PENETRANT TESTING

Introduction
• This module is intended to provide an
introduction to the NDT method of penetrant
testing.
• Penetrant Testing, or PT, is a nondestructive
testing method that builds on the principle
of Visual Inspection.
• PT increases the
“seeability” of small
discontinuities that
the human eye might
not be able to detect
alone.
 Outline
• General Introduction
• Penetrant Materials and Considerations
• Basic Steps in Penetrant Testing
• Common Equipment
• Advantages and Limitations
• Summary
• Glossary of Terms
 How Does PT Work?
• In penetrant testing, a liquid with high surface
wetting characteristics is applied to the surface of
a component under test.
• The penetrant “penetrates” into surface breaking
discontinuities via capillary action and other
mechanisms.
• Excess penetrant is removed from the surface and
a developer is applied to
pull trapped penetrant back
the surface.
• With good inspection
technique, visual
indications of any
discontinuities present
become apparent.
 What Makes PT Work?
• Every step of the penetrant
process is done to promote
capillary action.
• This is the phenomenon of a
liquid rising or climbing when
confined to small openings due
to surface wetting properties of
the liquid.
• Some examples:
 Plants and trees draw water up from
the ground to their branches and
leaves to supply their nourishment.
 The human body has miles of
capillaries that carry life sustaining
blood to our entire body.
 Basic Process of PT
1) Clean & Dry Component 4) Apply Developer
2) Apply Penetrant

5) Visual Inspection
3) Remove Excess

6) Post Clean Component

What Can Be Inspected Via PT?
Almost any
material that
has a relatively
smooth, non-
porous surface
on which
discontinuities
or defects are
suspected.
What Can NOT be Inspected Via PT?
• Components with rough
surfaces, such as sand
castings, that trap and hold
penetrant.
• Porous ceramics
• Wood and other fibrous
materials.
• Plastic parts that absorb or
react with the penetrant Defect indications
materials. become less
• Components with coatings distinguishable as
the background
that prevent penetrants from
entering defects. “noise” level
increases.
What Types of Discontinuities
Can Be Detected Via PT?
All defects that are open
to the surface.
– Rolled products-- cracks,
seams, laminations.
– Castings--cold shuts, hot
tears, porosity, blow holes,
shrinkage.
– Forgings– cracks, laps,
external bursts.
– Welds– cracks, porosity,
undercut, overlap, lack of
fusion, lack of penetration.
Choices of Penetrant Materials
Penetrant Type
I Fluorescent
II Visible
Method
A Water Washable
B Postemulsifiable - Lipophilic
C Solvent Removable
D Postemulsifiable - Hydrophilic

Developer Form
Dry Powder
Wet, Water Soluble
Wet, Water Suspendable
Wet, Non-Aqueous
 Penetrant Materials
Penetrants are formulated to possess a number
of important characteristics. To perform well, a
penetrant must:
 Spread easily over the surface being inspected.
 Be drawn into surface breaking defects by capillary
action or other mechanisms.
 Remain in the defect but remove easily from the
surface of the part.
 Remain fluid through the drying and developing steps
so it can be drawn back to the surface.
 Be highly visible or fluoresce brightly to produce easy
to see indications.
 Not be harmful to the inspector or to the material
being tested.
 Sensitivity Levels
• Penetrants are also formulated to produce a variety
of sensitivity levels. The higher the sensitivity
level, the smaller the defect that the penetrant
system is capable of detecting.
• The five sensitivity levels are:
 Level 4 - Ultra-High Sensitivity
 Level 3 - High Sensitivity
 Level 2 - Medium Sensitivity
 Level 1 - Low Sensitivity
• As the sensitivity level increases, so does the
number of non relevant indications. Therefore, a
penetrant needs to be selected that will find the
defects of interest but not produce too many non
relevant indications.
Properties of liquid penetrants
 Viscosity
 Surface tension
 Angle of contact between liquid and
solid
 Capillarity
Viscosity
 The resistance of liquid to its flow is
called viscosity. In other words,
viscosity of a liquid is a measure of its
internal resistance to flow. Shown in
below fig.
Viscosity of a liquid. The velocity of flow of liquid nearer to the sides
of tube is less than the velocity of flow in the centre of tube.
Surface Tension
 Surface tension in a liquid is an example of
cohesive force, where the molecules are
attracted to like molecules. The cohesive
force tends to bind them together, having
affinity for each other
 Two examples are water and mercury. When
either of these liquids is spilled, they tend to
form spherical shapes, the cohesive force
binding them together by surface tension.
Angle of contact between
liquid and solid
 Angle of contact determines the wetting
ability of the liquid.
 The magnitude of contact angle
determines the penetrativeness of
fluids.
 Liquids with high contact angle make
them poor penetrants.
Function of contact angle
Wetting ability, a function of
contact angle.
Capillarity
 The mechanism of entry and coming
out of fine discontinuities is due to
capillary forces.
Behaviour of liquid penetrants
 Wettability
 Penetrability
 Washability
 Retention and bleeding
Wettability

 A penetrant that has good wetting

properties will spread completely over
the surface of the treated part.
 Wetting ability refers to the angle of
contact with the surface, e.g. water is
an excellent solvent, with a very high
surface tension.
Penetrability

 A good penetrant is the one which has

a high penetrativeness.
 Parameters such as viscosity and
wetting ability have an influence on the
liquid to be a good or bad penetrant.
Washability
 An important requirement for a good
penetrant is its suitable removability from the
surface of the part after the penetration into
defects has taken place.
 Removal performance is very important since
surplus penetrant must be removed from the
surface of the part or the entire part will have
a high background/fluorescence.
Retention and bleeding
 A penetrant should posses the ability to
penetrate readily into fine and relatively
coarse openings and resist cleaning out of
them.
 It should have tendency to spread or bleed
out of discontinuities on development.
 The process of bleeding can be described as
to be a reverse capillary action.
 Visible Vs Fluorescent PT
• Inspection can be performed
using visible (or red dye) or
fluorescent penetrant
materials.
• Visible Pt is performed under
white light while fluorescent
PT must be performed using Photo Courtesy of Contesco
an ultraviolet light in a
darkened area. All are all in
the level 1 sensitivity range.
• Fluorescent PT is more
sensitive than visible PT
because the eye is more
sensitive to a bright
indication on a dark
background. Sensitivity
ranges from 1 to 4.
 Penetrant Removal Method
Penetrants are also classified by the
method of removing the excess penetrant.
• Solvent Removable penetrants are removed
by wiping with a cloth dampened with solvent. They
are supplied in aerosol cans for portability and are
primarily used for spot checks.
• Water Washable penetrants are removed with a
course spray of water. They are the easiest to
employ and most cost effective when inspecting
large areas.
• Post-Emulsifiable penetrants are water-
washable only after they have reacted with an
emulsifier solution. A post-emulsifiable system is
used when washing the penetrant out of the defect
is a concern. The emulsifier is given time to reacts
with the penetrant on the surface but not the
penetrant trapped in the flaw.
 Developers
• The role of the developer is to pull trapped
penetrant out of defects and to spread it
out on the surface so that it can be seen.
Also provides a light background to
increase contrast when visible penetrant is used.
• Developer materials are available in several different forms
 Dry Powder is a mix of light fluffy powder that clumps together where penetrant
bleeds back to the surface to produces very defined indications.
 Wet, Water Suspendable is a powder that is suspended in a water that covers
the surface with a relatively uniform layer of developer when the water is evaporated.
The solution is somewhat difficult to maintain as the powder settles out over time.
 Wet, Water Soluble is a crystalline powder that forms a clear solution when
mixed with water. The solution recrystallizes on the surface when the water is
driven off. Indications sometimes lack definition and look milky. Not recommended
for use with water-washable penetrants.
 Wet, Non-Aqueous - is supplied in a spray can and is the most sensitive
developer for inspecting small areas. It is too costly and difficult to apply to large
areas.
 6 Steps of Penetrant Testing
1. Pre-Clean
2. Penetrant Application
3. Excess Penetrant
Removal
4. Developer Application
5. Inspect/Evaluate
6. Post-clean
 Pre-cleaning – Step 1
• Parts must be free of dirt,
rust, scale, oil, grease, etc.
to perform a reliable
inspection.
• The cleaning process must
remove contaminants from
the surfaces of the part
and defects, and must not
plug any of the defects.

Pre-cleaning is the
most important step
in the PT process!!!
Caution About Metal Smearing
Some machining, surface finishing and cleaning Before Sanding
operations can cause a thin layer of metal to
smear on the surface and prevent penetrant from
entering any flaws that may be present.

Etching of the surface prior to inspection is

sometimes required. After Sanding

After Etching
Penetrant Application – Step 2
Many methods
of application
are possible
such as:
– Brushing
– Spraying
– Dipping/
Immersing
– Flow-on
– And more
 Dwell Time
• The penetrant solution
must be allowed to
“dwell” on the surface of
the part to allow the
penetrant time to fill any
defects present.
• The dwell time vary
according to penetrant
type, temperature,
material type and surface
finish.
Excess Penetrant Removal – Step 3

The removal technique depends upon

the type of penetrant used, as stated
earlier…
– Solvent Removable
– Water Washable
– Post Emulsifiable
Excess Penetrant Removal – Step 3 (cont.)
Water Washable
• A coarse water spray is
used to remove the
excess penetrant.
• The procedure used as
a guideline for the
inspection will specify
water temperature
(typically 50-100°F) and
pressure (typically not
more than 40 psi), etc.
Excess Penetrant Removal – Step 3 (cont.)
Solvent Removable
• The part is wiped with
a clean dry cloth to
remove the bulk of the
excess penetrant.
• Then, a cloth lightly
dampened with solvent
is used to remove any
remaining penetrant on
the surface.
Excess Penetrant Removal – Step 3 (cont.)
Solvent Removable (cont.)

Any time a solvent is

used in the penetrant
inspection process, a
suitable flash time is
required to allow excess
solvent to evaporate.
Excess Penetrant Removal – Step 3 (cont.)
Post Emulsifiable
• When there is concern about removing much of the
penetrant from the defect, a post emulsifiable system is
used.
• This involves an additional step
in which an emulsifier is applied
to the surface of the part after
the penetrant dwell time.
• The emulsifier is given just
enough time to react with
the penetrant on the surface
to render it water washable
but not enough time to diffuse
into the penetrant trapped in
the defects.
Developer Application – Step 4
The method of developer application is is
dependent on the type of developer used.
The primary methods for the following main
developer types will be covered in the
following slides.
– Dry
– Wet
– Nonaqueous Wet
Developer Application – Step 4 (cont.)
Dry Powder Developer
• Prior to applying a dry
powder developer, the
component must be
thoroughly dried. Drying
is usually accomplished in
a hot air circulating oven.
• The developer is then
applied by immersing the
part in the powder or by
dusting of the part with
the powder.
• The part can also be
placed in a developer dust
cloud chamber.
Developer Application – Step 4 (cont.)
Wet Developer (water- suspended
and water- soluble)
• Wet developers are applied by
immersing or spraying the
part while it is still wet from
the penetrant removal
process.
• The part is completely coated
and the excess liquid allowed
to drain to prevent pooling
• The part is then dried in a hot
air circulating oven.
Developer Application – Step 4 (cont.)
Nonaqueous Developer (AKA
Solvent-Suspended)
• Nonaqueous developer is
applied by a aerosol spray
to a thoroughly dried and
cooled part.
• A thin even coating should
be applied. The coating
should be white but still
slightly transparent when
performing a visible dye
penetrant inspection, and
even thinner when
performing a fluorescent
penetrant inspection.
Inspection/Evaluation – Step 5
In this step the
inspector evaluates the
penetrant indications
against specified
accept/reject criteria
and attempts to Non-relevant weld geometry indications
determine the origin of
the indication.
The indications are
judged to be either
relevant, non-relevant or
false.
Relevant crack indications from an
abusive drilling process
Inspection/Evaluation – Step 5
A very important
step of evaluation is
to document findings
on an inspection
report form or other
record keeping form.
This may be
supported with
drawings or photos
of indications, etc.
Post Clean – Step 6
The final step in the
penetrant inspection
process is to thoroughly
clean the part that has
been tested to remove all
penetrant processing
materials.
The residual materials
could possibly affect the
performance of the part or
affect its visual appeal.
Penetrant Inspection Systems
Penetrant systems can be highly portable or
stationary.

Image courtesy of Nebraska Army National Guard

Portable Penetrant System Stationary Penetrant System

 Verification of Penetrant
System Performance
Since penetrant testing
involves multiple
processing steps, the
performance of the
materials and the
processes should be
routinely checked using
performance verification
tools, which include:
 TAM Panels
 Crack Sensitivity Panels
 Run Check Panels
 Advantages of Penetrant Testing
• Relative ease of use.
• Can be used on a wide range of material types.
• Large areas or large volumes of parts/materials can be
inspected rapidly and at low cost.
• Parts with complex geometries are routinely
inspected.
• Indications are produced directly on surface of the
part providing a visual image of the discontinuity.
• Initial equipment investment is low.
• Aerosol spray cans can make equipment very
portable.
 Limitations of Penetrant Testing
• Only detects surface breaking defects.
• Requires relatively smooth nonporous material.
• Precleaning is critical. Contaminants can mask
defects.
• Requires multiple operations under controlled
conditions.
• Chemical handling precautions necessary (toxicity,
fire, waste).
• Metal smearing from machining, grinding and other
operations inhibits detection. Materials may need
to be etched prior to inspection.
• Post cleaning is necessary to remove chemicals.
 Summary
• Penetrant testing (PT) is one of the most
widely used nondestructive testing
methods.
• Its popularity can be attributed to two
main factors, which are its relative ease of
use and its flexibility.
• However, PT involves a number of
processing steps that must be closely
control to achieve optimal sensitivity.
 Glossary of Terms
• Capillary Action - the tendency of certain
liquids to travel or climb when exposed to small
openings.
• Contrast - the relative amount of light emitted
or reflected between and indication and its
background.
• Defect - a discontinuity that effects the
usefulness of a part or specimen.
• Developer - a finely divided material applied
over the surface of a part to help promote
reverse capillary action and thus bring out a
penetrant indication.
 Glossary of Terms
• Discontinuity - any interruption in the normal
physical structure of a part or weld. It may or
may not affect the usefulness of a part.
• Dwell Time - the period of time that a penetrant
or developer must remain in contact with the
surface of a part under test.
• Emulsification Time - the time allowed for the
emulsifier to render the penetrant water
washable and thus allow the part to be washed.
• Emulsifier - a material applied over a film of
penetrant that renders it water washable.
 Glossary of Terms
• Evaluation - the process of deciding as to the
severity of the condition after an indication has
been interpreted.
• False Indication - an indication caused by
improper processing; not caused by a relevant or
non-relevant condition.
• Flash Time - the time required for the solvent to
evaporate from the surface of a part when used
to preclean or remove excess penetrant.
• Fluorescent Dye - a dye which becomes
fluorescent (gives off light) when exposed to
short wave radiation such as ultraviolet light.
 Glossary of Terms
• Indication - the visible evidence or penetrant
bleed-out on the surface of the specimen
• Interpretation - the process of evaluating an
indication in an attempt to determine the cause
and nature of the discontinuity.
• Non-Aqueous Developer - a developer in
which developing powder is applied as a
suspension in a quick drying solvent
• Penetrant - a liquid used in fluorescent or
visible dye penetrant inspection to penetrate
into the surface openings of parts inspected via
these methods
 Glossary of Terms
• Relevant Indication - an indication that has been
determined not to be false or non-relevant - and
actual discontinuity
• Seeability - the characteristic of an indication that
enables it to be seen against the adverse
conditions of background, outside light, etc.
• Sensitivity - the ability of a penetrant to detect
surface openings. Higher sensitivity indicates
smaller discontinuities can be detected
• Ultraviolet Light (or Black Light) - light energy just
below the visible range of violet light (356
nanometers).
 Glossary of Terms
• Viscosity - the resistance of a fluid to the
motion of its particles
• Washability - the property of a penetrant
which permits it to be cleaned from the
surface of a part by washing with water