issues from a variety of perspectives. The database contains a media-rich collection of materials,
including pro/con viewpoint essays, topic overviews, primary source materials, biographies of
social activists and reformers, journal articles, statistical tables, charts and graphs, images,
videos, and podcasts.

· PolicyFile -- provides access to U.S. foreign and domestic research reports, position
papers, and other documents from think tanks, research institutes, and agencies. Contents are
updated weekly.

Writing Tip

Don't be a Martyr!

In thinking about a research topic to study, don't adopt the mindset of pursuing an esoteric or
incredibly complicated topic just to impress your professor but that, in reality, does not have any
real interest to you. Choose a topic that is challenging but that has at least some interest to you
or that you care about. Obviously, this is easier for courses within your major, but even for those
nasty prerequisite classes that you must take in order to graduate [and that provide an additional
tuition revenue for the university], try to apply issues associated with your major to the general
topic given to you. For example, if you are an international relations major taking a philosophy
class where the assignment asks you to apply the question of "what is truth" to some aspect of
life, you could choose to study how government leaders attempt to shape truth through the use
of propaganda.
Don't assume or jump to the conclusion that your
topic is too narrowly defined or obscure just because your
initial search has failed to identify relevant research. We
have Librarians who could locate and critically assess
information. This knowledge will help you develop
strategies for analyzing existing knowledge in new
ways. You may consult with a librarian before you
consider giving up on finding information about the topic
REFERENCE:

https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/researchproblem

Lesson 2 - Purpose of a Literature Review

A Literature Review is a systematic and comprehensive analysis of books, scholarly articles and
other sources relevant to a specific topic providing a base of knowledge on a topic. Literature
reviews are designed to identify and critique the existing literature on a topic to justify your
research by exposing gaps in current research. This investigation should provide a description,
summary, and critical evaluation of works related to the research problem and should also
add to the overall knowledge of the topic as well as demonstrating how your research will fit
within a larger field of study. A literature review should offer critical analysis of the current
research on a topic and that analysis should direct your research objective. This should not be
confused with a book review or an annotated bibliography both research tools but very different
in purpose and scope. A Literature Review can be a stand-alone element or part of a larger end
product, know your assignment. Key to a good Literature Review is to document your process.

There are many different ways to organize your references in a literature review, but most reviews
contain certain basic elements.

• Objective of the literature review - Clearly describe the purpose of the paper and state
your objectives in completing the literature review.

• Overview of the subject, issue or theory under consideration – Give an overview of your
research topic and what prompted it.

• Categorization of sources – Grouping your research either historic, chronologically or

thematically.

• Organization of Subtopics – Subtopics should be grouped and presented in a logical order

starting with the most prominent or significant and moving to the least significant

• Discussion – Provide analysis of both the uniqueness of each source and its similarities
with other sources.
 • Conclusion - Summary of your analysis and evaluation of the reviewed works and how it
is related to its parent discipline, scientific endeavor or profession.

The purpose of a literature review is to:

• Provide foundation of knowledge on topic

• Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication and give credit to other
researchers
• Identify inconstancies: gaps in research, conflicts in previous studies, open questions left
from other research
• Identify need for additional research (justifying your research)
• Identify the relationship of works in context of its contribution to the topic and to other
works
• Place your own research within the context of existing literature making a case for why
further study is needed.

3 ESSENTIAL CATEGORIES

1. Simple - A simple literature review is a brief overview of the topic not necessarily purely
academic in scope and often uses popular sources (although popular sources are noted
so their weight and value can be judged) this review is often just the start of the research
process.

2. Applied - Used mostly in business, government and other professional

environments applied literature reviews are more fact finding exorcizes. Used to look at
marketability and profitability they look at change and value objectivity and accuracy in
similar projects and programs.

3. Academic - Whether stand alone or part of a paper, study, or project the Academic
Literature Review requires accuracy, quality resources, objectivity thoroughness and
quality analysis but unlike the other two styles the Academic Review requires a depth the
others do not. Academic sources not popular should be used and a summery and synthesis
of sources usually within a conceptual framework.
VARIOUS TYPES OF LITERATURE REVIEWS
 This lesson has shown you the importance of
related literature. It shows the originality and
relevance of your research problem. Specifically, your
research is different from other researchers. It
demonstrates your preparedness to complete the
research.

REFERENCES

https://uscupstate.libguides.com/c.php?g=627058&p=4373978
https://uscupstate.libguides.com/c.php?g=627058&p=4389968
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t2d7y_r65HU&feature=emb_title
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NiDHOr3NHRA&feature=emb_title
Lesson 3 Research Design Methods and Procedures

What is the difference between Research Design and Research Method?

Research design is a plan to answer your research question. A research method is a strategy
used to implement that plan. Research design and methods are different but closely related,
because good research design ensures that the data you obtain will help you answer your
research question more effectively.

Leedy (1997:195) defines research design as a plan for a study, providing the overall framework
for collecting data. MacMillan and Schumacher (2001:166) define it as a plan for selecting
subjects, research sites, and data collection procedures to answer the research question(s). They
further indicate that the goal of a sound research design is to provide results that are judged to
be credible. For Durrheim (2004:29), research design is a strategic framework for action that
serves as a bridge between research questions and the execution, or implementation of the
research strategy.

Schwardt (2007:195) defines research methodology as a theory of how an inquiry should proceed.
It involves analysis of the assumptions, principles and procedures in a particular approach to
inquiry. According to Schwardt (2007), Creswell and Tashakkori (2007), and Teddlie and
Tashakkori (2007), methodologies explicate and define the kinds of problems that are worth
investigating; what constitutes a researchable problem; testable hypotheses; how to frame a
problem in such a way that it can be investigated using particular designs and procedures; and
how to select and develop appropriate means of collecting data.

Which research method should I choose?

It depends on your research goal. It depends on what subjects (and who) you want to
study. Let's say you are interested in studying what makes people happy, or why some students
are more conscious about recycling on campus. To answer these questions, you need to make a
decision about how to collect your data. Most frequently used methods include:

1. Observation / Participant Observation

2. Surveys

3. Interviews

4. Focus Groups

5. Experiments
6. Secondary Data Analysis / Archival Study

7. Mixed Methods (combination of some of the above)

One particular method could be better suited to your research goal than others, because the data
you collect from different methods will be different in quality and quantity. For instance, surveys
are usually designed to produce relatively short answers, rather than the extensive responses
expected in qualitative interviews.

What other factors should I consider when choosing one method over another?

Time for data collection and analysis is something you want to consider. An observation or
interview method, so-called qualitative approach, helps you collect richer information, but it takes
time. Using a survey helps you collect more data quickly, yet it may lack details. So, you will
need to consider the time you have for research and the balance between strengths and
weaknesses associated with each method (e.g., qualitative vs. quantitative).

In real daily life, human beings are exposed all the

time to decision making, and before doing it,

we are evaluating pros and cons and we face an

internal fight between what we must do (objective) and
what we want to do (subjective), but finally, what comes to
be the best option for any field, is to find a balance between
both and always have in mind that the core principle must
be clear.

Reference

https://guides.lib.vt.edu/researchmethods/design-method

TASKS (Class Standing)

Relate to practice:

Based from the lesson which type of literature review has somehow has helped you to
craft your Review of Related Literature?

Self-Reflection:
 Since you are a Pre-Service Teacher, how are you going to apply the elements in literature
review? State in a coherent way or order how you would like the elements in the literature review
mentioned to manifest in your research.

FINAL COVERAGE

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of these weeks, the pre-service teacher (PST)
should be able to:

a. employ the guidelines and principles writing and presenting the Research report;
b. submit the whole Research Paper from Chapters 1 – 3 together with the preliminary
pages;
c. attend the virtual Proposal defense of for their chapters 1 to 3; and
d. display positive use of ICT and proper presentation skills to organize and to present the
research report.

INSTITUTIONAL RUBRIC FOR PROPOSAL DEFENSE:

Direction for the Panelist: Please put a check mark in the appropriate numerical
value that corresponds to your decision using the following legends.

Arbitrary Value Statistical Limit Descriptive Percentage (%)

Equivalent

5 4.20-5.00 Excellent 95-100

4 3.40-4.19 Very Satisfactory 90-94

3 2.60-3.39 Satisfactory 85-89

2 1.80-2.59 Fair 80-84

1 1.00-1.79 Poor 75-79

5 4 3 2 1 TOTAL

Capsule Form

1. Manuscript is complete (Chapters 1-3

together with the preliminary pages and
appendices)
 2. Contents are arranged accordingly.

Attendance and Presentation

1. Researchers have complete attendance

2. Researchers used appropriate attire during

presentation
Question and Answer

1. Researchers defended Chapters 1 to 3

logically or with sense
2. Researchers have answered all the
questions confidently
Overall Impact of the Research

1. The research has a significance to the pool

of knowledge
2. The propose research presented is timely

For the whole duration of Final term, students will

finalize their work by sending, checking and editing of their
manuscripts until their proposal defense.

After the proposal defense, students need to revise

some parts according to the recommendation and
suggestions of the Research Panelists.

After finalizing their research copies, the students to

prepare for the next semester for their Final Defense.