OSSTET pedagogy

Pedagogy e-Book
(Key Notes)
OSSTET
Prepared by:
Manaswini Kar
1
Please visit VIDYA ALAYA Youtube Channel for Detailed Explanation
Highlights on CDP
Important Practice Questions
*** Important Points to Remember on Psychologists and Educationists:
1. Father of psychology: Wilhelm Wundt (German Philosopher/Psychologist)

2. Father of educational psychology: E. L Throndike (American psychologist)
➢ The learning theory which represents the original framework S-R framework
of behavioural psychology
➢ Trial and error learning theory
➢ Conducted experiment on-Cat
➢ Transfer of learning (Positive, Negative, Zero)
3. Father of behaviourism: J. B Watson (American psychologist)
4. Father of functionalism: William James (American philosopher)
5. Father of structuralism: Wilhelm Wundt
6. Father of idealism: Plato (Greek Philosopher)
7. Father of realism: Aristotle
7. Classical conditioning/Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning/Signal
Learning: Ivan Pavlov (Russian Psychologist)
Conducted experiment on: Dog
8. Operant Conditioning / Instrumental conditioning / Programmed learning:
B. F. Skinner (American Psychologist)
Conducted experiment on: Rat, Pigeon
9. Insightful Learning Theory: Kohler (German Psychologist)
Conducted experiment on: Chimpanzee
10. Social learning theory: Albert Bandura (Canadian American psychologist)
Bobo doll experiment
2
11. Discovery learning theory: Jerome Brunet (American psychologist)
12. Drive theory of learning: Clark Hull (American psychologist)
13. Hierarchy of learning by: Robert Mills Gagne (American psychologist)
14. Learning a tripolar process/Learning by doing/Father of progressive
education: John Dewey (American philosopher)
15. Hierarchy of needs by: Abraham Maslow (American Psychologist)
16. Psychosocial stages of development by: Erik Erikson (German American
Psychologist)
17. Four distinct stages of cognitive development by: Jean Piaget (Swiss
Psychologist)
18. Socio-cultural theory of cognitive development: Lev Vygotsky (Russian
Psychologist)
19. Stages of moral development: Lawrence Kohlberg (American psychologist)
20. Father of Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud (Austrian Neurologist)
21. The term Intelligence first coined by: William Stern (German psychologist)
22. The formula to derive intelligence quotient (IQ) was
given by: Lewis Terman (American psychologist)
23. The concept of MA was given by: Alfred Binet (French psychologist)
24. The first intelligence was conducted by: Binet and
Simon
25. Uni Factor Theory of intelligence:
Given by: Alferd Binet
26. Two Factor Theory of intelligence:
Given by: Charles Spearman (British psychologist)
27. Triarchic Theory of intelligence:
Given by: Sternberg (American psychologist)
3
28. Group Factor Theory of intelligence:
Given by: Thurstone (American psychologist)
29. Multi Factor Theory of intelligence:
Given by: E. L. Throndike (American psychologist)
30. Multiple intelligence:
Given by: Howard Gardner (American psychologist)
31. 3D Model of intelligence:
Given by: J p Guilford (American Psychologist)
32. Frames of mind: By Haward Gardner
33. Conditions of learning: Gagne
34. Adolescence Period of identity crisis: Erickson (German-American
psychologist)
35. Adolescence period of stress and strain: Stanley Hall (American psychologist)
36. Behaviourists: Pavlov, Skinner, Throndike, J. B Watson
37. Constructivists: Jhon Dewey, Maria Montessori, Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget,
Heinz Von Foerster, George Kelly, Jerome Bruner
38. Founder of Constructivism: Jean Piaget
39. Guestlists: Wertheimer, Koffka, Kohler
40. Chief exponents of Idealism: Socrates, Plato, Descartes, Frobel, Vedic Rishis,
Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Rabindranath Tagore, Aurobindo Ghosh
41. Pragmatists: Protagoras, Heraclitus, Gorgias, Charles S. Piers, William James,
Jhon Dewey, W. H. Kilpatrick, J. L ChildRatners
42. Naturalists: Rousseau, Bacon, Herbert Spencer, Huxley, Bernard Shaw,
Comenius
43. Realists: Aristotle, John Locke, Bertand Russell, Irasmus, Milton, Whitehead,
Cominius Rebellias, Mulcaster, Francis Bacon
4
44. Project method: W. H. Kilpatrick
45. Play way method: H. C. Cook
46. Kindergarten method: Frobel
47. Question answer method/Socratic method: Socrates
48. Lecture method: Aristotle
49. Discovery method: Bruner
50. Heuristic method: H. E. Armstrong
51. Didactic method: Maria Montessori
52. Humanistic approach / Personality Theory: Carl Roger
*** Important Definitions on Growth, Development, Adolescence, Learning
and Intelligence:
Growth:
Crow and Crow: Growth refer to structural and physiological changes
Proffit: Growth usually refers to an increase in size and number
Todd: Growth refer to increase in size
Huxley: Self manipulation of living substance
Watson and Lowery: Growth means an increase in the physical size of the whole
or any of its parts
Hurlock: Growth is change in size , in proportion disappearance of old features and
acquisition of new ones
Frank: It is the manipulation of cells i.e. growth in height and weight or it may be
changes in the particular aspects of the body or it means increase and enlargement
of body or some part of the body.
Gessel: Growth carries a more dynamic connotation which organically ties the
present with the past and directs it towards the future.
Development:
5
Peary: Development means the whole sequence of life from conception to death.
Frank: Development may imply the change in organism as a whole.
Marlow: Development refers to progressive increase in skill and capacity.
Proffit: Development is increase in complexity.
Todd: Development is a progress towards maturity.
Horlock: Progressive series of changes that occur in an orderly , predictable pattern
as a result of maturation and experience.
Libert, Poulous and Marmor: Development refers to a process of change in growth
and capability over time, as function of both maturation and interaction with the
environment.
J. E. Anderson: Development is concerned with growth as well as those changes in
behaviour which results from environmental situations
Adolescence:
Erikson: period of Identity crisis
Stanley Hall: Period of stress and strain/Period of storm and strike
A. T. Jersild: Adolescence is a span of fears during which girls and boys move
from childhood to adulthood mentally, emotionally and physically.
D. Rogers: Adolescence as a process of achieving the attitudes and beliefs needed
for effective participation in the society.
Piaget: Adolescence is the age when individuals become integrated in to the society
of adults, the age when child no longer feels that he is below the level of his elders
but equal, at least in in rights.
Bigner: Adolescence can be defined as a stage in the life cycle between 13 to 18
years of age characterized by increasing independence from adult controls, rapidly
occurring physical and psychological changes, exploration of social issues and
concerns increased focus on activities with a peer group and establishment of a basic
self-identity.
Learning:
6
Crow and crow: Learning is the acquisition of habit, knowledge, and attitude. It
involves new ways of doing things and it operates in an individual’s attempt to
overcome obstacles or to adjust to a new situation.
Skinner: Learning is the process of progressive behaviour adaptation.
Munn: To learn is to modify behaviour and experience.
M. L. Bigge: Learning may be considered as, change in insights, behaviour,
perception, motivation or combination of these.
Gardner Murphy: The term learning covers every modification in behaviour to
meet environmental requirements.
Henry P. Smith: Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or Strengthening or
weakening of old behaviour as a result of experience.
Gates: Learning is the modification of behaviour through experience and training.
J. F Travers: Learning is a process that result in the modification of behaviour.
Kingsley and R Garry: Leaning is the process by which behaviour is originated or
changes through practice or training.
Kimble: Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavioural potentiality that
occurs as a result of reinforced practice.
Colvin: Learning is the modification of our behaviour due to experiences.
J. P Guilford: Learning is any change in behaviour, resulting from behaviour.
E. A. Peel: Learning is a change in the individual following upon changes in the
environment.
Wordsworth: Any activity can be called learning so far as it develops the individual
and makes him alter behaviour and experiences different from what they would
otherwise have been.
Intelligence:
Alfred Binet: Intelligence means the capacity to judge well, reason well and to
comprehend well.
Terman: Intelligence means the ability to think in terms abstract ideas.
7
Thorndike: Intelligence means power of good response from the point of view of
truth or fact.
Stern: Intelligence is a general capacity of an individual consciously to adjust his
thinking to new requirements. It the general mental adaptability to new problems
and conditions of life.
Wagon: Intelligence is the capacity to learn and adjust to relatively new and
changing conditions.
Jean Piaget: Intelligence is the ability to adapt to one's Surroundings.
Freeman: Intelligence means the capacity to recognise one's behaviour patterns so
as to act more effectively and more appropriately in novel situations.
Garrett: Intelligence means a set of abilities demanded in the solution of problems
which require the comprehension and use of symbols i. e words, numbers, diagrams,
equations, formulas etc.
H Gardner: Intelligence is the ability to solve problems or to create products that
are valued within one or more cultural setting.
J. P Guilford: Intelligence is performing an operation on a specific type of content
to produce a particular product.
Thurstone: Intelligence considered as a mental trait, is the capacity to make
impulses focal at their early unfinished stage of formation. It is therefore the capacity
for abstraction which is an inhibitory process.
Wechsler: Intelligence means the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to
act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment.
Geddard: Intelligence means the degree of availability of one's experiences for the
solution of immediate problems and the anticipation of future one's.
Wordsworth and Marquis: Intelligence means the intellect put to use. It is the use
of intellectual abilities for handling a situation or accomplishing any task.
Origin of Important Words:
Pedagogy: originated from Greek word “Paidagogos” (Paida means child and
paidagogos means slave)
8
Adolescence: From Latin word “Adolocere” – means to grow up
Puberty: From Latin word – “Pubertas” – means the age of maturity
Grade: From Latin word Gradus means -Step
Education: From Latin word “Educare”, “Educere”, “Educatum” Means: “To

nourish”, “To lead out”, “The act of teaching” respectively
Intelligence: From Latin word “Intelligere” which means “To understand”
Curriculum: originated from Latin word “currere” - means “to run /race course”
Emotion: Derived from Latin word “emovere” means “to stir up”
Growth and Development

Growth: It is the process of physical maturation resulting an increase in size of the
body and various organs. It is quantitative in nature.
Development: According to Hurlock it is a progressive series of changes that occur

in an orderly predictable pattern as a result of maturation and experience. It is both
quantitative and qualitative in nature.
Basic Difference between
growth and development:
Quantitative Both Qualitative & Quantitative
9
All principles of development:
- it is a continuous process
- principle of individual difference
- principle of direction
A. Cephalocaudal: head to toe
B. Proximodistal: center to periphery
- principle of integration and interrelation

- principle of spiral nature
- Principle of proceeding from general to specific
- principle of uniform pattern/sequence
**** Development = Product of heredity and environment

Or
10
Development = Product of maturation and learning
Stages of development:
Infancy: 0 - 2 years
Early childhood: 2 – 6 years (sensitive period for language development)
Later childhood: 7 - 11years
Adolescence: 13 – 19 years (period of stress and strain, storm and strike by
Stanley Hall)
Adulthood: 20 years onwards
Factors affecting development:
Internal factors:
• Hereditary factor
• Biological and constitutional factor
• Intelligence
• Emotional factor
• Social nature
External factors:
11
• Environment in the womb of the mother (prenatal environment)
• Environment after birth (postnatal environment)
Factors Affecting Different Developmental Aspects

Cognitive Aspects:
Cognition: The word cognition is derived from the Latin word ‘cognoscere’, which
means ‘to know’ or ‘to recognise’ or ‘to conceptualize’.
Cognition is the mental process or action of acquiring knowledge and
understanding through thought, experience and senses.
Cognitive development:
Cognitive development is the acquisition of the ability to think, reason and problem
solving.
Cognitive development is a gradual and orderly changes by which mental processes
become more complex.
Piaget's theory of cognitive development:
Jean Piaget – Swiss Psychologist / Cognitive constructivist
Factors: maturation, experience, social interaction, equilibrium
12
Important terms:
Schema: existing knowledge/chamber of information
Assimilation: to add a new information
Accommodation: to modify the existing information
4 stages of cognitive development:
• Sensorimotor (0-2 years)
Imitation, learns through senses, object
permanence
• Preoperational (2-6 years)
Toy - age
Egocentric behaviour
Irreversible thinking
Lack of conservation
Illogical reasoning
• Concrete operational (7-11 years)
School age/play age

Logic begins
Conservation achieved
Reversible thinking
• Formal operational (11 -16 years)
Deals with abstract things
Hypothetico-deductive reasoning
13
Social Aspects:
Erickson’s Psychosocial development theory:
Erik Erikson: German-American psychologist
Given: Psychosocial stages of development
According to Erikson: Adolescence period is known as – Identity crisis
What is psychosocial development?
Personality is developed from what a person learns from social interaction.
Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order
through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood.
During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have
a positive or negative outcome for personality development.
Erikson believes that personality develops in a series of stages.
Main elements:
• Ego Identify (Conscious sense develops through social interaction)
• Sense of competence
Stages of development:
14
Moral Aspects: (Stages of Moral Development)
Given by: Lawrence Kohlberg (American psychologist)
Kohlberg’s famous: Heinz Dilemma story
KEY POINTS
• Moral reasoning, moral Dilemma

• Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work of cognitive theorist Jean
Piaget to explain the moral development of children, which he believed
follows a series of stages.
• Kohlberg defined three levels of moral development: preconventional,
conventional, and postconventional. Each level has two distinct stages.
• During the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally
controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as
parents and teachers, and they judge an action based on its consequences.
15
• During the conventional level, an individual’s sense of morality is tied to
personal and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of
authority figures, but this is now because they believe that this is necessary to
ensure positive relationships and societal order.
• During the postconventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in
terms of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some
laws are unjust and should be changed or eliminated.
• Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for its cultural and gendered bias toward
white, upper-class men and boys. It also fails to account for inconsistencies
within moral judgments.
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Level 1: Preconventional Morality
Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment)
Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange)
Level 2: Conventional Morality
Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships)
Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order)
Level 3. Postconventional Morality
Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights)
Stage 6 (Universal Principles)
16
An Image of Stages of Moral Development
(Proposed by: Lawrence Kohlberg)
17
Language Development
What is language?
Medium of communication.
***Sensitive period of language development – Early childhood period
Language and thought:
Piaget and Vygotsky’s concept:
Piaget: First thought then language
Vygotsky: First language then thought
Language Acquisition and Language Learning:
According to Noam Chomsky, Children must be born with an innate capacity
for language development.
LAD - Language Acquisition Device
Language skills:
• Listening
• Speaking
• Reading
• Writing
Stages of language development:
• Receptive stage – Observes the surroundings and tries to understand the
words and sounds
• Productive stage –
babbling (unable to produce meaningful word)
Phonemes (smallest unit of a word)
• One word stage –
Morphemes-smallest meaningful word
• Two word stage –
This type of language is also known as telegraphic speech
Birth - Crying
18
6 weeks - Cooing
6 months - Babbling
12 to 18 months - One word stage
2 years - Two word stage / Telegraphic speech
Emotional Development
Emotion: Derived from a Latin word “emovere” – Means “to stir up”
What is emotion?
Emotions are complex psychological and biological responses consisting of
subjective feelings, psychological reactions, and expressive behaviours to internal
and external stimuli.
The mental thinking or feeling of a person at a particular instant of time
knowingly or unknowingly is called emotion.
What is emotional development?
Emotional development refers to the ability to recognize, express, and manage
feelings
At different stages of life to have empathy for the feelings of others.
The core of an emotion is feelings. Emotional experiences are associated with
some instincts.
Common emotional pattern in childhood:
• Fear
• Anger
• Jealousy
• Joy
• Pleasure and delight
• Sorrow
• Curiosity
Kinds of Emotions:
1. Positive emotions:
19
Example: Love, Joy, Pleasure, Curiosity
2. Negative emotions:
Example: Fear, Anger, Jealousy
Emotional Development Develops due to;
• Maturation
• Learning
Factors affecting emotional development:
• Health and physical development
• Intelligence
• Family environment
• Social environment
• School environment
Stages of emotional development:
• During infancy
• During childhood
• During adolescence
• During adulthood
Needs and Problems at Childhood and Adolescence

Needs: Two types
1. Physiological or primary needs
2. Psycho-Social needs or Secondary needs
Psychological needs of children:
• Attention
• Acceptance
• Respect
• Belonging
• Love
20
• Achievement
• Friendship
• Need for self -expression and self-actualization
Needs of adolescents:
Physiological or primary needs:
Need for food, water, oxygen, rest, sleep etc.
Psycho-Social needs or Secondary needs:
• Need for security
• Need for love
• Need for recognition and approval
• Need for achievement
• Need for freedom and independence
• Need for self -expression and self-actualization
Role of parents and teachers in satisfying needs: The parents and teachers should
realize the needs of the adolescents and take appropriate steps to fulfil their needs.
Problems at Childhood and Adolescents:
Childhood:
• Feeding problems
• Habit disorders
• Speech problems
• Sleep problems
• Adjustment problems
• Emotional problems
• Antisocial problems
• Temper tantrum
• Excessive anxiety
• Abnormal mood swings
• Hyper reactivity
• Aggression
• School phobia
21
• Jealousy
Adolescence:
• Problems of adjustment relating to Physical growth and
development
• Problems of adjustment relating to mental development
• Problems of adjustment relating to emotional development
• Problems of adjustment relating to environment in schools
• Problems of adjustment relating to
1. Economic background of the family
2. Social background of the family
Causes of behavioural and emotional problems:
• Heredity
• Environment
• Family
• Brain disorder
• Diet
• Poverty
• Neglect
• Parental attitude
Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory

Lev Vygotsky - A Russian psychologist and also a social constructivist.
Factors involved in Vygotsky’s Theory:
• Language
• Society
• Culture
Important terms associated with Vygotsky’s Theory:
• Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
• More knowledgeable other (MKO)
22
• Scaffolding
• Peer tutoring
• Reciprocal teaching
• Co-operative learning
• Collaborative learning
• Inter-subjectivity
• Group participation
ZPD:
It is simply the area in which child is able to do something with the help of
MKO. We also called this as the area gap between what a child can do independently
and what a child can’t do.
MKO:
More knowledgeable others (MKO) are those who may be of same age group
or may be higher but having greater knowledge level and having more experience
and capacity to deal with the problem.
Scaffolding:
It’s a temporary help which is needed to improve the skill and after the child
improved the skill there is no need of scaffolding in that particular area.
Vygotsky’s concept on language:
• According to Vygotsky’s speech and thought are independent at first and
when a child will reach at the age of 3 then the speech and thought become
inter-related with each other.
• He told about 3 types of speech
1. Social speech (0-2yrs)
2. Private speech (3yrs)
***According to Piaget this is called egocentric speech.
3. Silent inner speech (7yrs)
• According to Vygotsky the basis of cognitive
23
development depends upon
a. Culture
b. social factors
c. Role of language
• He believes language develops from social interactions and it is the greatest
tool to deal the world.
• According to Vygotsky first language then thought.
• Educational Implications:
➢ The concept of scaffolding and ZPD will help the learner to construct
his knowledge with the help of social interaction, language and culture.
➢ Child will socially construct his knowledge by reciprocal teaching, co-
operative and collaborative learning.
INTELLIGENCE
“An intelligence is the ability to solve problems, or to create products, that are valued
within one or more cultural settings.” - H. Gardner
“Intelligence is the ability to adapt to one's surroundings.” - Piaget
Intelligence came from Latin word: “Intelligere”
Means: “To understand”
Frames of mind: Book by H. Gardner
Binet: French Psychologist
Spearman: British Psychologist
Lewis Terman: American psychologist
William stern: German psychologist
Sternberg: American psychologist
Erikson: German-American psychologist
Thurstone: American Psychologist
24
G. P Guilford: American Psychologist
H. Gardner: American Psychologist
The term Intelligence first coined by - William Stern
The formula to derive intelligence quotient (IQ) was given by - Lewis Terman
IQ = MA ÷ CA × 100
MA - Mental age
CA - Chronological age or actual age
The concept of MA was given by - Alfred Binet
The first intelligence was conducted by - Binet and Simon
Intelligence is associated with convergent thinking.
THEORIES OF INTELIGENCE IN BRIEF:
UNI FACTOR THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE-
Given by -Alferd Binet
He gives the concept of g-factor or general ability
TWO FACTOR THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE-
Given by -Charles Spearman
He gave the concept of g- factor and s- factor
g -factor-general ability- hereditary
s-s-factor-specific ability- can be improved by training
If the g factor is not good then s-factor can’t be improved.
TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE-
Given by - Sternberg
Practical or contextual intelligence
Creative or Experiential intelligence
25
Analytical or Components Intelligence
GROUP FACTOR THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE-
Given by - Thurstone
Spearman’s two factor theory extended to Thurston’s group factor theory
He gave seven primary mental abilities
N - Numerical
V - Verbal
S - Spatial
M - Memory
P - Perceptual
R - Reasoning
W - Word fluency
MULTI FACTOR THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE-
Given by - E. L. Throndike
Includes three types of intelligence
Social intelligence
Concrete intelligence
Abstract intelligence
These intelligences depend upon
L - Level
S - Speed
R - Range
A - Area
26
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE-
Given by - Howard Gardner
In his theory he talks about 8 types of intelligence
Naturalistic- biologist,Gardner,farmer
Bodily kinaesthetic- swimmer,dancer,athletes
Logical-mathematical- mathematicians,bankers
Spatial- builder,civil engineer,architect
Musical- singer,composer
Linguistic- poet,lawyer,writer
Intrapersonal- philosopher,scientists
Interpersonal- therapists,councellors,teacher
3D MODEL OF INTELLIGENCE-
Given by- J p Guilford
In his theory he included 3 aspects on which basis the total 180 types of intelligence
were given. These are
• Content
• Operations
• Products
CRYSTAL AND FLUID MODEL OF INTELLIGENCE-

Given by: Cattel
Fluid intelligence (heredity): can’t develop after 20
Fluid intelligence is associated with divergent thinking
27
Crystal intelligence (just like development and continues throughout life):
modified and acquired from past experiences
IQ values
IQ values Categories
140 or above genius
130-139- very superior
120-129 superior
110-119 above average
90-109 normal or average
80-89 below average
70-79 borderline or dull
50-69 moron or feeble-minded
25-49 imbecile
0-24 idiot
Learning
• Modification of behaviour through experience
Nature:
Learning is
• Active
• Goal directed
• Universal and continuous
• Adaptation or adjustment
• Improvement
• Organizing experience
• Brings behavioural changes
• Depends upon maturation and motivation
Factors affecting learning:
Personal factors:
28
Age, maturation, intelligence, attitude, interest, motivation (Two types-
“Extrinsic and Intrinsic”)
Example of Extrinsic motivation: Praise, reward, prize etc,
Example of Intrinsic motivation: Interest
Environment factors:
o Social environment
o Physical environment
Types of learning:
• Formal-From school, colleges and formal institutions
• In-formal- From family, relatives, peers, neighbours
• Non-formal-Through correspondence course/Distance course/Open
universities
Learning as a process and product:
Process:
Bipolar process:
Two poles: Teacher and students
Tripolar process: As per John Dewey
Three poles are: Teacher, Student and learning environment
Learning both Process and product
Humanistic approach:
• Given by Carl Roger-American Psychologist
• This approach mainly deals with understanding human behaviour.
• Roger gives the concept of self-theory or personality theory
Personality Theory:
Two main aspects:
29
• Organism (An individual’s entire frame of reference, i.e., both
conscious and unconscious)
• Self (aware part of experience)
• Roger also gave the concept of positive and negative self-concept.
Positive self-concept gives confidence and integrity but negative self-
concept gives unhappy and boredom.
• He also gave the concept of ideal self and real self. Ideal self means
the person you would like to be but real self means the person you
actually are.
Basic conditions of learning:
• Readiness
• Maturation
• Motivation
• Tasks and methods
Organising Learning:
• Teacher-centric
Teacher at the centre
Teacher active, student passive
• Learner-cantic
Learner active and is at the centre
Based on the principle of practicability, utility, variety and elasticity
Teacher as facilitator
Emphasis on learners need, ability and interest
• Learning-centric
Here knowledge is constructed from experiences
This approach helps in fulfilling the social needs of students.
Important Learning Theories

Classical Conditioning Theory:
Given by: Ivan Pavlov (Russian Psychologist)
Experimental Setup:
30
Details of Experiment:
• UCS: Unconditioned stimulus-food

• UCR: Unconditioned response-salivation
• CS: Conditioned stimulus-bell
• CR: Conditioned response-salivation
Experimental Findings:
• Natural stimulus (food) – natural response (salivation)
• Natural stimulus (food) + associated with bell - natural response (salivation)
• Natural stimulus (food) substituted by artificial stimulus (bell) also gives
natural response (salivation)
31
Important terms related to this theory:
• Generalisation (ସାଧାରଣୀକରଣ)
• Discrimination (ବିଭେଦିକରଣ)
• Extinction (ବିଲୁପ୍ତିକରଣ)
• Spontaneous Recovery (ସହଜ ପୁନଃପ୍ରାପ୍ତି)
Operant Conditioning Learning Theory:

• Given by B. F. Skinner (US Psychologist / Behaviourist)
• Operant conditioning:
A method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for
behavior
• Experiment conducted on rat/pigeon
Important words:
Reinforcing stimulus or Reinforcer:
Helps to increase the behaviour
o Operant conditioning is also known as instrumental conditioning or
programmed learning.
o Operant- means any active behaviour that operates upon the
environment to generate consequences.
Eg: Students Complete their homework to earn reward from teacher
Components of operant conditioning:
Reinforcement:
A kind of stimulus that aims to increase the behaviour
Punishment:
A kind of stimulus that causes to decrease the behaviour
Types:
Reinforcement: (increase behaviour)
+ve -By adding pleasant stimulus
-ve – By removing unpleasant stimulus
32
Punishment: (decrease behaviour)
+ve -By adding unpleasant stimulus
-ve – By removing pleasant stimulus
Schedules of reinforcement:
• Continuous
• Partial
1. Ratio
a. Fixed
b. Variable
2. Interval
a. Fixed
b. Variable
• Extinction
Trial and Error Learning Theory:

✓ Given by: E. L. Throndike (American Psychologist)
(Known as Father of Educational Psychology)
✓ The learning theory of Throndike represents the original S.R. Framework of
behavioral psychology.
✓ Learning is the result of associations between stimulus and response.
Trial & Error Experiment:
Experiment was conducted by putting a hungry cat in a puzzle box.
1. Motive or drive (hunger)
2. Stimulus (Food)
3. Responses (Number of responses like scratching, pulling etc.)
4. Chance success
5. Selection of proper movement
33
6. Fixation
Laws of Learning:
Primary Laws of Learning Secondary Laws of Learning
1. Law of Readiness 1. Law of primacy

2. Law of Exercise or practice
a. Law of use 2. Law of Recency
b. Law of disuse
3. Law of Effect 3. Law of intensity of stimulus
4. Law of multiple response
5. Law of Attitude
6. Law of Response by Analogy
7. Law of Associative Shifting
8. Law of Partial Activity
Bruner's Discovery Learning:

Jerome Bruner: American Psychologist, Cognitive
constructivist)
According to Bruner child is an active learner. (Just
like Piaget)
But according to Bruner child's development is
continuous but according to Piaget it is discontinuous and
proceeds through stages.
Stages of learning:
1. Enactive stage or concrete stage (Birth to 3yrs)
Movements or actions
2. Iconic stage or Pictorial stage (3-7 yrs)
34
Pictures or images
3. Symbolic stage or Abstract stage (8+ years)
Words, symbols, Languages
Important terms:
Scaffolding: Given by Bruner – Temporary support
Spiral Curriculum:
35
Gagne's Hierarchy of Learning:
R. M. Gagne: American psychologist
Book: Conditions of learning
Hierarchy of learning based on: Simple to complex approach. These are:
8. Problem solving
7. Principle learning
6. Concept learning
5. Multiple Discrimination learning
4. Verbal association learning
3. Psychomotor connection learning
2. Stimulus-Response learning
1. Signal learning
1,2,3,4: Lower-Level learnings associated with behavioural aspects
5,6,7,8: Upper-level learning associated with cognitive aspects
Social learning theory:

By: Albert Bandura
Bobo doll experiment
• People learn via observation, imitation and modelling
• Necessary conditions for effective modelling
A. Attention
B. Retention
C. Reproduction
D. Motivation
36
Insightful Learning Theory:
Kohler (German Psychologist)
Conducted experiment on: Chimpanzee
Gestaltists: Wertheimer, Koffka, Kohler
Whole is better than its part
Insight depends upon
• Intelligence
• Experience
• Learning situation
• Initial efforts
• Repetition and generalization
Teaching Methods
Methods of teaching:
1. Learner-centered
2. Teacher -centered
Learner-centered:
• Play way method
• Project method
• Heuristic method
• Experiment or Laboratory method
• Observation method
• Inductive method
• Problem-solving method
Principles of learner-centered method:

• Principle of learning by doing
37
• Principle of freedom
• Principle of activity
• Principle of purpose
• Principle of utility
• Principle of correlation
• Principle of Sociability
• Principle of interest
• Principle of reality
Teacher-centered:
• Lecture method
• Demonstration method
• Question answer method
• Story-telling method
• Deductive method
Lecture method:
Teacher centred method
• Planning the lecture:
• Purpose of the lecture:
Lecture method generally used:
• Introduction of a topic
• Revising and summarizing lessons
• Cover syllabus quickly
A good lecture must take care of:

• Time available
38
• The audience
• Subject matter
• Posture
• Appearance
• Manner
• Gesture
• Voice
• Vocabulary
• Use of AV aids and black boards
Organizing a lecture:
• Aim
• Introduction
• Body
• Demonstration, Illustrations and discussion
• Questions
• Conclusion
Demonstration method:
• Teacher centered method
Technique of demonstration:
• Planning
• Performing
• Evaluation
Characteristics of a good demonstration:

• Proper planning of the demonstration.
• Prepare lesson plan to carry out an effective demonstration.
• Suitable time and place for demonstration.
39
• Rehearsals of demonstrations.
• Proper lightning arrangements.
• Active participation of students.
Discussion method:
• Co-operative problem-solving activity
Types of discussion:
Closed group:
Example: Study group
Staff meeting
Round table
Work shop
Small group:
Class group discussion
Seminar
Role play
Case study
Large group:
Symposium
Panel
Project method:
• Child centered method
Steps:
1. Providing a situation
2. Choosing and Purposing
3. Planning
4. Executing
5. Evaluation
6. Recording
40
Important methods given by;
• Project method: W. H. Kilpatrick
• Play way method: H. C. Cook
• Kindergarten method: Frobel
• Question answer method/Socratic method: Socrates
• Lecture method: Aristotle
• Discovery method: Bruner
• Heuristic method: H. E. Armstrong
• Didactic method: Maria Montessori
Teaching Learning Materials & Its Classification

Types of teaching learning materials:
Visual aids:
• Projected aids
Example: film projector , overhead projector, opaque projector, slide projector,
Epidiascope
• Non-Projected aids
Example:Black board, Bulletin board, flannel board, magnetic chalkboard, charts,
pictures and models
Aural aids:
Broadcast talks
Gramophone lectures
Tape recordings
Radio
Recordings
41
Audio-visual aids:
TV, computer, multimedia, LCD projector, Film Projector, Sound-motion
pictures
Multi-lingual Education (MLE)

Language: It is the medium of communication
First language/Native Language/Mother Tongue: we learn it by language
acquisition
Second/Third language: We learn it by language learning
Bilingual: The use of two languages
Multilingual: Use of many languages
Multilingualism: It is the combination of many languages. It includes local, state,
national and international languages.
Multilingual Education: It means the education which is started by using the
mother tongue and then the transitions to additional languages. It produces multi -
literate, multilingual and multi- cultural Learners.
Advantages of MLE:
• Exposure to another culture

• Build bridges to new relationships
• Economic advantages
• Flexibility and divergent thinking
• Brings self-esteem and self-confidence
Stages of an MLE programme:

1. Stage I: Learning takes place entirely in the child's home language
2. Stage II: Building fluency in the mother tongue. Introduction of oral L2.
3. Stage III: Building oral fluency in L2. Introduction of literacy in L2.
4. Stage IV: Using both L1 and L2 for lifelong learning
42
L1: Mother tongue/native language
L2: Second language other than Mother tongue
MLE in Odisha:
• MLE starts in our state in 2007-2008
• MLE in Odisha is being implemented in 10 languages. These are Santali,
Saora, Kui, Kuvi, Koya, Kishan, Oroam, Juang, Bonda and Ho.
Curriculum Development and plan:
• For the preparation of curriculum and instructional materials

• In 2006-2007 a state level seminar was conducted on education of tribal
children.
• Preparation of curriculum and identifying themes as per NCF-2005
• Preparation of instructional materials in 10 languages
• Preparation of teacher training manual and master training manual for the
resource person
• Preparation of math book for class-1 children
• Monitoring workshop for field functionaries
• Each academic year is divided into three terms and each term into 10 weeks
Materials:
• Alphabet charts and books
• Number charts and books
• Theme based big and small book
• Text books for class-I to III in trial languages
• Picture books and dictionaries from mother tongue to Odia
• Grammar books and dictionaries developed by tribal welfare department
• Teacher training manual
43
Teacher training:
For successful implementation of MLE programme in Odisha, different
teacher training programmes and workshops conducted by OPEPA.
OPEPA: Odisha Primary Education Programme Authority
Bloom’s taxonomy of learning domains
Cognitive: Related with Thinking aspects

Affective: Related with feeling aspects
Psychomotor/Conative: Related with doing aspects
Domains and Levels

Cognitive Affective Psychomotor
Knowledge Receiving Imitation
Comprehension Responding Manipulation
Application Valuing Precision
Analysis Organising Articulation
Synthesis Characterising Naturalisation
Evaluation
Some Common Learning Disabilities

Common types of Learning Disabilities
Problems reading, writing,
Dyslexia Difficulty reading
spelling, speaking
Problems doing math
Dyscalculia Difficulty with Maths problems, understanding time,
using money
Problems with handwriting,
Dysgraphia Difficulty with Writing
spelling, organising ideas
44
Problems with hand-eye
Dyspraxia (sensory Difficulty with Fine
coordination, balance, manual
integration disorder) Motor Skills
dexterity
Problems understanding
Difficulty with
Dysphasia / Aphasia spoken language, poor reading
Language
comprehension
Auditory Processing Difficulty hearing Problems with reading,
Disorder differences with Sounds comprehension, language
Problems with reading, math,
Visual Processing Difficulty interpreting
maps, charts, symbols,
Disorder visual information
pictures
Critical Pedagogy
Pedagogy: The art and science of teaching
Education:
Latin word ‘educare’ which means “to bring up” or “to nourish”
“Educere” which means ‘to lead out’ or ‘to draw out’
“educatum” which means ‘the act of teaching or training’.
Education doesn’t transform the world. Education changes people. People

change the world.
Paulo Freire (Brazilian Philosopher)
Paulo Freire: Father of critical pedagogy
Born in 1921 in Brazil
His childhood was spent in poverty, so he decided to
improve the lives of poor through education.
In 1962 just in 45 days he taught 300 sugarcane labourers
to read and write
Under military rules, government ban all his learning theories and
experiments and exiled him from Brazil from 1964 to 1980.
45
In 1968, he published his most famous book “Pedagogy of the oppressed”,
where he outlined the characteristics of what he called critical pedagogy.
He died in 1997, due to heart failure.
Other books by Paulo Freire:
Pedagogy of the heart
Pedagogy of freedom
Education for critical consciousness
The politics of education
Critical Pedagogy: A teaching approach which

attempts to help students to question and
challenge domination, and the beliefs and
practices that dominate them.
It ties to help students to become
critically consciousness.
Educational Philosophy:
• Education doesn’t transform the world.
Education changes people. People
change the world.
• Criticise banking concept of education
• Rejects transmission model of education
• Political nature of education and understanding the politics of education
• Justice and equality in education
• The rejection of economic determinism
• Promote problem posing education
• To transform the world, especially the world of oppressed through education
• Achieving personal freedom and social justice through education
• Making people understand themselves and the world around them
Aim of education:
46
• Critical literacy
• Self-education
• To raise the awareness
• To create dialogues
• To humanize individuals
• Critical evaluation
• Bridge the gap between theory and practice
• To transform undemocratic situation to democratic situation
• Concept of praxis: That means both teacher and student determined to
develop the practice of achieving critical consciousness to change the
education system. It must follow the steps
o Identify a problem
o Analyse the problem
o Create a plan of action to address the problem
o Implement the plan of action
o Analyse and evaluate the action
Major challenges for effective implementation of critical pedagogy:
To eradicate the banking model of education
To bring nobleness among the children
To change the mindset of sub-oppressors’ group who become oppressors
themselves
People worked in the field of critical pedagogy:
Ira Shor
Kincheloe
Macedo
Wexler
McLaren
Darder
Giroux
47
Hooks
Curriculum:
The curriculum should be related to the lives of people
Be based on student’s experience
Problem based curriculum
Democratic curriculum
Teaching methods:
Dialogue method
Problem-solving method
Critical thinking
Democratic methods
Learning environment:
Participatory
Dialogic
Democratic
Activist
Affective
Teacher:
Problem poser
Encourages students to ask their questions
Teacher -Student Relationship:
Relation of equals
Both must respect and trust each other
Criticise banking concept of education:
48
o It is a traditional approach in which teachers save information in the
mind of students as like we store money in the bank. Here the teacher
teaches and the students are taught and the teacher knows everything
and the students know nothing. Paulo Freire criticised this method.
o He said that the banking system of education reduces the creative power
of the child
o It negates education and knowledge are processes of inquiry
o As per Paulo child must learn to activities and self-experiences
Problem posing education:
• Paulo Freire had introduced the new terminology of Problem posing
education
• Teachers give problem to students in the classroom in the form of
questions
• Both the students and the teacher try to find out the solution of that
particular problem
• It is based on the principle that students learn better when they create
knowledge on their own
• This method helps in the development of critical thinking in learners
Educational Management
What is Management?
• Management is the art and science of decision making and leadership.
Educational Management:
• Educational management is the art and science of decision making,

directing and inspiring people in order to achieve organizational objectives
effectively and efficiently related to educational systems.
Educational Management includes processes like;
• Planning
49
• Organizing
• Decision making
• Directing
• Co-ordinating
• Controlling
Educational management gives equal importance to;
• Human resources or non-material resources

• Material resources
• Financial resources
• Ideational resources
Purpose of educational management:
• Setting directions, aims and objectives of educational institutions

• Planning for progress
• Organizing available resources in a planned way
• Controlling the process through proper evaluation
• Setting and improving organizational standards
Importance & Scope of Educational management:
• Input → Process → output (Goals of education)
Types of educational management:
• 1. Centralised and Decentralized

Centralised: Here power is in one hand and there is no distribution of work
and no freedom is given to all the members.
50
Decentralised: Here the power is distributed among all the members
involved in the process of educational management.
• 2. External/Participatory and Internal/Non-participatory
External/Participatory: Participation of external agencies or members in
educational management.
Internal/Non-participatory: No Participation of external agencies or
members in educational management. Here the educational management
is done completely by the internal members of the institution.
• 3. Authoritarian/Autocratic and Democratic
This type of educational management is same as Centralised and
decentralised educational management.
• 4. Creative and Laisseiz Faire
Creative: It is based upon the creative talent of the head of the institution.
Laisseiz Faire: This type of educational management believes in giving
freedoms to all its members.
Management structure at different levels

Some Important Articles:
Provision of early childhood care and education to children below the age of 6
years - Article 45
Right to Education - Article 21 (A)
Education for weaker sections - Article 15,17,46
Instruction in mother tongue - Article 350A
Education in the Union Territories - Article 239
Education commission or Kothari commission: (1964-1965) the central
government is an advisory and co-ordinating authority
Management structure at centre:
51
Ministry of Education:
Departments under ministry of education:
o Department of education
o Department of culture
o Department of Arts
o Department of Youth-Affairs and sports
o Department of women’s education
Roles played by MHRD in the fields of education:
1. Planning
2. Educational reforms
3. Organization
4. Direction
5. Control
6. Pilot projects
7. Clearing House Role
8. Liaison with UNESCO
9. Opening central institutes
National Level Bodies:
NCERT:
Established on: 1st September, 1961
HQ: New Delhi
Main purpose: Improving school education
RIE:
Established: 1st August 1963
Provides different pre-service and in-service training courses
National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration
(NIEPA):
Established: 1962, located in New Delhi
52
Educational planning and administration
UGC: University Grant commission:
Established: 1956, New Delhi
CSIR: Council of Scientific and Industrial Research:
Established: 26th September, 1942

HQ: New Delhi
CBSE: Central board of secondary education

Formation: 3rd November, 1962
HQ: New Delhi
NCTE: National Council for Teacher Education
Formation: 1995
HQ: New Delhi
CABE: Central Advisory Board of Education
Established: 1920
(Oldest and Highest advisory body in India)
Management structure at state:
1. Governor:
2. Council of ministers
3.Ministers of education and their secretaries
4. Directorate of education
A. Directorate of elementary education
B. Directorate of secondary education
C. Directorate of Higher education
D. Directorate of mass education
E. Directorate of Teacher education and SCERT
5. Educational circles: Circle Inspector
6. Educational districts: District Inspector
53
7. Panchayat Samiti/Block level
8. Municipality
Board of secondary education, Odisha:
Secondary Education Commission – 1953
Important State level bodies:
SCERT (State Council of Educational Research and Training)
SIE – Transformed and upgraded into SCERT on 5th January 1979.
SIETs: State Institute of Educational Technology
Set up in -Andhrapradesh, Uttarpradesh, Odisha, Maharashtra,
Gujrat, Bihar
Purpose:
• For implementation of INSAT (Indian National Satellite
System) for education project effectively.
(INSAT for EDUCATION: Project launched in 1982)
• For modern communication technology and to generate
educational software.
School Based Management:
Concept:
School-based management (SBM) is a strategy to improve education by transferring
significant decision-making authority from state and district offices to individual
schools.
Or
It simply means the management of resources at the school level rather than at a
system or centralized level.
Importance/Scope:
• For smooth conduct of the institution
• It rebalances the power structure
54
• Transfer the educational management from centralized control to the
educational institution
• It makes a reform in managing the organization
• It brings effectiveness in managing the school
• It brings school improvement through democratic governance
• It makes the community and staff involvement
• It enhances student’s achievement
• It meets the school needs
• It mainly helps in maintaining the proper utilisation of all the resources at the
school level.
Process of SBM:
• Vision
• Empowering the SMC
• Role of head of the institution in SBM: (Effective communication among all
the stakeholders and active leadership role)
• Role of teacher: Helps in determining the goals and objectives of the school
• Role of stakeholders: Must participate and give suggestions for proper
management
• Resources: Proper utilisation of all the resources like -material resources, non-
materiel resources, financial resources etc.
SBM (School Based Management)
SMC SMDC
(School Management Committee) (School Management Development Committee)
(Elementary Schools) (Secondary Schools)
School Management Committee (SMC):

➢ SMC also known as School Managing Committee
Composition of SMC:
SMC: Total members 19
55
Secretary: Headmaster
12 members (Both male and female)
6 female members (one from sc/st category)
6 male members (one from sc/st category)
1 Anganawadi worker
Word member of village
One teacher (except Headmaster)
One boy elected by boy: student members
One girl elected by girl: student members
Asha/Health worker
Activities of SMC members:
School Management Development Committee (SMDC):
Activities of the committee:
➢ Planning
➢ Collection of data
➢ Implementation
➢ Monitoring and evaluation
➢ Making annual work plans
➢ Taking corrective actions
➢ Maintenance of all the records
Composition of the SMDC:

1 – Principal (Chairman)
2 – Senior Teacher (Member & Secretary)
3 – Teacher (Social Science) (Member)
4 – Teacher (Science) (Member)
5 – Teacher (Mathematics) (Member)
56
6 – One Male Guardian (Member)
7 – One Female Guardian (Member)
8 – Two Panchayat Member/Ward Member (Member)
9 – One representative of ST/SC Category (Member)
10 – One representative of Educationally backward caste (Member)
11 – One Member of Mahila Dal (Member)
12 – One Member of Education Development Committee (Member)
13 – Three Members with Science, Art and Cultural background
Nominated by DPO/DEO (Members)
14 – One Officer from Education Dept. Nominated by DEO
(Member)
15 – One Representative of Finance and Accounts (Member)
SMDC
School Building Committee Academic Committee

1 – Principal (Chairman) 1 – Principal (Chairman)
2 – One member from panchayat 2 – One member from parents
or Urban Local Body (Member)
(Ward member) (Member) 3 – One Astt. Teacher each
3 – One guardian nominated of the following subjects:
by PTA (Member) Science/Maths, Social Science,
4 – One member from experts Language (Hindi/English),
in civil works like Civil Engineer Art/Physical Education (Member)
/Consultant (Member & Secretary) 4 – One student selected
5 – One member from Audit and by the Principal (Optional) (Member)
Accounts Department (Member)
57
School Development Plan
• SDP: School Development Plan
• It’s a strategic plan for schools’ improvement.
• SDP is prepared by-SMC (School management committee) at least three

months before the end of financial year.
• SDP is a three-year plan along with three annual sub plans.
• All the stakeholders involved in the preparation of SDP are SMC/SMDC,

Headmaster, Teacher, students, Parents/PTA, standing Committee,
BEO/CRCC.
Headmaster:
Responsible for communication and leadership
Teacher, students, parents/PTA-Review and analyse the current problems and will
give feedback
Standing Committee:
Once SDP prepared it will be summited to the standing Committee. It will review it
and will provide feedback for improvement
BEO/CRCC:
They should review SDP regularly and provide appropriate feedback
Abbreviations:
• SDP: School Development Plan

58
• SMC: School management committee
• SMDC: School Management Development Committee
• PTA: Parent Teacher Association
• BEO: Block Education Officer
• BRC: Block Resource Center
• CRC: Cluster Resource Center
• BRCC: Block Resource Center Coordinator
• CRC: Cluster Resource Center Coordinator
SDP Planning Cycle:
• Review/School analysis
• Determining school goals & objectives
• Prioritise needs
• Preparation of detailed action plan
• Approval of SDP
• Implementation & monitoring
• Evaluation
Assessment, Evaluation & CCE

Assessment: Qualitative
Evaluation: Both quantitative and qualitative
Assessment:
Types:
Formative: During the teaching-learning process
Summative: At the end
59
Diagnostic: To identify the learning difficulties and learning gaps.
Placement: This type of assessment is used to know the skill level of
the students.
Ex.: OTET entrance exam, OSSTET entrance exam, Admission
into a new school by appearing in an entrance exam.
Difference between Assessment and Evaluation:
Assessment Evaluation
Assessment is a process of evaluation Evaluation describes as an act of
and it is used for collecting, reviewing passing judgement basis of evidence
and using data for the purpose of
improvement.
It is process oriented and it pays It is product oriented and focuses on
attention to teaching and learning final outcome
Usually, assessment is done from the Usually, evaluation is done at the end
beginning. for ranking, grading purposes.
It is diagnostic It is judgemental
It is formative It is summative
It provides feedback to the performance It determines to which objectives are
and the areas to be improved achieved
Assessment is always qualitative. Evaluation may be quantitative or
qualitative or it may be both but it
always includes the value judgement.
CCE: Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation

Continuous: Continuity and Regularity of assessment during the whole session
Comprehensive: The areas of assessment which includes both scholastic and co-
scholastic aspects of pupils’ growth helping the all-round development of the child.
Scholastic area: curricular area or subject-specific areas.
Co-scholastic area: co-curricular activities, life skills, values, attitudes etc
Objectives of CCE:
60
• To make evaluation and integral part
• To help in regular assessment
• To diagnose the weakness of students
• To provide appropriate feedbacks to teachers and learners
• Informs about pupils’ weakness and strength
• Helps in predicting the future success of learners
• Provide scope for self-evaluation and self-improvement
Assessment and Evaluation in constructive Perspective:

• Teacher: Facilitator
• Child: Knowledge builder
• Assessment and Evaluation should be as per the need, age level of the child
and must help in constructing the knowledge.
• The teaching learning environment should be constructive in nature.
Assessment and Learning

Assessment For Learning (AFL):
• Assessment during instruction is understood as assessment for learning.
• Occurs throughout the learning process
• This type of assessment is mainly based upon feedback and improvement
• Diagnostic assessment and formative assessment are part of Assessment for
learning.
• Diagnostic assessment is also known as pre-assessment and it is usually
carried out at the beginning of a unit of study. This assessment is used to
determine what a student does and doesn’t know about a topic.
• Formative assessment occurs during the course of a unit of study
Assessment Of Learning (AOL):

61
• The assessment which is carried out at the end of a unit or learning cycle is
known as assessment of learning.
• Summative assessment is known as assessment of learning.
Assessment As Learning (AAL):

• Assessment as learning occurs when students reflect on and monitor their
progress to inform their future goals.
Assessment tools and techniques (Projects, Assignments, Observations,
Teacher made tests):
Tool: In assessment unit test, project, interview, assignment etc which are
used in the way are known as tools of assessment.
Techniques: The way in which the tools of assessment are used is known as
techniques.
Example: Assessment of present and absent of a student.
Technique – Observation
Tool – Check-list
62
Project as an assessment tool:
Steps of project method:
o Creating situation and choosing the project
o Planning
o Execution of the programme
o Evaluation of the project
63
Assignment as an assessment tool:
Observation as an Assessment Technique:
Types:
1. Participant and Non-Participant
Participant: In this type of observation Observer is a part of the group which
is observed.
Non- Participant: In this type of observation Observer is not a part of the
group which is observed.
2. Controlled and uncontrolled
Controlled: when observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged

plans, involving experimental procedure, the same is then termed controlled
observation.
Uncontrolled: Uncontrolled observation takes place in natural setting

without the influence of external or outside control. The observer does not
plan in advance for this type of observation.
General steps for observation:

• Planning
• Execution
• Verify the recorded observed data
Observation as a tool and technique of assessment:
Example: 1
To assess students’ attitude
The teacher should use
Technique: Observation
Tool: Anecdotal record
64
Teacher -made Test:
o It is designed to solve the problem or requirements of the class for which it is
prepared.
Construction of teacher made test:
1. Planning the test:
• Objective of the test
• Syllabus should be covered
• Deciding the objective in behavioural terms
• Deciding the number and forms of the items
• Having a clear knowledge regarding the test
2. Preparation:
• The test items should be arranged from simple to complex
• While constructing the test directions or instructions are very
important and it should be very clear. (Directions like time for the test, marks
allotted to each item, total number of questions to be attempted etc)
Self-Assessment:
• Self-assessment is a process of formative assessment during which students
reflect on the quality of their work judge the degree to which it reflects
explicitly stated goals or criteria, and revise accordingly.
• Self-assessment is also known as assessment as learning.
• Two important terms are associated with self-assessment
1. Metacognition (Thinking about thinking)
2. Scaffolding (Temporary help/support)
Peer Assessment:
65
Peer assessment is a group activity/team learning that allows students to
evaluate the work of their peers. Peer assessment involves students taking
responsibility for assessing the work of their peers against set assessment criteria.
Group activity/ team learning may be:
• Collaborative learning (Large group)
• Co-operative learning (small group)
Both type of learning is team learning.
Purpose of peer assessment:
• To enhance learning
• To encourage student autonomy
• To develop critical judgement
Portfolios:
What is a portfolio?
A collection of students work that demonstrates achievement or improvement.
Portfolio assessment:
Portfolio assessment is another type of performance assessment that provides a clear
picture of a learner’s growth in proficiency, long term achievements in a given
academic area.
Purpose:
• Monitor students’ progress (formative)
• Assess student achievement (summative)
• Determines students’ grades (summative)
*****Portfolios used for both formative and summative assessment.
Portfolio’s content:
• Students best work, written work, oral achievement, project work report,
group work report, certificates of co-curricular areas etc.
66
Types of portfolios:
Showcase portfolios: Contains best work of students (mainly used for
summative evaluation)
Working portfolios: It consists of collection of day -to-day work of students.

(Mainly used for formative evaluation)
Documentary portfolios: It’s the gathering of the best work of the students for
assessment purposes. (used for both summative and formative evaluation)
Rubrics:
• A rubric is a scoring tool that teachers use to assess student learning after a
lesson using a set of criteria and standard.
Characteristics of a good rubrics:
• Well defined
• Content specific
• Finite and comprehensive
• Ordered
• Related to common goals
Rubrics can be used to assess:

• Students’ portfolios
• Project works
• Laboratory works
• Art work
• Various Performance tests
• Exhibition reports
• Seminar reports
• Exam questions, presentations etc
67
Types or rubrics:
1. Task-specific or Analytic Scoring rubrics
2. Skill focused or Holistic Rubrics
Difference between Analytic & Holistic Rubrics:
Analytic Rubrics Holistic Rubrics

Each criterion is evaluated separately All criteria are evaluated simultaneously
Advantages: Advantages:
• Diagnostic information • Scoring faster
• Gives formative feedback • Good summative assessment
• Link instruction
• Adaptable
• Ability to combine scores
Disadvantages: Disadvantages:
• More time to evaluate while • Does not communicate what needs
scoring multiple items to be improved
• Not good formative
Test Construction:
What is a test?
Test is a formal instrument which is used to measure learner’s achievement,
performance etc.
Types of tests:
On the basis of function tests are mainly three types. They are:
1. Achievement test: For measuring achievement of a Learner.
2. Diagnostic test: Used to find out the learning difficulties and learning gaps
of learners.
3. Prognostic test: Used for predicting the future performance of learners.
Test construction:
Steps of test construction:
• Planning the test
68
• Preparing the test
• Trying out the test
• Evaluating the test
Planning the test:
• Determining and defining the objectives of the test
• Specifying and selecting the content to be covered
• Planning for the table of specifications/test blue Print.
Blue print contains:
1. Instructional objectives
2. Content
3. Type of test items or types of questions
Preparation of the test:

• Preparation of preliminary draft
• Preparation of final draft
• During preparation of test the directions given to the students should be
very clear (Like total time to attend the test, marking scheme, directions
to attend the questions etc)
Trying out the test:

Substeps:
a. Preliminary Tryout
b. Final Tryout
c. Scoring
Evaluating the test:

• Analysing individual items
• Determining the validity
69
• Determining the reliability
• Determining the usability
Characteristics of a good test:
• Objectivity
• Validity
• Reliability
• Usability
Broad Classification of test items:
Test
Written Test Oral Test
Objective type Essay type
Extended Restricted
response response
Recall type Recognisation type
Simple recall T/F items
Matching items
Completion type
Multiple choice items
Analogy
Rearrangement
70
Standardized test and Teacher-made Test:
Teacher-Made Test Standardised Test
(1) Learning Outcomes and Content (1) Learning Outcomes and Content
Measured: They are used to evaluate the Measured: They are used to evaluate outcomes
outcomes and content of what has been taught and content that have been determined
in the classroom. irrespective of what has been taught.
(2) Purpose: (2) Purpose:
The tests are required to suggest placement of The tests are required to suggest placement of
the child in relation to the class. the child in relation to the sample in which the
Mainly used to know the students’ progress test has been standardised.
and to improve the teaching learning Used mainly in research work, guidance,
programme of a particular school. counselling, selection and for administration
purposes.
(3) Construction: (3) Construction:
They are prepared by the classroom teacher. Use sophisticated procedures and time
These tests are constructed hurriedly. Experts consuming for its construction. It is a
not involved in its construction. collaborative venture. It has to involve experts
along with practising teacher in its own
construction.
(4) Test Items: (4) Test Items:
Quality of test items unknown and is generally Generally, quality of items is high. They are
lower than items of standardised tests. The pre-tested and selected on the basis of
questions may or may not be objective type. difficulty and discrimination power. The
They may be generally of short answer type or questions are bound to be of objective type.
essay Type. The test has to be administered under the
conditions prevailing at the time of
administration of the test for standardisation.
A user of the test administers the test as per
test direction.
(5) Method of Administration: (5) Method of Administration:
The teacher is the master of the situation. He The scoring key is prepared previously. The
is free to administer the test according to his user of the test has to apply the said scoring
own lines of thinking. key. Such scoring does not require expert
knowledge.
71
(6) Method of Scoring: (6) Method of Scoring:
Teacher prepares his own scoring key. Scores can be compared to norm groups, Test
Usually, such scoring can only be done by a manuals and other guides for interpretation
person equally competent as the teacher. and use.
(7) Interpretation of Scores: (7) Interpretation of Scores:
Scores can be compared and interpreted only Scores can be compared to norm groups, Test
in the context of the local school situation. manuals and other guides for interpretation
The teacher-made tests do not have norms. and use.
(8) Norms: (8) Norms:
The teacher-made tests are not tested for Standardised tests have norms meant for a
objectivity, reliability and validity. Teachers, population on which they have been
satisfaction covers all these characteristics of a standardised. The norms like stanine scores,
good test. Percentile Scores, standard scores etc. help in
valuing a raw score quickly and comparing the
scores of two or more individuals, schools etc.
Standardised tests have appreciable validity,
reliability, objectivity and practicability.
Recent Developments in Assessment

Grading System
The word ‘grade' is originated from the Latin word “gradus” which means
step.
In Indian education system grading system was introduced in the session
2009-2010.
CBSE Grading system:
Scholastic area point: 9-point grading System
Co-scholastic area: 5-point grading system
CGPA: Cumulative grade point average
Types of grading system:
1. Direct Grading
72
2. Indirect Grading
A. Relative Grading (Norm-referenced grading)
B. Absolute Grading (Criterion-referenced grading)
Advantages and disadvantages of grading system:
Assessment in co-scholastic area:
Co-Scholastic Areas
Life Skills Work Visual & Attitudes Co-curricular

Education Performing Arts & Values activities
Thinking Social Emotional 1. Teachers

skills skills skills - School mates
- School Programs
2. Values systems
>> Self awareness >> Interpersonal >> Managing

relationship emotions
>> Problem solving
>> Effective
Activities Health &
>> Dealing with
>> Decision making (Any two) Physical
communication stress
>> Critical thinking Education
>> Empathy
(any two)
>> Creative thinking
>> Literary & creative >> Sports / Indigenous

skills sports
>> Scientific skills >> NCC / NSS
>> Information & >> Scouting & Guiding
Communication >> Swimming
Technology >> Gymnastic
>> Organizational & >> Yoga
Leadership skills >> First aid
73
Techniques: Observation, Reporting
Tools: Observation schedule, rating scale, check list, anecdotal record etc.
Implementation strategy of CCE:
In comprehensive aspect of CCE there are two aspects.
1. Scholastic aspect
2. Co-scholastic aspect
1. Scholastic aspect
Academic year divided into two terms
1st term: 2 FAs and 1 SA; 2nd term: 2 FAs and 1 SA
Formative assessment (in a year total 4 FAs)
Summative assessment (in a year total 2 SAs)
Evaluation in Scholastic area:
9-point grading scale
Mark range Grade Grade point
91 – 100 A1 10
81 – 90 A2 09
71 – 80 B1 08
61 – 70 B2 07
51 – 60 C1 06
41 – 50 C2 05
33 – 40 D 04
21 – 32 E1 00
00 – 20 E2 00
74
2. Co-scholastic aspect
Evaluation in Co-Scholastic area:
5-point grading scale
Grade Grade point
A 4.1 – 5.0
B 3.1 – 4.0
C 2.1 – 3.0
D 1.1 – 2.0
E 0 – 1.0
NCF-2005:
NCF: 2005 is one of the four NCFs published in 1975, 1988, 2000 and 2005
by NCERT in India.
Important points:
• National Advisory Committee/Yashpal committee-1992-1993
• Learning without burden (report)
• NCF 2005 has been translated into 22 languages and has influenced the syllabi
in 17 states.
• Development of NCF: National Steering Committee by Prof Yashpal and 21
National Focus groups
Guiding Principles of NCF-2005:
• Connecting knowledge to life outside the school
• Enriching curriculum so that it goes beyond text-books
• Making examination more flexible and integrated with classroom life
• Learning is shifted away from rote method
• Nurturing democratic polity of the country
75
Contents of NCF-2005:
1. Perspectives: Guiding Principles
2. Learning and Knowledge
3. Curricular Area, school stages and assessment
Curricular areas:
Language
Mathematics
Science
Social science
Other areas:
Work education
Art education
Peace, Health and physical education
Habitat and learning
Computers
4. School and classroom environment
5. Systematic reform
76

OSSTET pedagogy

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

OSSTET pedagogy

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

OSSTET pedagogy

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pedagogy e-Book

1. Father of psychology: Wilhelm Wundt (German Philosopher/Psychologist)

Puberty: From Latin word – “Pubertas” – means the age of maturity

Grade: From Latin word Gradus means -Step

Education: From Latin word “Educare”, “Educere”, “Educatum” Means: “To

Intelligence: From Latin word “Intelligere” which means “To understand”

Growth and Development

Development: According to Hurlock it is a progressive series of changes that occur

- principle of integration and interrelation

**** Development = Product of heredity and environment

Factors affecting development:

Factors Affecting Different Developmental Aspects

School age/play age

Given by: Lawrence Kohlberg (American psychologist)

Kohlberg’s famous: Heinz Dilemma story

• Moral reasoning, moral Dilemma

STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Level 1: Preconventional Morality

Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment)

Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange)

Level 2: Conventional Morality

Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships)

Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order)

Level 3. Postconventional Morality

Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights)

Stage 6 (Universal Principles)

Needs and Problems at Childhood and Adolescence

Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory

CRYSTAL AND FLUID MODEL OF INTELLIGENCE-

Important Learning Theories

• UCS: Unconditioned stimulus-food

Operant Conditioning Learning Theory:

Trial and Error Learning Theory:

Primary Laws of Learning Secondary Laws of Learning

1. Law of Readiness 1. Law of primacy

4. Law of multiple response

6. Law of Response by Analogy

7. Law of Associative Shifting

8. Law of Partial Activity

Bruner's Discovery Learning:

R. M. Gagne: American psychologist

Book: Conditions of learning

Hierarchy of learning based on: Simple to complex approach. These are:

5. Multiple Discrimination learning

4. Verbal association learning

3. Psychomotor connection learning

1,2,3,4: Lower-Level learnings associated with behavioural aspects

5,6,7,8: Upper-level learning associated with cognitive aspects

Social learning theory:

Principles of learner-centered method:

A good lecture must take care of:

Characteristics of a good demonstration:

Teaching Learning Materials & Its Classification

Multi-lingual Education (MLE)

• Exposure to another culture

Stages of an MLE programme:

Curriculum Development and plan:

• For the preparation of curriculum and instructional materials

Bloom’s taxonomy of learning domains

Cognitive: Related with Thinking aspects