Amhara Water Resources Development Bureau

Water Supply Core Process

Water Supply Design Guideline, November 2012

Table of contents
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1

1.1. General Background ......................................................................................................... 1

1.2. Objective .......................................................................................................................... 1

1.3. Scope of the Guide Line ................................................................................................... 1

1.4. Review of Previous Guidelines ........................................................................................ 2

1.5. Structure of Guideline ...................................................................................................... 2

2. Service Area and Target Years ............................................................................................... 2

2.1. Service area ...................................................................................................................... 2

2.2. Target Year and Phasing .................................................................................................. 2

2.3. Economic Lives ................................................................................................................ 3

3. Target Population .................................................................................................................... 4

3.1. Base Year Population ....................................................................................................... 4

3.2. Population Projection ....................................................................................................... 5

4. Water Consumption Analysis ................................................................................................. 6

4.1. Domestic Water Demand ................................................................................................. 6

4.1.1. Mode of Service Determination ................................................................................ 6

4.1.2. Per Capita Demand by mode of Service ................................................................... 7

4.1.3. Projected Per Capita Water Demand by Mode of Service (l/c/d) ............................. 8

4.1.4. Population Served by Mode of Service .................................................................... 8

4.1.5. Projected Domestic Demand..................................................................................... 9

4.1.6. Climatic and Socio-Economic Adjustment Factors .................................................. 9

4.1.7. Climatic Factors ........................................................................................................ 9

4.2. Non Domestic Water Demand ....................................................................................... 10

4.2.1. Institutional and commercial Water Demand ......................................................... 10
 4.2.2. Industrial Water Demand ........................................................................................ 11

4.2.3. Live stoke Water Demand ...................................................................................... 11

4.2.4. Fire Fighting Water Demand .................................................................................. 11

4.3. Unaccounted Water ........................................................................................................ 12

4.4. Variation of Water Use .................................................................................................. 13

4.4.1. Maximum Day Demand .......................................................................................... 13

4.4.2. Peak Hour Demand ................................................................................................. 13

5. Water Sources, Adequacy, Reliability and Quality .............................................................. 14

5.1. Water Supply Sources .................................................................................................... 14

5.1.1. General .................................................................................................................... 14

5.2. Water Supply Adequacy and Reliability ........................................................................ 16

5.3. Potable Water Supply Quality ........................................................................................ 16

6. Design of Water Supply Facilities ........................................................................................ 17

6.1. River Intakes .................................................................................................................. 17

6.2. Treatment Plant Design .................................................................................................. 17

6.2.1. Ground Water Treatment ........................................................................................ 18

6.2.2. Surface Water Treatment ........................................................................................ 18

6.3. Transmission Mains and Collector Pipelines ................................................................. 23

6.3.1. Choice between Gravity and Pumping Systems ..................................................... 24

6.4. Distribution Networks .................................................................................................... 25

6.4.1. General .................................................................................................................... 25

6.4.2. Pipe Network Geometry ......................................................................................... 25

6.4.3. Pipe Sizes and Flow Velocities in Distribution Networks ...................................... 26

6.4.4. Nodal Pressure Requirements and Zoning .............................................................. 26

6.4.5. Nodal Demand Determination ................................................................................ 27

 6.5. Pipe Material Selection .................................................................................................. 27

6.6. Alignment and Depth of Pipelines ................................................................................. 28

6.6.1. Alignment of Pipelines ........................................................................................... 28

6.6.2. Depth of Pipelines ................................................................................................... 29

6.7. Hydraulic Design of Pipelines........................................................................................ 30

6.7.1. Flow in pipe ............................................................................................................ 30

6.7.2. Determination of Pipe Diameter in Transmission Pipelines ................................... 31

6.7.3. Head Loss................................................................................................................ 32

6.7.4. Pipe Accessories ..................................................................................................... 37

6.7.5. Pipe Appurtenant Structures ................................................................................... 38

6.8. Reservoir Sizing ............................................................................................................. 39

6.8.1. Service Reservoir .................................................................................................... 39

6.8.2. Transfer Reservoirs ................................................................................................. 43

6.9. Auxiliary Building.......................................................................................................... 43

7. Electromechanical Design .................................................................................................... 44

7.1. Water Pumps .................................................................................................................. 44

7.1.1. Power ...................................................................................................................... 45

7.1.2. Surface Pumps ........................................................................................................ 47

7.1.3. Starting Methods ..................................................................................................... 49

7.1.4. Wellhead Piping ...................................................................................................... 50

7.2. Power Supply ................................................................................................................. 53

7.2.1. Generator................................................................................................................. 53

7.2.2. Transformer Sizing ................................................................................................. 58

8. Contents of the Design Report .............................................................................................. 59

9. Standards and Specifications ................................................................................................ 60

 9.1. Units ............................................................................................................................... 60

9.2. Standards ........................................................................................................................ 60

9.3. Earthquake Design ......................................................................................................... 60

9.4. Concrete ......................................................................................................................... 60

9.5. Reinforcement ................................................................................................................ 61

9.6. Pipe Material .................................................................................................................. 62

9.6.1. Suitability for Potable Water .................................................................................. 62

9.6.2. Definitions............................................................................................................... 63

9.6.3. Quality..................................................................................................................... 63

9.6.4. Ductile Cast Iron/DCI/ Pipes and Fittings .............................................................. 63

9.6.5. Galvanised Steel/GS/ Pipes and Fittings................................................................. 65

9.6.6. unPlasticized Polyvinyl Chloride/uPVC/ Pipes and Fittings .................................. 65

9.6.7. High Density Polyethylene/HDPE/ Pipes and Fittings ........................................... 68

9.6.8. ISO Standard Code for Pipeline & Pipe Fittings .................................................... 69

List of Figures
Figure 4-1: Peak Hour Factors (Dangila as Sample) .................................................................... 14

Figure 6-1: Mass curve analysis for reservoir sizing .................................................................... 42

Figure 7-1: Well head piping arrangement ................................................................................... 52

Figure 7-2: Plan of typical generator house .................................................................................. 57

List of Tables
Table 2-1: Water Supply design period .......................................................................................... 3

Table 2-2: Economic life of water supply components .................................................................. 3

Table 4-1: Per capita demand by mode service .............................................................................. 7

Table 4-2: Projected Per Capita Water Demand by Mode of Service (l/c/d) ................................. 8

Table 4-3: Climatic adjustment factors ........................................................................................... 9

Table 4-4: Socio-Economic Factors................................................................................................ 9

Table 4-5: Unaccounted Water ..................................................................................................... 12

Table 4-6: Recommended Water Demand Peak Factors .............................................................. 13

Table 6-1: General design criteria for slow sand filters ................................................................ 21

Table 6-2: Comparison of pumping and gravity systems ............................................................. 24

Table 6-3: Recommended Cover Depth ....................................................................................... 29

Table 6-4: Darcy-Weisbach Roughness Heights, e, for Closed Conduits .................................... 32

Table 6-5: Hazen-Williams Roughness Coefficients (C) ............................................................. 34

Table 6-6: Manning’s Coefficient (n) for Closed Metal Conduits Flowing Partly Full ............... 35

Table 6-7: Typical Fitting K Coefficients ..................................................................................... 36

Table 6-8: Reservoir Sizing by mass curve analysis .................................................................... 41

Table 7-1: Commercially available Standard Submersible pumps ............................................... 46

Table 7-2: Maximum Available suction head for surface pumps ................................................. 47

Table 7-3: Power cable sizing ....................................................................................................... 55

Table 7-4: Generating set seat dimension ..................................................................................... 58

Table 7-5: Standard transformers supplied by EEPCO ................................................................ 59

1. Introduction

1.1. General Background

This Water Supply Design Guideline document presents the planning and design criteria,
standards and specifications for urban and rural piped water supply projects. This guideline is
developed for water supply feasibility studies and designs of the scale relevant to the regional
level and will serve as regionally recognized document, the application of which is deemed
to ensure compliance of water supply facilities with the minimum requirements for design,
construction and quality of materials.

As these standards and/or guidelines are technical documents which, by their very nature,
require periodic updating, the bureau may provide and issue revised editions from time to
time as appropriate. Finally, the bureau welcomes comments and suggestions on all aspect of
the water supply design guideline.

1.2. Objective
Its purpose is to introduce the key concepts and considerations involved in the design of
waterworks facilities for water supply systems. For the technical persons, hopefully it will
facilitate their work by providing them with a ready resource reference for their everyday
use. For the non-technical readers, such as the many who are involved in the management
and operation of small water supply systems, hopefully it will be an aid in understanding the
design process, giving them a basis for participating in decisions that would enable them to
avail more usefully of the services of the technical consultants and contractors they must deal
with.

1.3. Scope of the Guide Line

This document constitutes general guidelines for the planning and implementation of water
supply activities in the Amhara Region.

It is expected that these guidelines will be used, and revised as needed, to orient the
overall direction and nature of water supply projects in urban and rural areas of the region.

It is intended that this Guide line will present the guide lines in the design of water supply
systems by making four categories. Rural, small towns, medium towns and large towns water
supply systems. The guidelines are not intended to be restrictive but rather to encourage
development that is more likely to be sustainable and have greater potential for
enhanced health benefits in the project communities.

1.4. Review of Previous Guidelines

The Federal Government of Ethiopia published its Environmental Policy in 1997 and, more
recently, several water supply and sanitation regulatory and planning documents over
2001-2003, as shown below:

 Design Guide line for water supply projects, Oromia water works design and supervision
enterprise (Geleta Gedeta water works consultants, December 2008)
 Cost effective design guide line, World Bank water supply and sanitation project, Ethiopia,
June 2006.
 Urban Water supply design guide line, Ministry of water resources, January 31, 2006.
 Ethiopian Water Sector Strategy, Ministry of Water Resources (2001)

1.5. Structure of Guideline

2. Service Area and Target Years

2.1. Service area

The service area is determined on the basis of:

 Project area boundaries

 Potential expansions
 Area development plan
 Political boundaries

2.2. Target Year and Phasing

Water demand will increase annually according to the population increase, development of
the industry etc. For this reason, short term ranged plan will result in uneconomical and
unreasonable facilities due to overlapped facilities in future system. In order to avoid those
cases, master plan on water supply system is formulated for long range plan covering up to
20years. Within that large scale of framework, the economical and rational system will be
planned. In case that water supply system that meets the requirements at the final stage (after
20 years) is invested at initial stage, that system is to excess to meet actual requirement. Thus
project proposed in master plan is phased by target year.

The target year/design period is determined on the basis of

 The trend of water demand

 The prospect of securing water resources
 The possibility of rising funds
 Ability of customers to pay for improved water supply services
 The serviceability period of the facilities/Economic life of facilities
 Initial investment cost

Table 2-1: Water Supply design period

Base Population Design Period
Category
Target Year Phase I Phase II
10 10
Large towns 20
>50,000
10 10
Medium towns 20
10,000 - 50,000
15 -
Small towns 15
2,000 - 10,000
15 -
Rural villages <2,000 15

Note: this design period excludes time required for project planning and implementation.

2.3. Economic Lives

Table 2-2: Economic life of water supply components

Sr.No. System component Economic life (years)

1 Boreholes in hard rock 25
2 Bore holes in lime stone 15
3 Electromechanical equipment of pumping stations and boreholes 10
4 Ductile iron pipes 40
6 PVC pipes 25
7 uPVC pipes 25
8 HDPE
9 Concrete Pipe 50*
10 Steel pipes 30
11 Pipe fittings
11.1 DCI
11.2 CI
11.3 GS
11.4 HDPE
11.5 UPVC
11.6 Stainless steel Pipe
12 Masonry/solid block water tanks: 25
13 Concrete works 50
14 Concrete water tanks 50
15 Civil engineering building works (general) 40
16 Treatment plants 50
17 Chemical dosing 10
18 Springs: Where quantity is not a limitation, springs will be developed to satisfy at least the
maximum day demand of the 20 Years design horizon.

19 Storage Dams: For surface water schemes requiring a storage dam, a design period as long
as the design life of the dam is advisable, i.e. 50 years.

20 Intakes: Intake structures shall be designed for a planning horizon commensurate with the
criteria for related works (transmission main, treatment plant, etc). The intake structure for
surface water supply must satisfy the maximum day demand for the 20 years period.

3. Target Population

3.1. Base Year Population

Population figures are available from the 1994 population and housing census of Ethiopia,
Published by the Central Statistical Authority (CSA) office of population and housing census
commission, CSA Annual Reports, CSA Branch Office Records, Municipal Kebele Records
and Health Office Records.

In Ethiopia, Population and housing censuses are the main source of data that reflect the
demographic, Social, economic and housing characteristics of the country.
  For towns the base population figures are available from the 1994 population and housing
census of Ethiopia, published by the Central Statistical Authority (CSA), office of population
and housing census.
 For rural villages records from Kebele administration and/or health office shall be used as a
base population.

3.2. Population Projection

Population projection provides information on the future size of the population in a given
area. Knowledge of this information is fundamental for development plans whose target is to
satisfy the future needs. The basic components of changes in the size of the population of a
certain area include fertility, mortality, migration and urbanization (CASE 1994, Vol. II).

Three different (low, medium and high) variant population projections are made regarding
fertility and only one assumption (medium variant) being employed with regard to mortality
and urbanization. The three alternative assumptions were made to reduce the Total Fertility
Rate (TFR) of 7.7 observed in the country (1993) to 4.0 by the year 2015, 2020 and 2030 for
low, medium and high variants respectively.

Based on this, the Central Statistical Authority (CSA) of Ethiopia has established the
population growth rate for Amhara Region within five years interval (1995-2030).

1995-2000 2000-2005 2005-2010 2010-2015 2015-2020 2020-2025 2025-2030

Low Variant (for large towns and surrounding rural villages)
Growth rate 2.8 2.3 2.3 2.2 2.1 1.9 1.7
Urban 4.8 4.1 4.2 4 3.9 3.8 3.6
Rural 2.1 2.1 2.1 1.9 1.7 1.5 1.3
Medium variant (for medium towns, small town and surrounding rural villages)
Growth rate 2.9 2.7 2.6 2.4 2.3 2.1 1.9
Urban 4.9 4.4 4.5 4.3 4.1 4 3.8
Rural 2.6 2.5 2.3 2.1 2 1.7 1.5
Source: The 1994 Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia Results for Amhara Region, Volume II Analytical Report.

The designer shall use low variant growth rates for large towns and surrounding rural villages and
medium variant growth rates for medium towns, small town and surrounding rural villages’
population projections for 2012-2030 and consider a constant growth rate from 2030-2035. Short-
term estimates of future populations (1-20 years) are generally made by arithmetic
progression, geometric progression, decreasing rate of increase, or graphical extension. Each
of the first of these three procedures is based upon the ―S‖ shaped growth curve. In
forecasting future population estimates the past population trends shall be analyzed to find
out which of the three methods closely fits the trend. The method which depicts the past
population growth trend shall be adopted for making future population forecasts. Further, the
social structure of the town will be taken into account in establishing the base population and
projection of the same for the design period.

For the future population prediction the above mentioned method (S curve) will be used if
found suitable otherwise the geometric growth method with CSA growth rates established at
national level for every 5 years interval will be used as shown in the above table.

4. Water Consumption Analysis

4.1. Domestic Water Demand

Domestic water demand is the daily water requirement for use by human being for different
domestic purposes like drinking, cooking, bathing, gardening, etc. the domestic water
demand required by human being can be supplied or obtained through different modes of
services depending on the economic level and facilities owned by the individual.

The use of water for domestic purposes may be subdivided in various categories:

• Drinking
• Food preparation and cooking
• Cleaning, washing and personal hygiene
• Vegetable garden watering
• Stock watering, and
• Other uses including waste disposal

4.1.1. Mode of Service Determination

In the case of water supply system in Ethiopia, there are commonly four modes of services in
which an individual can be served:

 House Connection (HC)

 Yard Connection (YC) and Neighborhood connection (NC)
  Public Taps (PT)
 Traditional Sources Users (TSU)

Since by the year 2015 the government planned the potable water supply coverage to be
100%, traditional source users shall be excluded in the demand analysis.

4.1.2. Per Capita Demand by mode of Service

The amount of water used per person per day for daily life and activity is known as per capita
water demand and it uses as a base for estimating the domestic water demand of the
community.

The average daily per capita water consumption varies widely, such variations depends upon
the differences in climatic conditions, standard of living, extent of sewer system, type of
commercial and industrial activity, water pricing, resort to private supplies, water quality for
domestic and industrial purposes, distribution system pressure, completeness of meterage,
and system management.

Individual house connections provide the highest level of service among those. In the
selection of the type of water supply system, finance is usually an important factor, and the
choice also depends on the location and the size of the population, the economic situation and
living standard and the available water source.

Water use and consumption data are frequently expressed in liters per capita (head) per day
(lcd). Such data neglects the fact that in a household a considerable part of the water use is
shared by all members of a family (e.g. cooking, cleaning). The demand for different
connections depends on the status of the community or the level of the town.

Table 4-1: Per capita demand by mode service

Category House connection Yard Connection Public Taps

Small Medium Large Small Medium Large Rural Small Medium Large
town town town town town town town town town

Drinking 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Cooking 5 6 6.5 3.5 4 4 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
Ablution 5 6 6.5 3.5 4 4
Washing 5 6 6.5 4.5 5 5 2 2 5 5
dishes
Laundry 11 13 14.5 7 8 10 7 7 7 7
House 4.5 5 5.5 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
cleaning
Bathing 10 18 20 6 7 12 3 3 5 5
Toilet 9 10 11 3.5 4 4
Others 5 5
Total 51 65.5 77 32.5 36.5 48.5 20 20 25 25

4.1.3. Projected Per Capita Water Demand by Mode of Service (l/c/d)

To calculate the projected water demand by mode of service 3% for house and yard
connection and 2% for public connection is considered. But this projection rate can be
modified by the designer if historical data of consumption by mode of service is available for
a considerable time.

Table 4-2: Projected Per Capita Water Demand by Mode of Service (l/c/d)

House connection Yard Connection Public Taps

Service Small Medium Large Small Medium Large Rural Small Medium Large
Year town town town town town town town town town
Base Year 51 65.5 77 32.5 36.5 48.5 20 20 25 25
5 59.12 75.93 89.26 37.68 42.31 56.22 22.08 22.08 27.6 27.6
10 68.54 88.03 103.48 43.68 49.05 65.18 24.38 24.38 30.47 30.47
15 79.46 102.05 119.96 50.63 56.87 75.56 26.92 26.92 33.65 33.65
20 92.11 118.3 139.07 58.7 65.92 87.6 29.72 29.72 37.15 37.15

4.1.4. Population Served by Mode of Service

The percentage of population to be served by each demand category (mode of service) will
vary with time. The variation is caused by changes in living standards, improvement of the
service level and the capacity of the water supply service. The standard approach for
formulating the percentage of population served by different modes would normally involve
a detail analysis of past consumption trends based on household survey (to be collected
during design).
4.1.5. Projected Domestic Demand

The projected average day domestic water demand for a particular year is obtained by
multiplying the per capita demand in each category for the year under consideration with the
corresponding population figure for the same year. The total domestic demand is then
obtained by summing the results for all the demand categories.

4.1.6. Climatic and Socio-Economic Adjustment Factors

4.1.7. Climatic Factors

In addition to the per capita water demand and mode of services which influence the quantity
of water consumption, the climate of the area is also directly related to water consumption.
For this reason, those areas which get more rainfall (900mm) require a reduction in the water
consumption pattern, where as those areas which receive lesser annual rainfall require an
increase for the climate condition.

Table 4-3: Climatic adjustment factors

Altitude Factor
0.8
>3300
2300-3300 0.9
1500-2300 1.0
500-1500 1.3
<500 1.5
Source: Design Guideline for Water Supply Projects, Oromia Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise (December, 2008)

4.1.7.1. Socio-Economic Factors

The Socio-economic development and the standard of living also affect the per capita water
consumption. Towns with high/low living standards require an adjustment factor as
compared to towns under normal condition and so on.

Table 4-4: Socio-Economic Factors

Group Description Factor

Towns enjoying high living standards and with very high potential for
A 1.10
development
 Towns having a very high potential for development but lower living
B 1.05
standard at present

C Towns under normal Ethiopian conditions 1.00

D Rural villages 0.90

4.2. Non Domestic Water Demand

4.2.1. Institutional and commercial Water Demand

The water required for schools, hospitals, hotels public facilities, parks, offices, commercial
establishments, and military camps are included in this demand category.

In case where it is possible to estimate the no of public institutions and commercial services
the following water demand figures can be adopted.

Restaurants 10 l/seat
Boarding school 60 l/pupil
Day schools 5 l/pupil
Public offices 5 l/employee
Workshop/shops 5 l/employee
Mosques & Church 5 1/worshipper
Cinema house 4 l/seat
Abattoir 150 l/cow
Hospitals 50 - 75 l/bed
Hotels 25 -50 l/bed
Public Bath 30 l/visitor
Railway & Bus station 5 l/user
Military Camps 60 l/person
Public latrines 20 litres/seat
(with water facility connection)
Source: urban water supply criteria (MoWR, January 31, 2006)
4.2.2. Industrial Water Demand

Generally large industries develop their own water supply systems. Only small industries
purchase water and, therefore, impose demand on local water supply systems. Industrial
water demand may be estimated on the bases of proposed industrial zoning and the type of
industries most likely to develop with in the area.

However the following values can be taken to some demands:

Steel 150m3/ton
Tannery 70-80m3/ton
Garment, confectionery 50m3/ton
Biscuits, pasta and similar 8-15m3/ton
Rubber and synthetic 15m3/ton
Concrete products 1m3/ton
Soft drinks 15lit/lit. product
Beer 10lit/lit product
Canned food 950lit/can

Source: Mekele Town water supply development project.

4.2.3. Live stoke Water Demand

The demand for livestock watering from the public water supply system shall be assessed for
each town individually during the socio-economic survey.

When animal watering is to be allowed for, the following specific demands will be adopted:

Cattle, donkeys, horses, etc: 50 l/head/day

Goats/sheep: 10 l/head/day

Camel 150 l/head/month

Source: urban water supply criteria (MoWR, January 31, 2006)

4.2.4. Fire Fighting Water Demand

Water demand for firefighting purposes shall be assessed on a town-by-town basis,

depending on the existence of equipment and the capacity of any fire fighting service. This
demand is taken by increasing the volume of the storage tanks by 10 percent for large and
medium towns.

In general there are two methods to provide water for firefighting purpose. These are:

1. To meet fire fighting requirement directly from the distribution network, with a limitation of
minimum allowable pressure in the system to be 50m or accepted design standard.
2. To install fire hydrant at lower elevated nodes of the distribution system so that the fire
brigade trucks can fill in by the available head. Depending on the degree of fire break-out,
this method may require closing several valves and directly water to fire hydrant.

From the above two methods ―1‖ incur additional cost on the project particularly on the
distribution network. Therefore the second method is preferred with the assumption that fire
brigade trucks fitted with water tanks and high pressure pumps will be made available by the
municipality. As stated under ―2‖ it may not require closing gate valves as such as long as
water is available in the system as the water always flows to the lowest point in the network.
Fire hydrants will be installed at low point for this purpose.

4.3. Unaccounted Water

All the water that is produced and distributed through the distribution pipe system does not
reach the consumer. Some portion of this wasted in the pipe lines due to defective pipe joints,
cracked and broken pipes, faulty valves and fittings. Some public taps are left open even
when there are no users and water is wasted continuously. Unaccounted for water also
includes illegal connection, unmetered usages such as flashing, cleaning the system and over
flow from components of the water supply system. If there is considerable leakage or
unauthorized withdrawal of water from the distribution system, the required supply of water
will obviously be greater.

Unaccounted-for water (UFW) is expressed as a percentage of the total water produced for
the system which is the difference between water produced and water consumed or sold.

Table 4-5: Unaccounted Water

Town Losses as % of Production

Start year 5 years 10 years 15 years 20years
Large towns 40% 35% 30% 32.5% 35%
Medium towns 40% 35% 30% 32.5% 35%
Small towns 26% 23% 20% 22% -
Rural villages 26% 23% 20% 22% -

4.4. Variation of Water Use

Water use varies from season to season, from day to day and hour to hour. Water
requirements in the dry season are more than in wet season. The use of water is also more
during weekends than working days. More water is also required at rush hours when people
come back from work than on normal working hours. Therefore, to satisfy this variation of
demand the average day demand is scaled up by certain factors to get the maximum day
demand and peak hour demand. These scaled up water demand figures are used to size or
determine the capacities of the water supply system like pump stations, rising main and pipe
distribution networks.

4.4.1. Maximum Day Demand

Many communities exhibit a demand cycle that is higher in one day of the week than in
others. This situation shall be taken into account by the use of a peak day factor. The value
adopted for the design of each individual scheme shall be selected according to judicious
observance of the habits of consumers and the knowledge of the community and system
operators. It is expected that any value selected for the peak day factor would not fall outside
the above range.

4.4.2. Peak Hour Demand

The water demand is not constant throughout the day and varies greatly over the day.
Generally, the demand is lowest during the night and highest during morning or evening
hours of the day. Moreover, this variation is very high for single dwellings and decreases
gradually as population increases. The ratio of peak hourly demand to average hourly
demand is defined as peak factor. The distribution system must be designed to cope with the
peak demand, which is taken into account by the use of a peak hour factor.

Table 4-6: Recommended Water Demand Peak Factors

Population Size Maximum day factor Peak hour factor

 <2,000 1.3-1.5 2.6
2,000-10,000 2.4-2.2
10,000-50,000 2.2-1.8
50,000-80,000 1.2 1.8-1.7
>80,000 <1.7
Source: The World Bank Issue Paper for project design, Draft Final Report

Hourly Factors(Dangila)
2.5
2.25
Peak hour factor
2 Average hourly factor
1.75
Hour factors

1.5
1.25
1
0.75
0.5
0.25
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
Time in hr

Figure 4-1: Peak Hour Factors (Dangila as Sample)

5. Water Sources, Adequacy, Reliability and Quality

5.1. Water Supply Sources

5.1.1. General

Choosing suitable water sources for development into a public water supply largely depends
on water demand, that is choice of water sources for urban cities or rural community is based
on different point. In case of rural water supply, water demand is usually small, but choice of
water source shall be oriented with a viewpoint of low maintenance. In contrast, for urban
water supply, a great bulk of water is required.

In water supply for small community, ground water such as springs, shallow wells, and deep
wells are considerable sources, but surface water is likely to require some treatment to render
it safe for human consumption and use. Ground water is suitable for urban water supply as
well, but combination of ground water and surface is common choice by a great bulk of
water demand.

The origin of all water is rainfall. Water can be collected as it falls as rain before it reaches
the ground; or as surface water when it flows over the ground; or is pooled in lakes or ponds;
or as ground water when it percolates in to the ground and flows or collects as ground water;
from the sea (ocean) in to which it finally flows.

Therefore sources of water supply schemes can conveniently be classified as follows:

1. Rain
2. Surface water:
 Rivers
 Lakes
 Pond
 Sea water
 Impounding reservoirs
 Wastewater reclamation
3. Underground sources
 Springs
o Depression springs
o Contact springs
o Artesian springs
o Hot springs
 Wells
o Shallow wells
o Deep wells
o Infiltration galleries
o Infiltration wells

Impounding reservoirs: Are artificial lakes formed by the construction of dams across a
valley.

Wastewater reclamation: Sewage or other waste water may be used as source of water for
cooling, flushing water closets (WCS), watering lawns, parks, etc. for fire fighting and for
certain industrial purposes after giving the necessary treatment to suit the nature of the use.
Springs: Are formed when ground water appears at the ground surface for any reason as a
current of flowing water.

The choice of water supply to a town or city depends on the following:

 Location
 Quantity of water
 Quality of water
 Cost

1. Location: The sources of water should be as near as to the town as possible.

2. Quantity of water: the source of water should have sufficient quantity of water to meet up all the
water demand through out the design period.
3. Quality of water: The quality of water should be good which can be easily and cheaply treated.
4. Cost. The cost of the units of the water supply schemes should be minimum

The selection of the source of supply is done on the above points and the source which will
give good quality and quantity at least cost will be selected. This economic policy may lead
to the selection of both surface and ground water sources to very big cities.

11.1. Water Supply Adequacy and reliability

11.2. Water Supply Quality
 Physical properties
 Chemical property
 Bacteriological property

5.2. Water Supply Adequacy and Reliability

5.3. Potable Water Supply Quality

6. Design of Water Supply Facilities

6.1. River Intakes

Intakes are structures in a surface water source to draw water from this source and then
discharge in to an intake conduit through which it will flow in to the water works system.
An intake consists of:
 The opening, strainer, or grating through which the water enters, and
 The conduit conveying the water, usually by gravity, to a well or sump.

From the well the water is pumped to the mains or treatment plant. Intakes should be so
located and designed that possibility of interference with the supply is minimized and where
uncertainty of continuous serviceability exists, intakes should be duplicated.

The following must be considered in designing and locating intakes:

a) The source of supply, whether impounding reservoirs, lakes, or rivers (including the
possibility of wide fluctuation in water level).
b) The character of the intake surroundings.
 Depth of water
 Character of bottom
 Navigation requirement
 The effect of currents floods and storms up on the structure and in scouring
the bottom.
c) The location with respect to sources of pollution; and
d) The prevalence of floating materials such as ice, and vegetation

6.2. Treatment Plant Design

The main purpose of water treatment is to covert the raw water from the ground or surface
sources in to a drinking water suitable for domestic use and its importance is for the removal
of:

 Pathogenic organisms
 Unpleasant taste and odor
 Excessive color and turbidity
  Certain dissolved minerals
 Harmful chemical species

From 7
Source 1 2 3 4 5 6

1. Balancing chamber/raw water well

2. Aeration
3. Coagulation/ flocculation
4. Sedimentation tank
5. Sand filtration (rapid or slow)
6. Disinfection/chlorination (clear water well)
7. Service reservoir

6.2.1. Ground Water Treatment

 Aeration
 PH correction
 Disinfection/Chlorination

6.2.2. Surface Water Treatment

Screening : will be considered at the water intake and/or the treatment plant head work
where it might be incorporated in a common structure used also accommodate aeration (if
necessary ) and chemical injection function.

Aeration: might be applied in case of high iron or CO2 concentration in the raw water in
conjunction with the coagulation mixing. Cascade aerator would usually be considered.

Coagulation: utilizing rapid mixing device of coagulating agent. Normally aluminum sulfate
will be considered as coagulating agent, prepared in solution tanks at concentration of around
10% prepared in two tanks of 12hrs working time each to achieve final dosage of, say, 40 to
100mg/lit.

Flocculation: usually achieved by passing the water through baffled channels providing the
minimum detention time usually around 3hr.
Flocculation is the process of gentle and continuous agitation, during which suspended
particles in the water coalesce (join together) into larger masses so that they may be removed
from the water in subsequent treatment processes, particularly by sedimentation. Flocculation
follows directly after the rapid mix process and, like rapid mixing, the agitation may be
included either by mechanical or hydraulic means.

In this process formed floc in the filter usually with 5 to 20 minutes of mechanical or
hydraulic flocculation.

The process of fine particles in water with chemical reaction is called Coagulation.

Fine particles + water +chemicals (Coagulant) = Coagulation

Coagulated water = floc + water = flocculation

The two common types of flocculators are

1. Mechanical flocculators

2. Hydraulic flocculators (channels with baffles, jet action flocculators and gravel bed
flocculators)

Sedimentation: is the settling and removal of suspended particles that takes place when
water stands still in or flows slowly through a basin.

The efficiency of sedimentation tank is the removal of suspended particles, which determined
by using settling velocity (S) of a particle in the detention time (T) with the full depth (H) of
the tank.

Where, So = settling velocity (m/hr)

T = detention time (hr)

Q = flow rate (m3/hr)

H = depth of tank (m)

B = width of tank (m)

L = length (m)
The design of settling tank should be based on the settling velocities of the settleable
particles in the raw water:

Design criteria for clarifier (coagulation + flocculation) sedimentation basin

Parameter Ranges of values

Surface loading 1-3(m3/hr)/m2

Minimum depth 2

Ration between length & width 3 to 8

Horizontal velocity of flow 4 to 36 m/hr

Detention time 3-8hr

Note: sedimentation basin (tank) should be prior to rapid sand filtration

Design criteria for plain sedimentation basins:

Parameter Range of values

Detention time 3-8 hr

Surface loading 0.1-1 m/hr

Depth of basin 1.5-2.5 m

Length/depth ratio 3:1-8:1

Length /depth ratio 5:1 to 20:1

Sand filtration: is the process whereby water is purified by passing it through a porous material
(medium). There are two common filtration systems:

Slow sand filtration

In slow sand filtration a bed of fine sand is used through which the water slowly percolates down
ward.

Table 6-1: General design criteria for slow sand filters

No. Parameter Range Preferable value

Filtration velocity (m/hr) 0.1-0.2 0.1
Depth filter bed (m) 1-1.4 1
Height of supernatant water (m) 1-1.5 1
Depth of system of under drains (m) 0.3-0.5 .4
No. of filters Minimum of two

Rapid sand filtration

Design considerations (design criteria)

For the design of rapid filter focused on four main parameters:

1. The grain size of the filtration material

2. The thickness of the filter bed

3. The depth of the supernatant water

4. The rate of filtration

In general in designing rapid gravity sand filter the following criteria are suggested;

1. Capacity of unit: it is desirable to have at least two units.

2. Length to width ratio: 1.25-1.33

3. Rate of filtration about 100lit/m2 of the surface area of sand bed per min = 6m3/m2/hr

4. Under drains:

a. Length of lateral < 60

Diameter of lateral
b. Diameter of perforations in laterals 6mm-13mm @ spacing of 7.5cm and 20cm
respectively.

c. Total area of perforation = 0.2%

Total filter area
d. Total area of perforates = 0.25-0.5 for diameter of perforations as 6mm
Total area of laterals and 13mm respectively
e. Spacing lateral = 30cm maximum

f. Total area manifold = 1.75- 2 times the sum of the cross sectional area of laterals.

5. Rate of washing = 15m-90m rise/min. A figure of 45cm/m is quite acceptable. This rate
can be provided by a flow of 500lit/m2 of bed area per meter.

6. Amount of wash water = 2-4% of the total water filtered.

7. Time of washing 10-15min; time between washing = 24-48hrs

8. Pressure at which wash water is supplied = 0.4kg/cm2

9. Maximum permissible velocity in the manifold to provide the required amount of wash
water = 1.8-2.4 m/s.

Disinfection/chlorination: is usually carried out by using commercial grade calcium

hypochlorite (bleaching powder) in concentrations as for pre-chlorinating. Dosage rates will as
deemed appropriate to meet specific site conditions in order to reach final residual concentration
of 0.5 mg/lit chlorine.

Choice of Treatment Process

The primary factors influencing the selection of treatment processes are:

 Treated water specification-WHO, etc.

 Raw water qualities and its variations

 Relative cost of different treatment process

 Local constraints (fund, material, skill, local codes, construction equipment, local
tradition, custom, etc.)

6.3. Transmission Mains and Collector Pipelines

Water is required to be carried over long distances through pipelines. Selection of water
transmission type depends on the topography and local conditions. If the flow in a water
transmission line is maintained by creating a pressure head by pumping, it is called a pumping
main. On the other hand, if the flow in a water transmission line is maintained through the
elevation difference, it is called gravity main. Water transmission lines generally require a
considerable capital investment. A careful consideration of all technical options and their costs
is, therefore, necessary when selecting the best solution in a particular case.

Rising/pumping and gravity transmission mains from source to distribution should be designed
for the maximum day demand, based on the design hours of water source operation. Storage
facilities at the termination of the transmission main(s) should cater for the peak hourly flow in
the distribution system. The number and diameters of transmission pipes should be determined
primarily on the basis of economic considerations, comprising either a single large diameter pipe
of sufficient capacity for the final planning horizon or several parallel pipes of smaller diameter,
installed at various intermediate horizons. The economic analysis should take into account the
cost of pipe and energy to determine its optional diameter (which should normally be selected
from the standard range diameters). However, engineering considerations should also be taken
into account if important.

Where gravity mains and rising main involve working or static pressures that are higher than
advisable in relation to pump capacities or pipe pressure ratings, and then break pressure tanks
and/or booster stations will be considered.
No house connections should be made to rising mains, in case of gravity main small number of
service connections can be served.

The static state pressures in pipelines must be less than the pipe nominal pressure rating. In the
case of long mains where water hammer risk is expected, due attention must be given to the pipe
material and a proper water hammer analysis carried out (especially for large towns).

Experience shows that a pipe designed to flow at a velocity between 0.6 and 1.5 m/sec,
depending on diameter, is usually at optimum condition (head loss versus cost). Short sections,
particularly at special cases, e.g. at inlet and outlet of pumps, may be designed for higher
velocities (MoWR, 2006).

6.3.1. Choice between Gravity and Pumping Systems

A pumping system can be adopted in any type of topographic configuration. On the other hand,
the gravity system is feasible only if the input point is at a higher elevation than all the
withdrawal points. If the elevation difference between the input point and the withdrawal point is
very small, the required pipe diameters will be large, and the design will not be economic in
comparison with the corresponding pumping system. Thus, there exists a critical elevation
difference at which both gravity and pumping systems will have the same cost. If the elevation
difference is greater than this critical difference, the gravity system will have an edge over the
pumping alternative.

Table 6-2: Comparison of pumping and gravity systems

Item gravity system pumping system

Conveyance main gravity main pumping main

Energy source gravitational potential external energy

Input point intake chamber pumping station

Pressure corrector break pressure tank Booster

Storage reservoir surface reservoir elevated reservoir

Source of water natural water course well, river, lake, or dam

6.4. Distribution Networks
6.4.1. General

A pipeline with the input point at one end and several withdrawals at intermediate points and
also at the exit point is called a water distribution main. The flow in a distribution main is
sustained either by gravity or by pumping.

In case of gravity-sustained systems, the input point can be a reservoir or any water source at an
elevation higher than all other points of the system. Such systems are generally possible where
the topographical (elevation) differences between the source (input) and withdrawal (demand)
points are reasonably high.

Pumping distribution mains are provided for sustaining the flow if the elevation difference
between the entry and the exit points is very small, also if the exit point level or an intermediate
withdrawal point level is higher than the entry point level.

6.4.2. Pipe Network Geometry

The water distribution networks have mainly the following three types of configurations:

 Branched or tree-like configuration

 Looped configuration
 Branched and looped configuration

A pipe network in which there are one or more closed loops is called a looped network and a
branched network, or a tree network, is a distribution system having no loops.

Looped networks are preferred from the reliability point of view. If one or more pipelines are
closed for repair, water can still reach the consumer by a circuitous route incurring more head
loss. This feature is absent in a branched network. With the changing demand pattern, not only
the magnitudes of the discharge but also the flow directions change in many links. Thus, the flow
directions go on changing in a large looped network.

Town water supply network shall be designed as looped system as much as possible so that it
will be suitable and advantageous in operation. However for rural water supply, branched
networks shall be used.
6.4.3. Pipe Sizes and Flow Velocities in Distribution Networks

The distribution network will be designed for the peak hourly demand. Distribution systems
should be planned with either one large diameter pipe suitable for the final planning horizon, or
multiple smaller diameter pipes installed at various intermediate-planning horizons. An
economic analysis should be carried out to determine the cheapest solution.

The minimum size of pipes in a water distribution system to be considered for primary and
secondary networks should be DN 2‖. Tertiary pipes may be below DN 2‖, but not below DN 1‖.
Large scale networks may conceivably have a larger minimum diameter for primary and
secondary pipes. The mains are duplicated where the design diameters are larger than the
commercially available sizes.

The existing primary and secondary distribution networks which are not seriously leaking and
not very old shall be incorporated in to the new system.

Water velocities shall be maintained at less than 2.2 m/sec, except in short sections (except in
short sections). A minimum velocity of 0.6m/sec can be taken, but for looped systems there will
be pipelines with sections of zero velocity.

6.4.4. Nodal Pressure Requirements and Zoning

The operating pressures in the distribution network shall be as follows:

 As a rule, a minimum of 15m manometric head is considered adequate during peak hour
demands. However, in exceptional and rural water supply cases, depending on the topography of
the area, lower pressures may be permitted, but not less than 5m.
 A maximum of 100 m manometric head, to avoid the risk of leak and burst in the distribution
system, particularly during minimum flow conditions. If necessary, the distribution system is
divided in separate pressure zones so that the maximum possible pressure does not exceed 100m.
Similarly, when a part of the supply area is at high elevation which needs elevated tower zoning
is advisable.
 Pipe pressure classes are chosen for the maximum pressure head that may occur under no or
minimum consumption conditions which is set at 10 percent of the average day demand and the
service reservoir at maximum water level.
  Pipes in the distribution system should be selected in such a way that the pipe nominal pressure
is greater than the static state pressures in pipelines.

Large water distribution systems are difficult to design, maintain, and operate, thus are divided
into small subsystems called water supply zones. Each subsystem contains an input point (supply
source) and distribution network. It is not only easy to design subsystems but also economic due
to reduced pipe sizes and energy costs.

6.4.5. Nodal Demand Determination

Water will be abstracted from the network at various nodes (except the input nodes) which will
be known as output nodes. The amount of withdrawal from a node will depend upon the
expected water demand at the vicinity of the node. The network should be able to deliver the
required flow to each node with a pressure head of at least 15 m. Nodal demand determination
should be based on all the design period of the project (i.e. both phases need to be considered).

Calculations must be done as follows for designating the output nodes and the outflow from such
nodes:

 Designate an area in the immediate vicinity of the output node as the area whose water
demand will be met by that node.
 Calculate the water demand from that area. The water abstraction rate from the output
node will be equal to the water demand.
 Similarly calculate the water abstraction rate from each output node.
 The total water abstraction rate must be exactly equal to the water inflow to the water
distribution system.

In general even if we have to follow the above mentioned steps in nodal demand calculation we
have to consider:

 Development plan
 Potential expansion

6.5. Pipe Material Selection

Different applications or operating conditions call for the use of different types of pipes for
pipeline projects. An engineer cannot make a wise selection of the best pipe needed for a given
project without some understanding of the characteristics of the various types of pipes
commercially available. Pipes commonly used for water supply projects are un-Plasticized PVC
(uPVC), Asbestos Cement (AC), High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE), Ductile Cast Iron (DCI),
Stainless Steel and Galvanized Steel (GS). These pipes have different roughness heights,
working pressure, and cost. The selection of particular pipe material is based on local cost,
maximum water pressure on pipes (working pressure), commercial pipe sizes availability, soil
strata, and overburden pressure.

Generally, the choice of pipe material is dependent on the following factors:

 Characteristics of the soil

 Chemical nature of the water
 Comparative cost of alternative pipes
 Weather condition of the area
 Geologic formation of the pipe route
 Expected internal and external pressure in the pipe

The following pipe material will be normally selected:

a) Metal pipes (DCI/GS): will be laid where exposed above the ground for special sections such as
drain/stream crossing and/or other cases. The choice between DCI and GS pipe will be based on
opportunity cost of the pipes, quality of water, convenience of handling and pipe line formation
and availability on the market.
b) Large diameter pipes (DN400 and above): could be of DCI depending on the opportunity cost of
relevant pipes.
c) uPVC and/or HDPE: will be laid where the pipe route formation allows i.e., when it is not a rock
formation (for DN400 and below) and based on its opportunity cost.
d) For service pipes less DN 2’’ GI or HDPE pipes can be used based on opportunity costs and
convenience of pipe line formation and handling.

6.6. Alignment and Depth of Pipelines

6.6.1. Alignment of Pipelines

The following considerations should govern the alignment of mains within a supply area:
 Mains to follow the shortest route between the head works and the supply area, with deviations
only where necessitated by topographical conditions
  Wherever possible, mains should be laid at road sides or verges, footpaths or green strips to
facilitate inspection (for detection of any leakage, inoperative valves, damage etc.) and to provide
ready access for maintence and repair
 Mains to be laid along roads should be located at a minimum distance of 100cm outside from the
edge of the road or the roadside drain. Where this cannot be maintained special arrangements will
be made.
 Distribution systems forming part of the main grid should follow the existing or planned roads,
while observing the necessary requirements for hydraulic efficiency and economy.
 Mains running in parallel with underground cables will be located at a minimum distance of
90cm away from the cable.
 Mains running in parallel with or near over head will have a clearance of at least 1.5m between
the base of poles and the wall of the pipe trench.
 Whenever a main crosses in the form of an inverted siphon under the drain, sewer ,pipe or culvert
it will be protected by a concrete surround.

6.6.2. Depth of Pipelines

The criteria governing the depth at which pipes are laid are, on the one hand, protection and
safety of the pipeline, and on the other hand, easy maintenance and avoidance of excessive earth
pressure and live load due to traffic. In these respects, the following criteria should be adopted:

 Mains laid in rocky conditions may have a minimum cover of 60 cm, or could be surface laid
if security and anchorage concerns are properly addressed
 Where the minimum cover cannot be achieved, a buried pipeline will be encased in a
concrete surround
 Mains unavoidably laid under carriageways or at road verges should have a minimum cover
of 100cm for pipes of less than DN 400mm, and 120cm for pipes of DN400mm and larger.
 Mains crossing underground cables will be generally laid at a minimum depth of 90cm below
such cables.
 Mains laid in trenches in soil should have a normal minimum cover as shown in the table
below.

Table 6-3: Recommended Cover Depth

Pipe Material Depth Cover (cm)

 uPVC 90
DCI 80
Galvanized Steel (GS) 80
Stainless steel 80
HDPE 90
Note: Open test pits at a considerable distance should be seen along the pipe route to determine
volume of excavation in different formations and fix pipe type and pipe invert levels
accordingly.

6.7. Hydraulic Design of Pipelines

6.7.1. Flow in pipe

Pipe flow is the most commonly used mode of carrying fluids for small to moderately large
discharges. In a pipe flow, fluid fills the entire cross section, and no free surface is formed. The
fluid pressure is generally greater than the atmospheric pressure but in certain reaches it may be
less than the atmospheric pressure, allowing free flow to continue through siphon action.
However, if the pressure is much less than the atmospheric pressure, the dissolved gases in the
fluid will come out and the continuity of the fluid in the pipeline will be hampered and flow will
stop. In some cases, pipes may be designed as partially full.

The flow in pipelines uses the basic principles of flow hydraulics such as continuity equation,
equations of motion/energy equation, and momentum equations for close conduit. Another
important area of pipe flows is to understand and calculate resistance losses and form losses due
to pipe fittings (i.e., bends, elbows, valves, enlargers and reducers), which are the essential parts
of a pipe network. Suitable equations for form-losses calculations are required for total head-loss
computation as fittings can contribute significant head loss to the system.

The continuity equation for steady flow in a circular pipe of diameter D is:
Where A1 and A2 are the cross-sectional areas of the pipe at sections 1 and 2; V1 and V2 are the
cross-sectional average velocities (mean velocities) at sections 1 and 2; and Q is the discharge
(i.e., volumetric flow rate) at either section.

The equation of motion/energy equation for steady flow is:

Where subscripts 1 and 2 refer to an upstream section and a downstream section, respectively; p
is the average pressure at a cross section; z is the average elevation of a cross section from
arbitrary datum(elevations of the centerline of the pipe); g is the gravitational acceleration; is
the specific weight of the fluid; is the energy correction factor; hL is the head loss along the
pipe between sections 1 and 2; and hp is the pump head, i.e., the energy per unit weight of the
fluid imparted by pumps that may exist in the pipeline between sections 1 and 2.

For fully developed laminar flow in pipe = 2.0; for fully developed turbulent flow, is in the
neighborhood of 1.05 (normally taken to be unity for turbulent flow). Since pressure head, h

The momentum equation for any steady flow is:

Where F is the force on the fluid in the flow direction; A is the cross-sectional area; V is the
cross-sectional mean velocity; Q is the discharge; is the momentum correction factor; and
subscripts 1 and 2 refer to an upstream and a downstream cross section, respectively.

For fully developed laminar and turbulent flows in pipes, the value of are respectively 4/3 and
1.02, approximately. In ordinary practice, especially in ordinary turbulent pipe flow, is taken to
be 1.0

6.7.2. Determination of Pipe Diameter in Transmission Pipelines

The optimal size of a transmission main shall be determined by Lea formula (Garg, 1990) gives
the Range as 0.97 < k < 1.22 in SI units.
6.7.3. Head Loss

The head loss hL is composed of two parts: hf = head loss on account of surface resistance (also
called friction loss), and hm = head loss due to form resistance, which is the head loss on account
of change in shape of the pipeline (also called minor loss). Thus, hL = hf + hm.

6.7.3.1. Surface Resistance

Continuous resistance is exerted by the pipe walls during water flow. This resistance depends on
the flow rate, pipe dimension and internal roughness of the pipe material as well as from the fluid
viscosity which results linear head loss along the pipe line. This loss is commonly referred as
head friction loss. The most common and frequently used equations/formulae in the design of
water supply system are Darcy-Weisbach and Hazen-Williams for pressurized flows and
Manning for partially full pipes and/or canals.
Darcy-Weisbach Formula:

The head loss on account of surface resistance is given by the Darcy – Weisbach equation

Where, loss in meter of water column (m)

f = Darcy-Weisbach coefficient of surface resistance (frictional factor)

L = Length of considered pipe section (m)
D = Diameter of pipe (m)
Q = Discharge flow through pipe (m3/s)
G = acceleration due to gravity (m2/s)
V = Velocity of flow through pipe (m/s)

The coefficient of surface resistance for turbulent flow depends on the average height of
roughness projection, , of the pipe wall. Darcy-Weisbach Equation (Colebrook-White)
commonly used roughness values for different materials are available from standard tables.
These values may vary depending on the manufacturer, workmanship, age, and many other
factors.

Table 6-4: Darcy-Weisbach Roughness Heights, e, for Closed Conduits

Pipe Material Roughness height, e (mm)

Glass, drawn brass, copper (new) 0.0015
Plastic 0.0015
 Seamless commercial steel (new) 0.004
Commercial steel (enamel coated) 0.0048
Commercial steel (new) 0.045
Wrought iron (new) 0.045
Asphalted cast iron (new) 0.12
Galvanized iron 0.15
Cast iron (new) 0.26
Concrete (steel forms, smooth) 0.18
Concrete (good joints, average) 0.36
Concrete (rough, visible, form marks) 0.6
Riveted steel (new) 0.9 ~ 9.0
Corrugated metal 45

The coefficient of surface resistance also depends on the Reynolds number R of the flow, defined
as:

Where, kinematic viscosity of fluid that can be obtained using the equation given by
Swamee (2004)

{ [ ] }

Where, is the kinematic viscosity (m2/s )

Average height of roughness of the material
T = Temperature in degree Celsius (oC)

For turbulent flow (R>4000), Colebrook (1938) found the following implicit equation for f:

[ ( )]
√

Using Equation above (), Moody (1944) constructed a family of curves between f and R for
various values of relative roughness /D.

For laminar flow (R<2000), f depends on R only and is given by the Hagen –Poiseuille equation:

Swamee (1993) gave the following equation for f valid in the laminar flow, turbulent flow, and
the transition in between them:
 {( ) [ ( ) ( ) ] }

For turbulent flow, Equation above () simplifies to:

[ ( )]

Combing with Eq. (Reynolds number), Eq. (above) can be rewritten as:

{ [ ( ) ]}

Hazen-William formula:

Where, loss in meter of water column (m)

C = Hazen-Williams roughness coefficient
L = Length of considered pipe section (m)
D = Diameter of pipe (m)
Q = Discharge flow through pipe (m3/s)

Hazen-Williams Equation: Commonly used roughness values for different materials are. These
values may vary depending on the manufacturer, workmanship, age, and many other factors.

Table 6-5: Hazen-Williams Roughness Coefficients (C)

Pipe Material C
Asbestos Cement 140
Brass 130-140
Brick sewer 100
Cast-iron
New, unlined 130
10 yr. Old 107-113
20 yr. Old 89-100
30 yr. Old 75-90
40 yr. Old 64-83
Concrete or concrete lined
Steel forms 140
Wooden forms 120
Centrifugally spun 135
 Copper 130-140
Galvanized iron 120
Glass 140
Lead 130-140
Plastic 140-150
Steel
Coal-tar enamel, lined 145-150
New unlined 140-150
Riveted 110
Tin 130
Vitrified clay (good condition) 110-140
Wood stave (average condition) 120
Manning Formula:

Manning’s Equation: Commonly used roughness values for different materials are. These values
may vary depending on the manufacturer, workmanship, age, and many other factors.

Table 6-6: Manning’s Coefficient (n) for Closed Metal Conduits Flowing Partly Full
Channel Type and Description Minimum Normal Maximum
a. Brass, smooth 0.009 0.01 0.013
b. Steel
1. Lockbar and welded 0.01 0.012 0.014
2. Riveted and spiral 0.013 0.016 0.017
c. Cast iron
1. Coated 0.01 0.013 0.014
2. Uncoated 0.011 0.014 0.016
d. Wrought iron
1. Black 0.012 0.014 0.015
2. Galvanized 0.013 0.016 0.017
e. Corrugated metal
1. Subdrain 0.017 0.019 0.021
2. Storm drain 0.021 0.024 0.03

Because of many non-empirical origins, the Darcy-Weisbach equation is viewed by many engineers as
the most accurate method for modeling frication losses. However, the Hazen-Williams’ formula is widely
used for manual design and analysis of pipe line system for its less complexity. Using a personal
computer, designing pipes based on ―f‖ by using the Darcy-Weisbach equation would be more accurate.
6.7.3.2. Form Resistance

The form-resistance losses are due to bends, elbows, valves, enlargers, reducers, and so forth.
Unevenness of inside pipe surface on account of imperfect workmanship also causes form loss.
A form loss develops at a pipe junction where many pipelines meet. Similarly, form loss is also
created at the junction of pipeline and service connection. All these losses, when added together,
may form a sizable part of overall head loss. Thus, the name ―minor loss‖ for form loss is a
misnomer when applied to a pipe network. In a water supply network, form losses play a
significant role. However, form losses are unimportant in water transmission lines like gravity
mains or pumping mains that are long pipelines having no off-takes. Form loss is expressed in

the following form:

Fitting Loss Coefficients: For similar fittings, the K-value is highly dependent on things such as bend
radius and contraction ratios. Designers are advised to check these values with pipe manufacturers.

Table 6-7: Typical Fitting K Coefficients

Fitting K Value Fitting K Value
Pipe Entrance 90° Smooth Bend
Bell mouth 0.03-0.05 Bend Radius / D = 4 0.16-0.18
Rounded 0.12-0.25 Bend Radius / D = 2 0.19-0.25
Sharp-Edged 0.5 Bend Radius / D = 1 0.35-0.40
Projecting 0.8 Mitered Bend
Contraction—Sudden q = 15° 0.05
D2/D1 = 0.80 0.18 q = 30° 0.1
D2/D1 = 0.50 0.37 q = 45° 0.2
D2/D1 = 0.20 0.49 q = 60° 0.35
Contraction—Conical q = 90° 0.8
D2/D1 = 0.80 0.05 Tee
D2/D1 = 0.50 0.07 Line Flow 0.30-0.40
D2/D1 = 0.20 0.08 Branch Flow 0.75-1.80
Expansion—Sudden Cross
D2/D1 = 0.80 0.16 Line Flow 0.5
D2/D1 = 0.50 0.57 Branch Flow 0.75
D2/D1 = 0.20 0.92 45° Wye
Expansion—Conical Line Flow 0.3
D2/D1 = 0.80 0.03 Branch Flow 0.5
D2/D1 = 0.50 0.08
D2/D1 = 0.20 0.13
6.7.4. Pipe Accessories

6.7.4.1. Air Release Valves

Removal of air in the pipe is the most important factor affecting the reliability and stability of
water supply.

Air vents of the double orifice kinetic type DN 80 should be installed on mains of diameter DN
250 and larger. DN 50 single orifice air vents should be installed on pipelines of smaller
diameter and for larger pipes where only accumulated air has to be expelled (i.e. emptying and
filling of the pipeline is not to be catered for).

Air vents in the distribution system will not be installed, except at up-and-over crossings and at large
diameter pipe dead-ends.
Air vents should be provided generally at the highest point in mains DN 150 and above and near isolating
valves on downhill slopes. In general, air vents will be installed as follows:
 Between water source and pump (where circumstances require);
 Downstream of pumps;
 At high points of vertical bends and over-crossings;
 On both sides of sharply dipping pipelines, e.g. at river crossings;
 Every 1000 m on long pipeline sections with mild slope.

6.7.4.2. Washouts

Washouts will be provided taking into account an emptying of the respective pipeline section in 3 to 4
hours. On mains of DN 250 and above, washouts will normally be of DN 100 or DN 80; on smaller
mains and pipelines, a washout of DN 50 should be installed. Two types of washouts may be considered:
 Vertical, installed on connection branch, possibly including a DN 80 cast iron hydrant.
 Horizontal, installed on connection branch and valve, with or without a drainpipe.
Washouts should be located at the lowest point of the pipeline, or next to a section valve, and where
possible, discharge to drains, streams, etc.
A flap check-valve is to be installed and secured at the ends of washout drainpipes, where they discharge
to the drainage system.
6.7.4.3. Other Valves

Check Valves (CVs): are used to maintain flow in only one direction by closing when the flow
begins to reverse.

Flow Control Valves (FCVs): FCVs are used to limit the maximum flow rate through the valve
from upstream to downstream.

Pressure Reducing Valves (PRVs): Pressure reducing valves are often used for separate
pressure zones in water distribution networks. These valves prevent the pressure downstream
from exceeding a specified level in order to avoid pressures that could have damaging effects on
the system.

Pressure Sustaining Valves (PSVs): Pressure sustaining valves maintain a specified pressure
upstream from the valve. Similar to the other regulating valves, these are often used to ensure
that pressures in the system (upstream, in this case) will not drop to unacceptable levels.

Pressure Breaker Valves (PBVs): Pressure breaker valves create a specified head loss across
the valve.

6.7.4.4. Fittings

Pipeline fittings (bends, tees, couplings, flanges, branches, elbows, etc.) should be as follows:

 Appropriate for the pipeline configuration; normally they will be of DCI, GS, HDPE, and uPVC
to match the pipeline material installed, the same diameter and the same or higher pressure class
of the pipeline in which they are installed.

 Wherever fittings for assembling steel pipes are required, they are to be of the same design
strength as that of the pipe.

 Fittings for GI pipes should be in GI material.

6.7.5. Pipe Appurtenant Structures

6.7.5.1. Valve Chambers

Concrete manholes or chambers are designed for each valve location for protection and to
provide easy access for different purposes. Design of valve chambers should consider:
  Sufficient working space to allow a spanner to be used on all bolts should be provided in
chambers for isolating, air and other valves.
 Venting of air-valve chambers should allow for adequate air flow.
 Roof slabs should be designed to allow for removal and replacement of the valve.
 Valve chambers should, where possible, be finished proud of the final ground level.
 Where necessary, the design should make provision for the possibility of differential settlement
between the valve chamber and the pipeline.

6.7.5.2. Anchorage and Thrust Blocks

 Whenever the pipeline changes vertically or horizontally or changes in size, concrete thrust
blocks are designed to resist the thrust force in the piping system.
 Concrete supports for pipes are designed whenever the pipes are laid above ground surface and
also in situations when the foundation formations are not good.
 Lateral transverse anchors are designed for conditions where pipes are laid in steep slopes.

6.7.5.3. Marker Posts

Marker posts should be placed along the transmission pipelines at intervals of 500m to locate the
pipe route. Marker posts should also be placed at all pipe bends and junctions in the main.

6.8. Reservoir Sizing

6.8.1. Service Reservoir

Operational reservoir(s) should be provided to command a distribution system, located at

elevation(s) providing the required pressure for water flow within the system. They should have
sufficient storage to cover the difference between hourly peak demand and actual supply from
the source, fire fighting demands if to be allowed for, and for a limited emergency volume in
case of power breakdown, repairs or O&M activities.

The storage reservoir sizing shall be carried out on the basis of supply and demand analysis over
24 hours period and designed for the maximum day demand first phase. Existing Reservoirs shall
be incorporated in to the new system, provided they fit in to the pressure zoning system of the
distribution network and are not leaking seriously or repairing will not improve the leakage
problem.
The two main types of reservoir are the ground level type (GLR) and elevated water tank type
(EWT). Whenever the local topographical conditions permit, ground level reservoirs are
preferable.

Ground level reservoirs will be usually be of solid block masonry or reinforced concrete,
cylindrical or rectangular but under special circumstances may be of glass reinforced plastic
(GRP).

Elevated water tanks will be cylindrical or rectangular in reinforced concrete.

A service reservoir has four main functions:

1. To balance the fluctuating demand from the distribution system, permitting the source to give
steady or differently phased output.
2. Provide a supply during a failure or shutdown of treatment plant, pumps or trunk main leading to
the reservoir.
3. To give a suitable pressure for the distribution system and reduce pressure fluctuations therein.
4. To provide a reserve of water to meet fire and other emergency demands.

Accessories of Service Reservoirs

The service reservoirs are to be provided with the following accessories:

1. Inlet Pipe : For the entry of water

2. Ladder : To reach the top of the reservoir and then to the bottom of the reservoir, for inspection
and cleaning
3. Lightening Conductor : In case of elevated reservoirs for the passage of lightening
4. Manholes : For providing entry to the inside of reservoir for inspection and cleaning
5. Outlet pipe: For the exit of water
6. Outflow Pipe : For the exit of water above full supply level
7. Vent pipes : For free circulation of air
8. Washout pipe : For removing water after cleaning of the reservoir
9. Water level indicator: To know the level of water inside the tank from outside.

The three major components of service storage are:

i) Equalizing or operating storage

ii) Fire reserve
iii) Emergency reserve
Equalizing or operating capacity can be obtained from a mass curve of water consumption rates
and pumping supply rates.

1. The capacity can be analytically determined by finding out maximum cumulative surplus during
the stage when pumping rate is higher than water consumption rate and adding to this maximum
cumulative deficit which occurs during the period when the pumping rate is lower than the
demand rate of water.
2. The above figure can be obtained by drawing mass curves of water consumption rates and water
pumping supply rates.

Table 6-8: Reservoir Sizing by mass curve analysis

Time Water Cum. Water Water Cum. Water

Difference
(hour) Consumption* Consumption Production** Production
00-01 0.39 0.39 1.00 1.00 -0.61
01-02 0.41 0.80 1.00 2.00 -1.20
02-03 0.41 1.21 1.00 3.00 -1.79
03-04 0.44 1.65 1.00 4.00 -2.35
04-05 0.49 2.13 1.00 5.00 -2.87
05-06 0.56 2.69 1.00 6.00 -3.31
06-07 1.62 4.31 1.00 7.00 -2.69
07-08 2.35 6.66 1.00 8.00 -1.34
08-09 1.36 8.02 1.00 9.00 -0.98
09-10 1.02 9.04 1.00 10.00 -0.96
10-11 1.61 10.65 1.00 11.00 -0.35
11-12 1.69 12.34 1.00 12.00 0.34
12-13 1.46 13.80 1.00 13.00 0.80
13-14 1.44 15.24 1.00 14.00 1.24
14-15 1.77 17.01 1.00 15.00 2.01
15-16 1.75 18.77 1.00 16.00 2.77
16-17 1.63 20.39 1.00 17.00 3.39
17-18 1.07 21.46 1.00 18.00 3.46
18-19 0.68 22.15 1.00 19.00 3.15
19-20 0.49 22.63 1.00 20.00 2.63
20-21 0.40 23.03 1.00 21.00 2.03
21-22 0.38 23.41 1.00 22.00 1.41
22-23 0.28 23.69 1.00 23.00 0.69
 Time Water Cum. Water Water Cum. Water
Difference
(hour) Consumption* Consumption Production** Production
23-24 0.31 24.00 1.00 24.00 0.00
A. Volume for Balancing (3.31+3.46) 6.78
B. For Firefighting (10% of A) 0.68
C. Total Reservoir Capacity (A+B) 7.45
Percentage of Reservoir Capacity from MDD (C/24) 0.3105=31.05%
Note: *Water Consumption factor is hourly demand divided by average hourly demand of the maximum day demand.

**Water Production factor

Where supply and hourly consumption data are available in the water utility, the designer is
advised to develop mass curve for the town and fix the size of the reservoir. But, if such data is
not available, 1/3 of the maximum day demand can be used.

Mass Curve Analysis(Dangila)

24
22
20 Consumption
18
Supply
Cumm. Q factor

16
14 Max. Deficiet
12
10 Max.Surplus
8
6
4
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

Time in hr

Figure 6-1: Mass curve analysis for reservoir sizing

6.8.2. Transfer Reservoirs

6.8.2.1. Collection Chamber

Collection chambers can be used:

 To collect water from different source locations

 To collect water from sources which has a yield less than pumping demand

For the first case 30min detention time (30 min of the max. day demand) is considered to fix its
volume. Whereas for the later one, as it is assumed to be used as night storage the yield of the
source and the pumping rate need to be considered.

6.8.2.2. Boosting Tank

For a very long pipeline or for large elevation difference between the entry and exit points, the
pumping head worked may be excessive and pipes withstanding such a high pressure may not be
available, or the provision of high-pressure pipes may be uneconomical. In such a case, instead
of providing a single pumping station, it is desirable to provide n pumping stations separated at a
distance L/n.

6.9. Auxiliary Building

 Administration office to the town utility (if not available)

 Pump and generator house

 Guard house

 Chemical Buildings

 Toilet, Septic Tank and Soak away pits

 Control Room

 Camping during construction for the consultant and the contractor

All ancillary buildings shall be made from Hollow Concrete Block

7. Electromechanical Design

7.1. Water Pumps

It is a machine which is used to give a certain head to the water which passes through it. The
head can be used to raise the water to higher level or to flow with in a pipe.

Flow: The quantity of water moved that is moved through the pump in a unit of time. This can
be measured in liters per minute (l/min), liters per second (l/s), cubic meter per hour (m3/h) etc.

Head: The height through which the pump is capable of heading/lifting the water.

Pumps work for many heads by changing the flow inversely. Inefficiencies arising from over
designing (i.e., choosing a pump that will, for a given head, deliver more water than is needed)
are common. The result of ―conservative‖ design is often a system that operates inefficiently
because it is capable of delivering more water than is ever required. Such systems are wasteful in
terms of both initial investment and continuing operating cost. To avoid this pitfall, the design
must consider pump characteristics and system head curves carefully. In this regard the
efficiency of both the pump and the driver should be considered. Pumps with fairly steep
characteristic curves are usually preferred since their capacity to deliver water is relatively
unaffected by changes in head. As pumps, water lines, valves, etc., age, head losses will tend to
increase. This can significantly affect flow rates if both the pump characteristic and system head
curves are fairly flat. Hence selecting the duty point of the pump is necessary. The pump works
efficiently at this point in addition minimizing the pumping costs is central to the long term
viability of the system. Recurrent electric expenditure is a significant element of the system
operating costs and hence consideration is to be given to the following:

 Reducing frictional head losses by employing larger diameter pipes

 Designing for pump units with high efficiency
 Accurately calculating the system operation point and specifying Limits for the deviation of
pump duty points from the system operation point.

The design should ensure that pumps will operate under a negative suction head. Each pump
should have a gate valve upstream and downstream for maintenance purposes together with a
non-return valve, air relief valve and a pressure gauge downstream. Pump protection devices will
be specified to prevent damages to pumps caused by no water or closed delivery valves. Motors
have to be protected against phase failure as well as too low or high voltage.

Where multiple pumps are used, each one should have its own intake, or the multiple intake
should be carefully designed to ensure that all pumps have essentially the same inlet conditions.
Care must be exercised to make sure that the pumps always draw water, not an air/water mixture,
or air alone. The specific locations of check valves and other appurtenances will depend on the
inlet conditions, type of storage and piping layout.

7.1.1. Power

7.1.1.1. Delivered Power

Delivered power is the power delivered by the pump to the water. The value of this delivered
power depends up on three factors: flow, head, and specific weight of the water. To pump water,
a pump must be driven by a motor which in the majority of cases either electric or in terms of
combustion. The power which the pump needs to operate is the absorbed power.

7.1.1.2. Absorbed Power

Absorbed power is the power that the pump absorbs from the motor to give the water the
delivered power. Not all the absorbed power is delivered to the liquid since some power is lost
through friction. The other more important part is lost within the pump itself through hydraulic
losses.

The power delivered by a pump to the water is calculated by:

Power, (KW) = wQH

Where: w= unit weight of water (=10 KN/m3)

Q = discharge in m3/s and

H= the head to which water is raised, m

The power required to drive the pump is defined as:

Power of pump,(KW) = w QH/p

Where; p = efficiency of the pump

The total input power to the motor is:

Power of motor, (KW) = (w QH)/mp

Where; m = efficiency of the motor

Table 7-1: Commercially available Standard Calculated Standard

Submersible pumps No Value (KW) Value (KW)

Calculated Standard 11-15 15

No Value (KW) 13
Value (KW)
15-18.5 18.5
14
0-0.25 0.25
1 26
15 18.5-26
0.25-0.37 0.37
2 30
16 26-30
0.37-0.55 0.55
3 37
17 30-37
0.55-0.75 0.75
4 45
18 37-45
0.75-1.1 1.1
5 55
19 45-55
1.1-1.5 1.5
6 75
20 55-75
1.5-2.2 2.2
7 90
21 75-90
2.2-3.7 3.7
8 110
22 90-110
3.7-5.5 5.5
9 132
23 110-132
5.5-7.5 7.5
10 150
24 132-150
7.5-9.2 9.2
11 185
25 150-185
9.2-11 11
12

7.1.1.3. Efficiency ( ) of Submersible pumps

The approximate efficiency of submersible pumps under full load, are as follows:

 For pumps less than 5KW – use 50%

 For pumps ranging from 5KW-37KW use 65%

 For pumps more than 37KW, use 70%

7.1.2. Surface Pumps

7.1.2.1. Surface pumps

The head of the surface pump is necessary to measure while it is operating. The value of the head
at the suction and delivery connections taking care that both readings are taken in relation to one
common level known as the plane of reference. According to installation, it is possible to have
two cases.

 The value of the head at the suction connection is negative (that is below zero on the
manometer) which is the case where the level of the water being raised lower than the
level of the suction connection.

 The value of the head at the suction connection is positive (that is above zero on the
manometer) which is the case when the level of the water being raised is above the level
of the suction connection

In the first case, the head of the pump is given by the sum of the two readings which in the
second, it is given by subtracting the value of the head at the suction connection from the value
of the delivery connection

Suction lift

Suction lift where a pump is placed above the water in the intake should be avoided where it is
possible to place the pump under suction head.

Maximum suction lift

The practical maximum lift depends mainly on the altitude (and thus the atmospheric pressure),
the water temperature, the intake arrangement and the pump design. In general the maximum
suction lifts are shown below.

Table 7-2: Maximum Available suction head for surface pumps

Altitude above mean sea level (m) Maximum suction lift (m)
0 5.0
500 4.5
1000 4.0
1500 3.5
 2000 3.0
2500 2.5
3000 2.0
Non- compliance with the maximum suction lift restrictions can result in ―cavitations‖ and other
associated problems in a pump. ―Cavitations‖ is caused when the atmospheric pressure acting on
the water surface in the suction pump is not sufficient to push the water into the pump
adequately, to replace the volumes being displaced by the impellers. In such circumstances, the
water around the impellers tends to vaporizes and form bubbles which explode, forming cavities
in the impellers. This phenomenon results in reductions and discontinuities in pump discharges,
excessive noise in the pump and reduction in overall performance efficiency.

The phenomenon is symptomatic of insufficient Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH). This
problem can be remedied by keeping suction lifts within the permissible limits, adequate design
and installation of suction pipe work and operating pumps under the optimal ranges of their
characteristics.

Net Positive Suction Head (NPHS)

To ensure that water enters the pump element where pumping energy can be imparted to the
water, pressure energy must be available. This pressure energy is usually in the form of static
head for an ordinary open water supply source. This head must not only push the water into the
pump. But it must also overcome the friction head losses which occur as the water flows into and
within the pump. The head must also create a sufficient flow velocity to enable the water to flow
into within the pump at the velocity corresponding to the required pump flow rate. The total
head required to push water into the pump, overcome friction head losses as water flows into and
within the pump and also create sufficient flow velocity corresponding to the required pump flow
rate called the ―Net Positive Suction Head Required‖(NPSH R).

In order to facilitate the proper function of the pump, the NPSHR of the pump should be
determined. The NPSHR pumps depend on the design feature of the pump and the flow through
the pump. The lower NPSHR, the better is the suction ability of that pump. The NPSHR of the
pump usually increases rapidly with increase flow through the pump.

To ensure that cavitations will not take place in a pump, the designer must calculate the available
NPSH (net positive suction head) and compare it with the required NPSH for the pump. The
available NPSH must be greater than the required NPSH in order to prevent cavitations. The
required NPSH of any pump is usually given by the pump manufacturer in pump catalogs. The
available NPSH can be calculated as follows:

Net Positive Suction Head Available, NPSHA = ham +hs – hvp-hL

Where;

ham = atmospheric pressure(m)

hs = static head of water on the suction side of the pump(m)

hvp = vapour pressure of the water, which varies with both altitude and temperature

hL = friction losses in suction piping(m)

Note: positive under flooded suction lift and negative under suction lift.

The available system NPSH at the maximum flow rate should exceed by at least 1.0 m the pump
manufacturer’s required NPSH. However, consideration will be given to pump systems of a
design which avoids the problems of low or negative suction heads.

7.1.3. Starting Methods

7.1.3.1. Direct – On- Line (DOL)

This kind of starting method is usually used for small motors with rating up to 5.5KW and less.
The starting current ranges from 4 to 6 times of the normal full load current. Submersible motors
are normally supplied with a lead cable with 3 or 4 conductors (three phase conductors or 3
phase conductors plus one grounding conductor).

In cases where reduction in starting current is demanded, two different methods can be
employed.

7.1.3.2. Star- Delta Starter

This is the cheapest form of when reduction in starting current is required. This starter is
excellent for standard motors as the two cables to the motor normally are relatively short.

For submersible motors, however, this method is normally too expensive as two length of the
drop cable and two cable termination kits are required for connection from the starter to the
motor. Furthermore, the disadvantage with star delta starter is that the current to the motor is
disconnected in the period, when the relays are changing from star to delta. This doesn’t affect
the standard motors and pumps as they normally have large diameters and large moment of
inertia. Star delta starting is a very good solution for standard motors, as they do not stop during
change over from star to delta and a real reduction in the starting current is obtained. The starting
current of standard motors with star delta start is normally reduced to 2.5 to 3 times the normal
full load current.

For submersible motors, this is not the case, as the starting current in star delta connection is
reduced to 2.5 to 3 times the normal full load current- the first peak, but then in delta connection
- the second peak is similar to a direct start with starting current 4 to 6 times the normal full load
current. Therefore, star delta start cannot be recommended for submersible pumps and motors.

7.4.1.3. Autotransformer Starters (Impedance Starting)

Pumps with autotransformer (impedance) starters are a little bit more expensive than those with
star delta starters, but requires only one drop cable termination kit for connection from the starter
to the motors. The motors are less expensive with only one lead cable. The great advantage of
autotransformer starters in connection with submersible motors is that the power is connected to
the motor continuously during the change over from ―star‖ connection with reduced voltage to
―delta‖ connection with a full voltage. This means that there is a real reduction in starting
current, as the motor doesn’t stop, during the change over period. The starting current is reduced
to 2.5 to 3 times the normal full load current (similar to those of standard motors for star delta
starting). This is the reason behind recommending autotransformer starters for submersible
pumps.

7.1.4. Wellhead Piping

7.1.4.1. Submersible Pump and Pipe & Fitting Arrangement

The clearance between borehole casing and the maximum pump diameter over the cable has to
be 2mm and above has a large enough diameter all the way to the pump setting depth to
accommodate the pump, the riser pipe and the joint between the motor and supply cables.
The pump setting depth is such that the pump (dynamic) water level will be 2m, or more, above
the pump outlet (check against the borehole pumping test data) and the casing arrangement.

A flow of water across the electric motor is necessary to cool it, so do not install the pump at the
very bottom of a borehole, where water may enter the pump from above without flowing past the
motor. If the pump is located where flow over the pump body may not occur, it must be
surrounded by a pump shroud which ensures that water first passes over the motor before
entering the pump.

Figure below represents a schematic drawing of the installation of a submersible pump in a

borehole. The installation procedure indicated in the manual provided by the manufacturer must
be followed.
Figure 7-1: Well head piping arrangement
7.2. Power Supply
7.2.1. Generator

Engine driven generators for submersible motors are often offered according to standard
conditions.

Example:

 Maximum altitude above sea level = 150m

 Maximum air inlet temperature = 30oC

 Maximum humidity = 60oC

If these limits are exceeding, the standard diesel engine and possibly the generator have to be de-
rated in order to give the motor sufficient power supply. When ordering a generator set, altitude,
air inlet temperature, and maximum humidity should be given to the manufacturer to have the
generator factory de rated.

Generators sets for three-phase submersible motors must be able to withstand 35% voltage
reduction during start up.

7.2.1.1. De Rating Factors for Standard Diesel Engine

There are different factors which contribute for de rating for generator power. These are:

Altitude: due to altitude, a generator de rates

 3.5% for every 300m above 150m above sea level for naturally aspirated engine.

 2.5% for every 300m above sea level for turbo charged engine.

Air inlet temperature:

 2 % for every 5.5oC above 30oC (for naturally aspirated engine)

 3% or every 5.5oC above 30oC for turbo charged engine.

Note: generators with rating of 40KVA and above must be turbo charged.

7.2.1.2. De rating factors for standard generators

Altitude: 2.5% for every 300m altitude increase above 1000m above sea level.
Air inlet temperature: 5% for every 5oC above 40oC.

If generator and diesel engine are de rated the following will be valid.

1. The voltage drop at the generator will not exceed 10% during start up. This means that it
is possible to use even the fastest under voltage protection on the market in the starter box
of the pump motor.
2. Generator and diesel engine will have a normal life as the new fully run-in engine is only
loaded – approx – 70% will continuously pump motor full load current.
A diesel engine will typically have maximum efficiency (lowest fuel consumption per
KW output) at 70-80% of the maximum load.
3. By autotransformer starter or installation, it is possible to choose a 20% smaller generator
and diesel engine. This however, means frequent maintenance of air filter, injection
nozzle, fuel filter cleaning of the cooler and change of oil. Furthermore, it will result in a
voltage drop during start up to 20%. If the loss in the drop cable and motor cable of up to
15% is added, the total voltage loss will be more than 35% at the motor.
For naturally aspirated engine generating set

[ ( ) ( ) ]

For turbo charged engine generating set

[ ( ) ( ) ]

Where:
P2=generating set power
P1=pump power
AL=altitude

7.2.1.3. Internally/Externally Regulated Generators

1. Internally regulated generators have an additional winding in the generator stator and are
also called self- excited. The extra winding senses the output current and increases the
output voltage automatically. Internally regulated generators normally show the best running
efficiency.
2. Externally regulated generators use an externally mounted voltage regulator that senses
the output voltage. As the voltage dips as motor start-up, the regulator increases the
output voltage of the regulator.
 An externally regulated generator is to be dimensioned approximately 50% higher in KW/KVA
rating to deliver the same starting torque as internally regulated generator.

This is the reason that recommends internally regulated generator for the power supply of
pumps.

7.2.1.4. Power Cable Sizing

Make sure that the submersible drop cable can withstand permanent submersion in the actual
liquid at the actual temperature.

The submersible drop cable is chosen according to application and type of installation

- Standard version :- maximum liquid temperature +40oc

- Hot water version:- maximum liquid temperature+70oc, for short periods, up to +90oc

The cross section (q) of the cable should meet the following requirements

1. The submersible drop cable should be sized to the rated maximum current(I) of the motor
2. The cross section should be sufficient to make a voltage drop over the cable acceptable

The following table specifies the current value of the submersible drop cable (i.e., the maximum
current tolerated by the drop cable) at an ambient temperature of maximum 30oC.

Table 7-3: Power cable sizing q(mm2) I(A)

I(A) 35 126
q(mm2) 50 153
1.5 18.5 70 196
2.5 25 95 138
4 34 120 276
6 43 150 319
10 60 185 364
16 80 240 430
25 101 300 497
When sizing the submersible cable, make sure that the rated maximum current doesn’t exceed
the current value (Is).

Maximum cable length of a single phase submersible pump

L= (m)

q=
Maximum cable length of three phase submersible pump is given as

L= (m)
√

√
q=
√

Where:

U = rated voltage (v)

= percentage voltage drop (%); the maximum allowable voltage drop in Ethiopia is
5% where as it is 2% for submersible pumps.

I = rated current of the motor (A)

= specific resistance: 0.02( )
= crossection of submersible drop cable (mm2)
= inductive resistance: o.078 ( )

7.2.1.5. Installation of generators

On delivery and before installation checks that the generator output (voltage, frequency, and
power), control gear (switches, contactors, protective devices) and load (pump motors) are all
compatible. A generator must not be run inside a building without adequate ventilation to
remove the exhaust gases. A generator must not be operated in the rain unless contained within a
purpose made weatherproof enclosure.

Adequate air flow is necessary to supply the engine with air for both combustion and cooling. In
a solid walled housing it is essential that hot discharged cooling air does not re-circulate to the
cooling air inlet or the engine inlet. Provide cooling air intake holes near the bottom of the walls.
Provide another air intake in the wall nearest to the air filter to ensure a good supply of cooler air
for combustion. Include air holes or a gap around the top of the walls to release accumulated hot
air above the generator set. Direct the exhaust pipe over the cooling air outlet to exhaust in the
same direction. Keep the exhaust system as short as possible, with the minimum of bends to keep
back-pressure within limits. A build up of back-pressure prevents efficient removal of exhaust
from the cylinders with a consequent loss of engine power. Leave at least 1m access space on
each side of the generator. Leave 1.5m at the alternator end. Protect the cables in some form of
conduit (such as PVC pipe) both between the generator and remote control panel (if not set-
mounted) and from the generator to the load supplied. The cable that connects the submersible
pump with the generator should be a submersible type of cable and should be laid in a trench,
using a conduit, up to the borehole location. Refer to Figure below for the plan of a typical
generator house. All generator sets should be earthed through a suitable protective conductor and
earth electrode. If there is no generator earth terminal, connect the earth to the neutral terminal.
The earth must be protected against damage and corrosion.

Figure 7-2: Plan of typical generator house

7.2.1.6. Control Panel

Erection
The panel board has to be erected veritcally at 90o to the mounting wall.

Setting

 Overload setting: The overload relay has to be set at 5%of full load current of the pump motor.
 Phase sequence/failure sensor setting: It has to be set at 6% above nominal rating voltage and
10% below nominal rating voltage.
 Timer setting: Timers has to be set from 2 sec – 5sec.
 Enclosure: Enclosure has to be from IP 50 – IP65

Table 7-4: Generating set seat dimension

s/n Power[KVA] Dimension[m]

L W H
1 0 – 30 2 2 0.1
2 100 – 180 2.4 1 0.1
3 180-250 3.2 1.3 0.12
4 250-400 3.5 1.3 0.12
5 400-650 4.5 1.7 0.13
6 650-800 4.5 1.9 0.13
7 800-1100 4.5 2 0.14

7.2.2. Transformer Sizing

The power supply is a national distribution grid system where the power supply scheme is from
EEPCO providing 33KV or 15 KV high voltages at each via overhead lines and the power is
stepped down to 380 Volt with a tolerance of ±5%. The power supply to the well field and
booster pumping station shall be supplied by EEPCO.

7.2.2.1. Transformer sizing for Pumps

The transformer has to be sized appropriately so that the pumps can work efficiently.

Design considerations

Pump power, P [KW]

Voltage drop during start up (due to Starting current) (20% full load)

Voltage drops in drop cables and motor cables (15% of full load)
So, having taken the above points in to account, the transformer rating can be derived.

PT [KW] = PP + PP {20% +15%}

PT [KW] = 1.35* PP
PT [KVA] = 1.35*PP)/0.8
Where;
PP = Pump Power

PT = Transformer Power

Table 7-5: Standard transformers supplied by EEPCO

S/N Calculated Value(KVA) Recommended Standard Value(KVA)

1 0-25 25
2 25-50 50
3 50-100 100
4 100-200 200
5 200-315 315
6 325-630 630
7 630-825 825

8. Contents of the Design Report

After doing the survey work, preparing drawing and estimates of the water supply scheme, the
project is written, the project report should deal with the following points;
1. Introduction of the project
2. Necessary of the improved, additional or new water supply scheme
3. The area of the city or town with population, industries, cattle to be served
4. the basis of calculation and allowance of water per capital
5. future provisions in the project
6. the quality and quantity of raw water available in the selected sources for the project
7. The possible additional water source which can be used in future for the expansion of the
scheme.
8. Nature of the proposed water i.e. intermittent or continuous etc.
9. The method of designing the pipe sizes and the formulae used.
10. Design of all units of water works , intakes overhead service reservoirs
11. Design of disturbing system
12. Design period of the schemes
13. The annual cost running the pumps.
14. Recurring expenditure for running the scheme.
15. Tariff analysis of the water supply
16. Environmental impact assessment etc.
17. Risk assessment.
18. Mitigation results  how to reduce the risk

9. Standards and Specifications

9.1. Units
The metric system of units shall be used for designs, except where imperial units are acceptable
and in common usage (e.g. for galvanized mild steel pipes).

9.2. Standards
For design and construction, the relevant Ethiopian National Standard shall be used or referred
to. If no National Standard exists, then the relevant ISO Standard shall be used. If no Ethiopian
National or ISO Standard exists then one of the following national standards shall be used:

 British
 German

9.3. Earthquake Design

Design of structures shall be for earthquake resistance in accordance with the relevant Ethiopian
Building Code Standard (EBCS-8) of the Ministry of Urban Works and Development, 1995
edition.

9.4. Concrete
Changes in cement manufacture, increased use of cement replacements and admixtures, and a
decline in standards of workmanship and construction supervision have all been blamed. There is
also an increasing awareness of the shortcomings of control or compliance tests which require a
28-day wait before results are available. Even then, such tests reflect only the adequacy of the
material supplied rather than overall construction standards.

A great deal of time, effort and money can be wasted on unsuitable or badly planned testing,
leading to inconclusive results which then become the subject of heated debate.

Concrete of C-30 shall be used for the reservoir, C-25 shall be used for all buildings and C-15
shall be used for blinding concrete.

Reinforced concrete specification and design will be used based on British Standards BS 8007,
BS 8110 and BS 5328. The classes of concrete used and their characteristics strengths are given
below in table

Class Type Characteristics cube strength (N/mm2)

C-30 Reinforced concrete 30
C-25 Reinforced concrete 25
C-15 Blinding concrete 15

The cement to be used shall be ordinary Portland cement (OPC) for hydraulic structures and
Portland pozzolana cement (PPC) can be used for buildings. The following properties of concrete
shall be used.

 The modulus of elasticity of concrete (for calculating deflection) = 26.75 x 103 N/mm2
 Coefficient of linear expansion = 10.8 x 10-6 /oC

9.5. Reinforcement
Reinforcement bar shall be hot rolled mild steel Ethiopian standard ES 547-2:2000. The grade of
reinforcement to be used is grade RB400 for the reservoirs and grade RB300 for all buildings.
The yield strength of RB400 is 400 N/mm2 and the yield strength for RB300 is 300 N/mm2.

Minimum cover to reinforcement shall be 40mm for all structures in contact with water or earth,
25mm for beams for columns, 15mm for slabs of administration buildings. Laps in bars shall be
set at 50X bar diameter for all hydraulic structures.

The minimum steel reinforcement shall be set in accordance with the guide lines in BS 8007 for
the reservoirs namely:
 ρcrit = minimum steel ratio

fct = direct tensile strength of immature concrete (1.3 N/mm2 for class C 30 Anchor,
1992)

fy = characteristic strength of reinforcement (400 N/mm2)

on this basis the minimum reinforcement is set as 0.325% x A, where A is the effective
section area, as defined table below, as determine from BS 8007.

Table effective section depth and minimum reinforcement

Structural element Thickness of element Minimum reinforcement (mm2)*

(h)
Top face Bottom face
Walls and h, less than 500mm 3.25xh/2 in both faces
suspended slabs
h, greater than 500mm 3.25x 250 in both faces
Ground slab h, less than 300mm 3.25xh/2 0
h, between 300 3.25xh/2 3.25x 100
&500mm
h, greater than 500mm 3.25x250 3.25x100
Note: * minimum reinforcement per meter run

Minimum reinforcement ratio for main reinforcement in beams is ρ = 0.6/fy; fy = 300 N/mm2

Minimum reinforcement ratio for reinforcement in slabs ρ = 0.5/fy; fy = 300 N/mm2

DN External Dia. DE Iron thickness 'e' for K9. Minimum Internal Pressure Rating (K9)

Nominal Tolerance Nominal Tolerance Works test PFA PMA PEA

9.6. Pipe Material

9.6.1. Suitability for Potable Water

Pipes and pipeline components, including their protective coatings and joint materials, that will
or may come into contact with potable water shall not constitute a toxic hazard; shall not support
microbial growth; shall not cause taste or odor, cloudiness or discoloration of the water.
9.6.2. Definitions

The definitions given in the relevant standards which are referred to in the specification shall
apply for the terms used in this specification.

9.6.3. Quality

All pipes, fittings & accessories shall be manufactured in compliance with the ISO 9001:2008
Quality Management System requirements.

9.6.4. Ductile Cast Iron/DCI/ Pipes and Fittings

9.6.4.1. Classes of Pipes & fittings and Pressure Ratings

Ductile iron pipes and fittings shall be in accordance with ISO 2531: 1998 or with BS EN
545:2006. The standard class designation of pipes and fittings shall be as follows unless
otherwise stated.

 Socket and Spigot Pipes K9

 Pipes with Integral Flanges K 12
 Pipes with factory welded flanges K9
 Pipes with screwed flanges K 9 or K 10
 Fittings except tees K 12
 Tees K 14
 Flanges PN 10, PN 16, PN 25, PN 40

9.6.4.2. Dimensions of Pipes and Fittings

Dimensions of standard pipes and fittings shall be to ISO 2531 or BS EN 545: 2006 unless
otherwise shown on the Drawings or required for special purposes. Where pipes or fittings are
required in dimensions other than those specified in ISO 2531:1998 or BS EN 545:2006, they
shall be of the same classes as required and shall be designed for the works proof test pressures
specified in ISO 2531 for the relevant nominal diameter.

Nominal Wall Thickness, mm

Diameter,
DN (mm) K=9 K = 12 K = 14
Nominal Wall Thickness, mm Nominal Wall Thickness, mm
Diameter, Diameter,
DN (mm) K=9 K = 12 K = 14 DN (mm) K=9 K = 12 K = 14

80 6.0 7.0 8.1 700 10.8 14.4 16.8

100 6.1 7.2 8.4 800 11.7 15.6 18.2
150 6.3 7.8 9.1 900 12.6 16.8 19.6
200 6.4 8.4 9.8 1000 13.5 18.0 21.0
250 6.8 9.0 10.5 1200 15.3 20.4 23.8
300 7.2 9.6 11.2 1400 17.1 22.8 26.6
350 7.7 10.2 11.9 1600 18.9 25.2 29.4
400 8.1 10.8 12.6 1800 20.7 27.6 32.2
450 8.6 11.4 13.3 2000 22.5 30.0 35.0
500 9.0 12.0 14.0
600 9.9 13.2 15.4
Thickness of Fittings

The thickness of fittings has been calculated as a function of the nominal size DN by using the
formula with the following values for K.

k = 14 for tees, thus

e = 7+0.014DN

k = 12 for other fittings thus

e = 6+0.012DN

The minimum thickness of the fittings has been limited to 7mm.

The above common classes of pipes are available commercially; however, K 9 pipe is widely
used in water supply projects.

Ductile Cast Iron Pipe (K9), Effective Working Length 6m/Pc for Conveying Water
Nominal Wall
External Diameter (DE), Weight of Weight of Total Weight,
Diameter (DN), Thickness,
mm Pipe, Kg/m Socket, Kg/Pc Kg/Pc
mm mm

80 98 6.0 12.2 3.4 77

+1
100 118 6.1 15.1 4.3 95
-2.8
125 144 6.2 18.3 5.7 116
 +1
150 170 6.3 22.8 7.1 144
-2.9
+1
200 222 6.4 30.6 10.3 194
-3
+1
250 274 6.8 40.2 14.2 255
-3.1
+1
300 326 7.2 50.8 18.9 323
-3.3
+1
350 378 7.7 63.2 23.7 403
-3.4
+1
400 429 8.1 75.5 29.5 482
-3.5
+1
450 480 8.6 89.3 36.8 575
-3.6
+1
500 532 9.0 104.3 42.8 669
-3.8
+1
600 635 9.9 137.3 59.3 882
-4
+1
700 738 10.8 173.9 79.1 1123
-4.2
+1
800 842 11.7 215.2 102.6 1394
-4.5
+1
900 945 12.6 260.2 129 1691
-4.8
+1
1000 1048 13.5 309.3 161.3 2017
-5

9.6.5. Galvanised Steel/GS/ Pipes and Fittings

GS pipes shall be designated by Diameter Nominal, "DN" in units of millimeters (mm) and
interchangeably can be designated in units of inches. GS pipes may be Light , medium and heavy
class based on their pressure rating.

9.6.6. unPlasticized Polyvinyl Chloride/uPVC/ Pipes and Fittings

The operating pressure is for temperature at 20oC. As temperature increases the pressure rating
of the pipes decreases and an appropriate de-rating factors should be applied.
9.6.6.1. Pressure Ratings at Elevated Temperatures

The mechanical properties of plastic pipes are referenced at 200C. Thermoplastics generally
decrease in strength and increase in ductility as the temperature rises and design stresses must be
adjusted accordingly.

Elevated Temperature Pressure De-Rating uPVC Pipes

Temperature (oC) PN 6 PN9 PN12 PN15

20 0.60 0.90 1.20 1.50
30 0.48 0.72 0.96 1.20
40 0.36 0.54 0.72 0.90
50 0.24 0.36 0.48 0.60
60 0.12 0.18 0.24 0.30
The above tables are based on the relationship:

PT = P20

(70 - T)

50

Where:

PT = maximum working pressure at T°C

P20 = maximum working pressure at 20°C

T = material temperature °C

This is equivalent to a reduction in working pressure of 2% per 1°C rise in temperature above
20°C. Pressure ratings for pipes of other classes may be computed from these relationships. The
material temperature in question here is the average temperature of the pipe wall under
operational conditions.

ISO 4422
Nominal outside diameters and nominal wall thickness (based on overall service (design) coefficient
of C = 2.5)
Nominal Pipe series S, Standard Dimension Ratio/SDR/ Series and nominal pressure PN
Outside equivalents
Diameter,
(mm) S 20 S 16.7 S 16 S 12.5 S 10 S8 S 6.3 S4
SDR 41 SDR 34.4 SDR 33 SDR 26 SDR 21 SDR 17 SDR13.6 SDR 9
PN 5 PN 6 PN 6.3 PN 8 PN 10 PN 12.5 PN 16 PN 25

Nominal Wall Thickness, (mm)

16 1.5 1.8
20 1.5 2.3
25 1.5 1.9 2.8
32 1.6 1.9 2.4 3.6
40 1.5 1.6 1.9 2.4 3.0 4.5
50 1.6 2.0 2.4 3.0 3.7 5.6
63 1.6 1.9 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.8 4.7 7.1
75 1.9 2.2 2.3 2.9 3.6 4.5 5.6 8.4
90 2.2 2.7 2.8 3.5 4.3 5.4 6.7 10.1
Nominal outside diameters and nominal wall thickness (based on
overall service (design) coefficient of C = 2.0)
Pipe series S, Standard Dimension Ratio/SDR/
Nominal Series and nominal pressure PN equivalents
Outside S 20 S 16 S 12.5 S 10 S8
Diameter, SDR 41 SDR 33 SDR 26 SDR 21 SDR 17
(mm) PN 6.3 PN 8 PN 10 PN 12.5 PN 16
Nominal Wall Thickness, (mm)
110 2.7 3.4 4.2 5.3 6.6
125 3.1 3.9 4.8 6.0 7.4
140 3.5 4.3 5.4 6.7 8.3
160 4.0 4.9 6.2 7.7 9.5
200 4.9 6.2 7.7 9.6 11.9
225 5.5 6.9 8.6 10.8 13.4
250 6.2 7.7 9.6 11.9 14.8
280 6.9 8.6 10.7 13.4 16.6
315 7.7 9.7 12.1 15.0 18.7
355 8.7 10.9 13.6 16.9 21.1
400 9.8 12.3 15.3 19.1 23.7

ISO 4422
DIMENSIONAL CHART OF uPVC PIPES AS PER ISO 4422
TABLE: (based on value of Minimum Required Strength of 25 MPa and over all Service Design Coefficient ―C‖ of 2.0)
 All dimensions in mm
Wall Thickness of Pipes of Pipes Series SDR Series and Nominal Pressure PN equivalents of

Nominal Mean S 20 S 16 S 12.5 S 10 S8 S 6.3 S5

Diameter Outside
Diameter SDR 41 SDR 33 SDR 26 SDR 21 SDR 17 SDR 13.6 SDR 11
(Nominal
Size) PN 6.3 PN 8 PN 10 PN 12.5 PN 16 PN 20 PN 25
Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max
110 110 110 2.7 3.2 3.4 4 4.2 4.9 5.3 6.1 6.6 7.6 8 9.4 10 11.5
125 125 125 3.1 3.7 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.6 6 6.9 7.4 8.6 9 10.6 11 13.2
140 140 141 3.5 4.1 4.3 5 5.4 6.3 6.7 7.8 8.3 9.6 10 11.9 13 14.7
160 160 161 4 4.6 4.9 5.7 6.2 7.2 7.7 8.9 9.5 11 12 13.6 15 16.8
180 180 181 4.4 5.1 5.5 6.4 6.9 8 8.6 9.9 11 12.4 13 15.3 16 18.9
200 200 201 4.9 5.7 6.2 7.2 7.7 8.9 9.6 11.1 12 13.7 15 17 18 21
225 225 226 5.5 6.4 6.9 8 8.6 9.9 11 12.5 13 15.5 17 19.1
250 250 251 6.2 7.2 7.7 8.9 9.6 11.1 12 13.7 15 17.1 18 21.2
280 280 281 6.9 8 8.6 9.9 11 12.4 13 15.5 17 19.1 21 23.7
315 315 316 7.7 8.9 9.7 11.2 12 14 15 17.3 19 21.6 23 26.7
355 355 356 8.7 10.1 11 12.6 14 15.7 17 19.5 21 24.3 26 30.1
400 400 401 9.8 11.3 12 14.2 15 17.6 19 22 24 27.3 29 33.9
450 450 451 11 12.7 14 15.9 17 19.8 22 24.8 27 30.8 33 38.1
500 500 502 12 14.2 15 17.6 19 22 24 27.5 30 34.2 37 42.4
560 560 562 14 15.8 17 19.8 21 24.7 27 30.8
630 630 632 15 17.8 19 22.2 24 27.8 30 34.5
710 710 712 17 20.1 22 25.1 27 31.3
800 800 802 20 22.6 25 28.2 31 35.2
900 900 902 22 25.3 28 31.8
1000 1000 1002 25 28.2 31 35.2
Note: To apply an overall design (service) coefficient C of 2.5 for pipes with nominal diameters in this table, the next higher
nominal pressure PN shall be selected e.g. an S 10 series pipe rated at PN 12.5 will be selected for PN 10 applications when a C
of 2.5 is required.
PIPE SEIES (S) = (SDR - 1) / 2

9.6.7. High Density Polyethylene/HDPE/ Pipes and Fittings

The HDPE pipes shall be as per ISO 4427 of 1996 for pipe systems. Currently, three common
products for PE pipes are available PE63 HDPE, PE80 HDPE, and PE100 HDPE.

The rated working pressure of an HDPE pipe is determined at 20oC. Where the operating
temperature of the fluid in the pipe exceeds 20oC, the pressure rating of the pipe has to be de-
rated in order to maintain the designed safety factors of the pipe. HDPE pipe is not
recommended in applications where the fluid temperature exceeds 50oC.

PE63 HDPE, PE80 HDPE, and PE100 HDPE pipes are based on a design stress value of 5.0
MPa, 6.3MPa, 8.0MPa respectively. PE100 HDPE has thinner pipe wall thickness than PE80 and
PE63 pipe due to the higher grade of material and hence shall be used for water supply projects.

ISO 4427
Standard Dimension Ratio/SDR/
Nominal SDR26 SDR17.6 SDR17 SDR13.6 SDR11 SDR9 SDR7.4
Outside Nominal Pressure PN
Diameter, PN
(mm) PN 4 PN 6 PN 6.3 PN 8 PN 10 PN 16
12.5
Nominal Wall Thickness, (mm)
16 2.3 2.3 2.3
20 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.8
25 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.8 3.5
32 2.3 2.3 2.4 2.9 3.6 4.4
40 2.3 2.3 2.4 3.0 3.7 4.5 5.5
50 2.3 2.9 3.0 3.7 4.6 5.6 6.9
63 2.5 3.6 3.8 4.7 5.8 7.1 8.6
75 2.9 4.3 4.5 5.6 6.8 8.4 10.3
90 3.5 5.1 5.4 6.7 8.2 10.1 12.3
110 4.2 6.3 6.6 8.1 10.0 12.3 15.1

9.6.7.1. Temperature/pressure de rating

The rated working pressure of an HDPE pipe is determined at 20oC. Where the operating
temperature of the fluid in the pipe exceeds 20oC, the pressure rating of the pipe has to be de-
rated in order to maintain the designed safety factors of the pipe. HDPE pipe is not
recommended in applications where the fluid temperature exceeds 50oC.

Temperature of De rating factor apply

fluid in the pipe to maximum working
pressure

0 - 20 1,0
20 - 25 0.9
 25 - 30 0,8
30 - 35 0,7
35 - 40 0,6
40 - 45 0,5
45 - 50 0,4

9.6.8. ISO Standard Code for Pipeline & Pipe Fittings

ISO 7-1:1994-05
Pipe threads where pressure-tight joints are made on the threads - Part 1: Dimensions, tolerances
and designation
ISO 7-2:2000
Pipe threads where pressure-tight joints are made on the threads - Part 2: Verification by means
of limit gauges
ISO 49:1994
Malleable cast iron fittings threaded to ISO 7-1
ISO 228-1:2000
Pipe threads where pressure-tight joints are not made on the threads - Part 1: Dimensions,
tolerances and designation
ISO 228-2:1987
Pipe threads where pressure-tight joints are not made on the threads; Part 2: Verification by
means of limit gauges
ISO 264:1976
Unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC) fittings with plain sockets for pipes under pressure;
Laying lengths; Metric series
ISO 265-1:1988
ISO 265-1:1988

Pipes and fittings of plastics materials; fittings for domestic and industrial waste pipes; basic
dimensions: metric series; part 1: unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC-U)

ISO 392:1986

Asbestos-cement pipe fittings for building and sanitary purposes

ISO 580:1990
Injection-molded unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC-U) fittings; oven test; test method and
basic specifications

ISO 727-1:2002

Fittings made from unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC-U), chlorinated poly(vinyl chloride)
(PVC-C) or acrylonitrile/butadiene/styrene (ABS) with plain sockets for pipes under pressure -
Part 1: Metric series

ISO 727-2:2002

Fittings made from unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC-U), chlorinated poly(vinyl chloride)
(PVC-C) or acrylonitrile/butadiene/styrene (ABS) with plain sockets for pipes under pressure -
Part 2: Inch-based series

ISO 881:1980

Asbestos-cement pipes, joints, fittings/sewage/drain

ISO 1179:1981

Pipe connections, threaded to ISO 228/1, for plain end steel and other metal tubes in industrial
applications

ISO 1635-2:1987

Seamless wrought copper and copper alloy tube

ISO 1651:1974

Tube drawing mandrels

ISO 1684:1975

Wire, bar and tube drawing dies; Specifications

ISO 2016:1981

Capillary solder fittings for copper tubes; Assembly dimensions and tests

ISO 2035:1974

Unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC) moulded fittings for elastic sealing ring type joints for
use under pressure; Pressure-resistance test
ISO 2044:1974
Unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC) injection-moulded solvent-welded socket fittings for use
with pressure pipe; Hydraulic internal pressure test
ISO 2048:1990
Double-socket fittings for unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC-U) pressure pipes with elastic
sealing ring type joints; minimum depths of engagement
ISO 2284:1987
Hand taps for parallel and taper pipe threads; General dimensions and marking
ISO 2507-1:1995
Thermoplastics pipes and fittings - Vicat softening temperature - Part 1: General test method
ISO 2507-2:1995
Thermoplastics pipes and fittings - Vicat softening temperature - Part 2: Test conditions for
unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC-U) or chlorinated poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC-C) pipes
and fittings and for high impact resistance poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC-HI) pipes
ISO 2507-3:1995
Thermoplastics pipes and fittings - Vicat softening temperature - Part 3: Test conditions for
acrylonitrile/butadiene/styrene (ABS) and acrylonitrile/styrene/acrylic ester (ASA) pipes and
fittings
ISO 2531:1998
Ductile iron pipes, fittings, accessories and their joints for water or gas applications
ISO 2804:1996
Wire, bar or tube drawing dies - As-sintered pellets of hardmetal (carbide) - Dimensions
ISO 2851:1993
Stainless steel bends and tees for the food industry
ISO 2852:1993
Stainless steel clamp pipe couplings for the food industry
ISO 3183-1:1996
Petroleum and natural gas industries - Steel pipe for pipelines - Technical delivery conditions -
Part 1: Pipes of requirement class A
ISO 3183-2:1996
Petroleum and natural gas industries - Steel pipe for pipelines - Technical delivery conditions -
Part 2: Pipes of requirements class B
ISO 3253:1998
Gas welding equipment - Hose connections for equipment for welding, cutting and allied
processes
ISO/TR 3313:1998
Measurement of fluid flow in closed conduits - Guidelines on the effects of flow pulsations on
flow-measurement instruments
ISO 3419:1981
Non-alloy and alloy steel butt-welding fittings
ISO 3458:1976
Assembled joints between fittings and polyethylene (PE) pressure pipes; Test of leakproofness
under internal pressure
ISO 3459:1976
Polyethylene (PE) pressure pipes; Joints assembled with mechanical fittings; Internal under-
pressure test method and requirement
ISO 3477:1981
Polypropylene (PP) pipes and fittings - density
ISO 3501:1976
Assembled joints between fittings and polyethylene (PE) pressure pipes; Test of resistance to
pull out
ISO 3503:1976
Assembled joints between fittings and polyethylene (PE) pressure pipes; Test of leakproofness
under internal pressure when subjected to bending
ISO 3514:1976
Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) pipes and fittings; Specification and determination of
density
ISO 3545-1:1989
Steel tubes and fittings; symbols for use in specifications; part 1: tubes and tubular accessories
with circular cross-section
ISO 3545-2:1989
Steel tubes and fittings; symbols for use in specifications; part 2: square and rectangular hollow
sections
ISO 3545-3:1989
Steel tubes and fittings; symbols for use in specifications; part 3: tubular fittings with circular
cross-section
ISO 3586:1976
Glass plant, pipeline and fittings; general rules for testing, handling and use
ISO 3587:1976
Glass plant, pipeline and fittings; Pipeline and fittings of nominal bore 15 to 150 mm;
Compatibility and interchangeability
ISO 3603:1977
Fittings for unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pressure pipes with elastic sealing ring type
joints; Pressure test for leakproofness
ISO 3604:1976
Fittings for unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pressure pipes with elastic sealing ring type
joints; Pressure test for leakproofness under conditions of external hydraulic pressure
ISO 3633:2002
Plastics piping systems for soil and waste discharge (low and high temperature) inside buildings
- Unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC-U)
ISO 4056:1978
Polyethylene (PE) pipes and fittings- designation
ISO 4059:1978
Polyethylene (PE) pipes; Pressure drop in mechanical pipe-jointing systems; Method of test and
requirements
ISO 4132:1979
Unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and metal adaptor fittings for pipes under pressure;
Laying lengths and size of threads; Metric series
ISO 4144:2003
Pipework - Stainless steel fittings threaded in accordance with ISO 7-1
ISO 4145:1986
Non-alloy steel fittings threaded to ISO 7/1
ISO 4230:1987
Hand- and machine-operated circular screwing dies for taper pipe threads; R series
ISO 4231:1987
Hand- and machine-operated circular screwing dies for parallel pipe threads - G series
ISO 4397:1993
Fluid power systems and components; connectors and associated components; nominal outside
diameters of tubes and nominal inside diameters of hoses
ISO 4439:1979
Unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes and fittings; Determination and specification of
density
ISO 4422-1:1996
Pipes and fittings made of unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC-U) for water supply -
Specifications - Part 1: General
ISO 4422-2:1996
Pipes and fittings made of unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC-U) for water supply -
Specifications - Part 2: Pipes (with or without integral sockets)
ISO 4422-3:1996
Pipes and fittings made of unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC-U) for water supply -
Specifications - Part 3: Fittings and joints
ISO 4422-5:1997
Pipes and fittings made of unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC-U) for water supply -
Specifications - Part 5: Fitness for purpose of the system
ISO 4435:2003
Plastics piping systems for non-pressure underground drainage and sewerage –Unplasticized
poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC-U)
ISO 4440-1:1994
Thermoplastics pipes and fittings - Determination of melt mass-flow rate - Part 1: Test method
ISO 4440-2:1994
Thermoplastics pipes and fittings - Determination of melt mass-flow rate - Part 2: Test
conditions
ISO 4451:1980
Polyethylene (PE) pipes and fittings - determination
ISO 4483:1979
Asbestos-cement pipelines; Field pressure testing
ISO 4486:1985
Asbestos-cement ventilation ducts and fittings; Dimensions and characteristics
ISO 4488:1979
Asbestos-cement pipes and joints for thrust-boring and pipe jacking
ISO 4704:1977
Glass plant, pipeline and fittings; Glass plant components
ISO/TR 5168:1998
Measurement of fluid flow - Evaluation of uncertainties
ISO 5251:1981
Stainless steel butt-welding fittings
ISO 5256:1985
Steel pipes and fittings for buried or submerged pipe lines; External and internal coating by
bitumen or coal tar derived materials
ISO 5361:1999
Anaesthetic and respiratory equipment - Tracheal tubes and connectors
ISO 5730:1992
Stationary shell boilers of welded construction (other than water-tube boilers)
ISO 5969:1979
Ground thread taps for pipe threads G series and Rp series; Tolerances on the threaded portion
ISO 6207:1992
Seamless nickel and nickel alloy tube
ISO 6447:1983
Rubber seals; Joint rings used for gas supply pipes and fittings; Specification for material
ISO 6448:1985
Rubber seals; Joint rings used for petroleum product supply pipes and fittings; Specification for
material
ISO 6455:1983
Unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC) fittings with elastic sealing ring type joints for pipes
under pressure; Dimensions of laying lengths; Metric series
ISO 6594:1983
Cast iron drainage pipes and fittings; Spigot series
ISO 6605:2002
Hydraulic fluid power - Hoses and hose assemblies - Test methods
ISO 6761:1981
Steel tubes; Preparation of ends of tubes and fittings for welding
ISO 6964:1986
Polyolefin pipes and fittings; Determination of carbon black content by calcination and
pyrolysis; Test method and basic specification
ISO/TR 7074:1986
Performance requirements for plastics pipes and fittings for use in underground drainage and
sewage
ISO 7228:1993
Tracheal tube connectors
ISO 7245:1984
Pipes and fittings of acrylonitrile-butadiene- styrene (ABS); General specification for moulding
and extrusion materials
ISO 7246:1984
Pipes and fittings of acrylonitrile/styrene/ acrylester (ASA); General specification for moulding
and extrusion materials
ISO 7268:1983
Pipe components; Definition of nominal pressure
ISO 7278-2:1988
Liquid hydrocarbons; dynamic measurement; proving systems for volumetric meters; part 2: pipe
provers
ISO 7279:1984
Polypropylene (PP) fittings for pipes under pressure; Sockets for fusion using heated tools;
Metric series; Dimensions of sockets
ISO 7370:1982
Glass fibre reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP) pipes and fittings; Nominal diameters,
specified diameters and standard lengths
ISO 7387-1:1983
Adhesives with solvents for assembly of u PVC pipe elements; Characterization; Part 1: Basic
test methods
ISO 7608:1985
Shipbuilding; Inland navigation; Couplings for disposal of oily mixture and sewage water
ISO 7671:2003
Plastics piping systems for soil and waste discharge (low and high temperature) inside buildings
- Polypropylene (PP)
ISO 7675:2003
Plastic piping systems for soil and waste discharge (low and high temperature) inside buildings -
Chlorinated poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC-C)
ISO 7682:2003
Plastics piping systems for soil and waste discharge (low and high temperature) inside buildings
- Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS)
ISO 7686:1992
Plastics pipes and fittings; opacity; test method
ISO 8142:1990
Thermal insulation; bonded preformed man-made mineral fiber pipe sections; specification
ISO 8283-1:1991
Plastics pipes and fittings; dimensions of sockets and spigots for discharge systems inside
buildings; part 1: unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC-U) and chlorinated poly(vinyl
chloride) (PVC-C)
ISO 8283-2:1992
Plastics pipes and fittings; dimensions of sockets and spigots for discharge systems inside
buildings; part 2: polyethylene (PE)
ISO 8283-3:1992
Plastics pipes and fittings; dimensions of sockets and spigots for discharge systems inside
buildings; part 3: polypropylene (PP)
ISO 8283-4:1992
Plastics pipes and fittings; dimensions of sockets and spigots for discharge systems inside
buildings; part 4: acrylonitrile/butadiene/styrene (ABS)
ISO 8361-1:1991
Thermoplastics pipes and fittings; water absorption; part 1: general test method
ISO 8361-2:1991
Thermoplastics pipes and fittings; water absorption; part 2: test conditions for unplasticized
poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC-U) pipes and fittings
ISO 8361-3:1991
Thermoplastics pipes and fittings; water absorption; part 3: test conditions for
acrylonitrile/butadiene/styrene (ABS) pipes and fittings
ISO 8434-1, :1994
Metallic tube connections for fluid power and general use -Part 1: 24 compression fittings
ISO 8434-2:1994
Metallic tube fittings for fluid power and general use -Part 2: 37 flared fittings
ISO 8434-3:1995
Metallic tube connections for fluid power and general use -Part 3: O-ring face seal fittings
ISO 8434-4:1995
Metallic tube connections for fluid power and general use -Part 4: 24 cone connectors with O-
ring weld-on nipples
ISO 8434-5:1995
Metallic tube connections for fluid power and general use -Part 5: Test methods for threaded
hydraulic fluid power connections
ISO 8491:1998
Metallic materials - Tube (in full section) - Bend test
ISO 8492:1998
Metallic materials - Tube - Flattening test
ISO 8493:1998
Metallic materials - Tube - Drift-expanding test
ISO 8494:1998
Metallic materials - Tube - Flanging test
ISO 8495:1998
Metallic materials - Tube - Ring-expanding test
ISO 8496:1998
Metallic materials - Tube - Ring tensile test
ISO 8497:1994
Thermal insulation; determination of steady-state thermal transmission properties of thermal
insulation for circular pipes
ISO 8572:1991
Pipes and fittings made of glass-reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP); definitions of terms
relating to pressure, including relationships between them, and terms for installation and jointing
ISO 8770:2003
Plastics piping systems for soil and waste discharge (low and high temperature) inside buildings
- Polyethylene (PE)
ISO 8772:1991
High density polyethylene (PE-HD) pipes and fittings for buried drainage and sewerage systems;
specifications
ISO 8773:1991
Polypropylene (PP) pipes and fittings for buried drainage and sewerage systems; specifications
ISO 8796:2004
Polyethylene PE 32 and PE 40 pipes for irrigation laterals - Susceptibility to environmental stress
cracking induced by insert-type fittings - Test method and requirements
ISO 9080:2003
Plastics piping and ducting systems - Determination of the long-term hydrostatic strength of
thermoplastics materials in pipe form by extrapolation
ISO 9095:1990
Steel tubes; continuous character marking and colour coding for material identification
ISO 9261:2004
Agricultural irrigation equipment - Emitters and emitting pipe - Specification and test methods
ISO 9356:1989
Polyolefin pipe assemblies with or without jointed fittings; resistance to internal pressure; test
method
ISO 9623:1997
PE/metal and PP/metal adaptor fittings for pipes for fluids under pressure – Design lengths and
size of threads - Metric series
ISO 9625:1993
Mechanical joint fittings for use with polyethylene pressure pipes for irrigation purposes
ISO 9691:1992
Rubber; recommendations for the workmanship of pipe joint rings; description and classification
of imperfections
ISO 9803:1993
Vacuum technology; pipeline fittings; mounting dimensions
ISO/TR 9824-1:1990
Measurement of free surface flow in closed conduits; part 1: methods
ISO 9808:1990
Solar water heaters; elastomeric materials for absorbers, connecting pipes and fittings; method of
assessment
ISO/TR 9824-2:1990
Measurement of free surface flow in closed conduits; part 2: equipment
ISO 9853:1991
Injection-moulded unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC-U) fittings for pressure pipe systems;
crushing test
ISO 10147:1994
Pipes and fittings made of crosslinked polyethylene (PE-X) - Estimation of the degree of
crosslinking by determination of the gel content
ISO/TR 10358:1993
Plastics pipes and fittings; combined chemical-resistance classification table
ISO 10400:1993
Petroleum and natural gas industries; formulae and calculation for casing, tubing, drill pipe and
line pipe properties
ISO 10420:1994
Petroleum and natural gas industries; flexible pipe systems for subsea and marine riser
applications
ISO 10422:2001
Petroleum and natural gas industries - Threading, gauging and thread inspection of casing, tubing
and line pipe
ISO 10508:1995
Thermoplastics pipes and fittings for hot and cold water systems
ISO 10806:2003
Pipework - Fittings for corrugated metal hoses
ISO/TR 10837:1991
Determination of the thermal stability of polyethylene (PE) for use in gas pipes and fittings
ISO 10928:1997
Plastics piping systems - Glass-reinforced thermosetting plastics (GRP) pipes and fittings
- Methods for regression analysis and their use
ISO 10931-1:1997
Plastics piping systems for industrial applications - Poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) -Part 1:
General
ISO 10931-2:1997
Plastics piping systems for industrial applications - Poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) -Part 2:
Pipes
ISO 10931-3:1996
Plastics piping systems for industrial applications - Poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) -Part 3:
Fittings
ISO 10931-4:1997
Plastics piping systems for industrial applications - Poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) -Part 4:
Valves
ISO 10931-5:1998
Plastics piping systems for industrial applications - Poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) -Part 5:
Fitness for purpose of the system
ISO/TR 11295:1992
Techniques for rehabilitation of pipeline systems by the use of plastics pipes and fittings
ISO 11413:1996
Plastics pipes and fittings - Preparation of test piece assemblies between a polyethylene (PE)
pipe and an electrofusion fitting
ISO 11414:1996
Plastics pipes and fittings - Preparation of polyethylene (PE) pipe/pipe or pipe/fitting test piece
assemblies by butt fusion
ISO 11420:1996
Method for the assessment of the degree of carbon dispersion polyolefin pipe, fittings and
compounds
ISO 11496:1993
Seamless and welded steel tubes for pressure purposes; ultrasonic testing of tube ends for the
detection of laminar imperfections
ISO/TR 11647:1996
Fusion compatibility of polyethylene (PE) pipes and fittings
ISO 11961:1996
Petroleum and natural gas industries - Steel pipes for use as drill pipe - Specification
ISO 12162:1995
Thermoplastics materials for pipes and fittings for pressure applications – Classification and
designation - Overall service (design) coefficient
ISO 13664:1997
Seamless and welded steel tubes for pressure purposes - Magnetic particle inspection of the tube
ends for the detection of laminar imperfections
ISO 13665:1997
Seamless and welded steel tubes for pressure purposes - Magnetic particle inspection of the tube
body for the detection of surface imperfections
ISO 13761:1996
Plastics pipes and fittings - Pressure reduction factors for polyethylene pipeline systems for use
at temperatures above 20
ISO 13783:1997
Plastics piping systems - Unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC-U) end-load-bearing double-
socket joints - Test method for leaktightness and strength while subjected to bending and internal
pressure