ACAS II Bulletin June 2016 | N°20

Low level events

WELCOME Principles of TCAS Operations at Low Altitudes
This issue of ACAS II Bulletin is RA Inhibitions: To prevent collisions with terrain, Resolution Advisories (RAs) are
dedicated to operations at low altitudes. inhibited based on radio (radar) altimeter reported heights AGL (Above Ground
Level) as follows:
In proximity to the ground, TCAS II - Increase Descent RA: 1550 feet (±100 feet) AGL
operates somewhat differently; for - Descend RA: 1100 feet (±100 feet) AGL
instance radio (radar) altimeter is used - All RAs: 1000 feet (±100 feet) AGL.
as an additional source of altitude
information and some alerts are
Hysteresis values of ±100 feet ensure that the inhibition state does not oscillate
inhibited. As it is important that TCAS II
rapidly should the aircraft be flying over hilly terrain.
limitations at low altitudes are
understood, we will cover the key
points in the opening article and
illustrate some of them with six
operational events.

The first four events serve as a reminder

that below the alert inhibition altitudes,
and also against non-altitude reporting
aircraft, the pilot will not benefit from
the full collision avoidance protection
normally offered by TCAS II. That
includes small drones (Remotely Piloted
Aircraft Systems) which normally are not
transponder equipped.

In the next two events at low altitude,

TCAS II provided the pilot with collision
resolution advice. In one event the pilot
responded to the RA, which resulted in Aural annunciations inhibition: All TCAS aural annunciations are inhibited below
an increased vertical separation from 500 feet (±100 feet) AGL.
co-altitude to 500 feet. However, in the
other event the pilot did not respond to Moreover, when a GPWS (Ground Proximity Warning System), TAWS (Terrain
the RA and the spacing between the Avoidance Warning System) or wind shear detection warning have been activated,
aircraft dropped to 0.7 NM and 75 feet. TCAS will automatically be placed into TA-only mode and Traffic Advisory (TA) aural
annunciation is suppressed. TCAS will remain in TA-only mode for 10 seconds after
Stanislaw Drozdowski the GPWS/TAWS or wind shear warning is removed. During this 10 second
EUROCONTROL suppression period, the TA aural annunciation is not suppressed.
Email: acas@eurocontrol.int
Radio altimeter: Aircraft’s radio altimeter provides inputs to TCAS to inhibit RAs
when the aircraft is in proximity to the ground. If there is no valid radar altimeter
input, TCAS will continue to function but it will set the ground level as –100,000 feet.
Consequently, none of the low-altitude inhibitions will be activated.

continued on the next page

1 Principles of TCAS Operations at Low Altitudes

2 Event 1: No RA at low altitude  Event 2: Non-altitude reporting aircraft
3 Event 3: Encounter with a drone  Event 4: Encounter with a glider  Event 5: RA followed
4 Event 6: Visual acquisition and RA not followed  Key learning points this issue
Principles of TCAS Operations at Low Altitudes
continued

Timing of alerts: The time thresholds for generation of alerts are shorter at lower altitudes. For instance, between 1000 and
2350 feet AGL, the nominal times for generation of TAs and RAs are, 25 and 15 seconds, respectively, while the same times
between 2350 feet AGL and FL 50 are 30 and 20 seconds.

Alerts against non-altitude reporting aircraft: TCAS II only tracks Mode S and Mode A/C altitude reporting aircraft. Aircraft
equipped with only Mode A transponders are neither tracked nor detected by TCAS II because TCAS II does not use Mode A
interrogations.

If the intruding aircraft is equipped with a Mode A/C transponder but does not provide altitude information (Mode C), this aircraft
will be tracked as a non-altitude reporting target using range and bearing information. It will be shown on the TCAS traffic display
when own aircraft is below FL155. Neither a data tag nor a trend arrow will be shown with the traffic symbol for an aircraft that is
not reporting altitude. TAs will be generated against non-altitude reporting aircraft when the range test for TA generation is
satisfied. Non-altitude reporting aircraft are deemed to be at the same altitude as own aircraft (i.e. the worst case scenario).

Event 1: No RA at low altitude

A light vintage aircraft (T-6J Harvard) is on a VFR flight and receives a clearance to cross the
control zone of an airfield at 1200 feet. At the same time, a Fokker F27 is approaching the
same airfield from the north-east side and is cleared for straight-in approach runway 21. The
light aircraft is instructed to report one minute before crossing overhead the airfield.

When the light aircraft pilot calls the tower to notify that the crossing is imminent, the
controller instructs him to remain well east of the airfield and clear of final runway 21 because
of the Fokker on final approach.

The pilot acknowledges the instruction and informs the tower controller that he is making a
right-hand turn. The approach controller who is watching the developing situation on the
radar screen anticipates that both tracks will cross and tells the tower controller about it. The
tower controller instructs the light aircraft pilot to turn east immediately. The pilot confirms
that he is already turning right. The tower controller mistakenly believes that the light aircraft
is a helicopter and anticipates that it will make much tighter turns.

In the meantime the crew of the Fokker is transferred to the tower frequency and can hear the
conversation between the tower controller and the pilot of the light aircraft. The Fokker
continues its ILS approach and they receive traffic information. When the Fokker is passing
through 1350 feet (approximately 875 feet AGL) a TA is generated.
Learning points:
At the Closest Point of Approach the distance between the two aircraft was
0.14 NM at almost the same altitude. The generation criteria for an RA were met
• All RAs are inhibited below 900 feet AGL.
but since the Fokker has descended below 900 feet AGL, the RA was inhibited.
• TAs are inhibited below 500 feet AGL.
Neither of the pilots saw the other aircraft.

Event 2: Non-altitude reporting aircraft

A Piper PA-28 pilot prepares his aircraft, which is not TCAS II equipped, for VFR flight in the vicinity of the airfield (located virtually
at sea-level). His aircraft is equipped with a Mode A/C transponder. The pilot sets an SSR code at the transponder, but does not
switch it to “Alt position” (Mode C). Consequently, the transponder does not transmit any altitude reports. The Piper pilot departs
and after a while he climbs to 2700 feet without a clearance, which brings him into
controlled airspace. At the same time a TCAS II equipped Jetstream J32 is approaching
the airfield and is cleared to 1700 feet.

When both aircraft are about to cross and the Jetstream passes 2800 feet descending,
its TCAS generates a TA (“Traffic, traffic”) against the Piper. The Jetstream pilots, based
on the information on the TCAS traffic display, get visual contact with the threat.
Assessing the traffic proximity, the Jetstream pilots stop the descent and climb to
3200 feet. The aircraft pass with a vertical spacing of 400 feet and horizontal spacing of
0.2 NM. The Piper pilot could see the Jetstream only after the aircraft had passed each
other.

Although the aircraft got very close, TCAS II did not generate an RA as the Piper pilot
had not switched the transponder to Mode C.

ACAS II Bulletin June 2016

2 continued on the next page
Event 2: Non-altitude reporting intruder
continued

Learning points:
• If equipped, all aircraft shall operate altitude reporting transponders at all times. Without altitude reports TCAS, as well as ATC
safety nets, will not provide appropriate alerts.
• An intruder whose transponder is not providing altitude information may cause TAs to be generated on other aircraft;
however, neither data tag nor a trend arrow will be displayed. Both aircraft are deemed to be at the same altitude.

Event 3: Encounter with a drone Event 4: Encounter with a glider

An Embraer 195 is conducting an ILS approach to its A Dash 8 is descending towards its destination heading
destination. While descending through 2500 feet south. At 3000 feet (approximately 2900 feet AGL) as they
(approximately 2150 feet AGL) the crew observes a drone turn onto a westerly heading to intercept the ILS localizer, a
(quadcopter) passing at 20-40 metres from their aircraft. glider passes 300-500 feet underneath them heading north.
The Dash 8 crew could only see the glider when it was below
their aircraft and had no previous information of glider
The drone has not been shown on the TCAS traffic display operations in the area.
and no TCAS alert has been generated. Generally, small
drones (or Remoted Piloted Aircraft Systems) are not
transponder equipped and, therefore, will not be detected by As the glider was not transponder equipped, it has not been
TCAS or visible to ATC on secondary radars. Moreover, due to shown on the TCAS traffic display and no TCAS alert has been
their small size, they will remain undetected by ATC primary generated against it.
radars.

Learning point:
TCAS will only detect intruders that
are equipped and operating an
altitude reporting transponder.

Event 5: RA followed
A Beechcraft Bonanza, which is not TCAS equipped, is on an
instrument rating check flight while a Beechcraft King Air,
which is TCAS II equipped, is conducting an instrument
training flight in the vicinity of the same airfield (located
virtually at sea-level). Mistakenly, ATC clears both aircraft to
1700 feet. Initially, the aircraft are separated horizontally and
although their tracks initially cross there is sufficient spacing.
Eventually, following their planned turns, they fly on opposite
headings with a horizontal spacing of 0.6 NM.

The King Air gets a TA and soon after a “Descend, descend” RA.
The pilot responds immediately to the RA, starts a descent and
reports the TCAS manoeuvre to ATC. The King Air descends
approximately 500 feet before it gets a “Clear of conflict”. The
Bonanza pilot reported seeing the King Air passing below
while the King Air crew never acquired the intruder visually.

Learning point:
RAs when followed promptly provide mitigation against the risk of midair collision.

ACAS II Bulletin June 2016

3
Event 6: Visual acquisition and RA not followed
A Fokker 100 is approaching its destination (elevation approximately 1700 feet)
and is cleared for a visual approach. At the same time, a Eurocopter EC145
helicopter receives a clearance to cross the control zone at the altitude of
4500 feet. Traffic information is given to both crews. The F100 is TCAS II equipped
while the EC145 has a traffic awareness system installed (it generates information
about nearby traffic but does not generate any resolution advice).

The EC145 pilot acquires the F100 visually based on the information from the TAS
system and subsequently informs ATC that he will cross behind the F100 and
initiates a 40° left turn.

Due to hazy visibility and direct sunlight the F100 co-pilot has some difficulties
acquiring the EC145 visually. When he can see the helicopter he reports to ATC
“…the helicopter is in sight and we're avoiding”. At this time, the F100 is passing
through 5000 feet on final and the spacing between the aircraft is 2.8 NM and
675 feet. At approximately the same time as visual contact is established by the
F100 co-pilot, TCAS generates a TA. Subsequently, the F100 commander (pilot
flying), reduces the rate of descent.

Just 16 seconds later, as the distance between the aircraft further erodes
to 1.8 NM and 288 feet, TCAS on F100 issues a “Climb, climb” RA. The F100
commander decides not to comply with the RA and continues
descending as the co-pilot has visual contact with the helicopter which is
observed turning north.

After 12 seconds, the Climb RA is reversed to “Descend, descend NOW”. At

this time the aircraft are 1 NM and 20 feet apart. A few seconds later the
two aircraft cross with a lateral distance of 0.7 NM and an altitude
difference of 75 feet.

Subsequent analysis of this incident indicated that a correct response to

the first RA by the F100 pilot (assuming the nominal response time and
acceleration) would have given the vertical miss-distance of 579 feet.

It should also be noted that the F100 crew could not have known if the
helicopter was TCAS II equipped. Had the helicopter been equipped, it would have received a complimentary RA which, given the
opposite reaction to the initial RA by the F100 crew, would have brought the aircraft even closer.

This event bears a striking resemblance to the Event 2 (“Visual acquisition and RA not followed”) covered in ACAS Bulletin no. 18 of
May 2015. It needs to be emphasized once again that avoidance
manoeuvres based on visual acquisition and, especially, manoeuvres Learning points:
contrary to the RA may not always ensure successful collision avoidance • Never manoeuvre in the opposite sense to an RA.
due to wrong traffic identification or potential responses to RAs by other • Visual assessment of traffic can be misleading.
aircraft.

Key learning points this issue:

• TCAS operates differently at low altitudes. Radio altimeter is used as an additional source of altitude information.
• Some RAs will not be issued below 1650 feet AGL and all RAs will be inhibited below 900 feet AGL.
• GPWS/TAWS alerts take precedence over TCAS RAs.
• RA will only be generated against altitude reporting intruders.
• In some circumstances TAs may be generated against non-altitude reporting aircraft.
• All RAs must be followed, even if the suspected intruder is in sight.

© June 2016 - European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation (EUROCONTROL)
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