2.2.

2 Bonding
A Level Inorganic Chemistry (Year 1)
Ionic Bonding and Structure
• Ionic bonding  the electrostatic attraction between positive and
negative ions in all directions. It holds together cations (positive ions)
and anions (negative ions) in ionic compounds with a regular
arrangement
Common cations:
-metal ions e.g. Na+, Mg2+, Al3+
-ammonium ions e.g. NH4+
Common anions:
-non-metal ions e.g. Cl-, O2-
-polyatomic ions e.g. NO3-, SO4 2-
Ionic Compounds- Dot and Cross
Diagrams
• The simplest ionic compounds contain metal ions and non-metal ions
• The outer shell electron(s) of a metal atom are transferred to the outer
shell of a non-metal atom
• Positive (loses electron(s)- metal) and negative ions (gains electron(s)-
non-metal) are formed
• The ions formed often have outer shells with the same electron
configuration as the nearest noble gas
• Electrons in the original atoms are either shown as dots or crosses- this
makes it easy to work out the charge of each ion and to account for all
electrons
Ionic Compounds- Dot and Cross
Diagrams
Example- Sodium Chloride
• The one outer electron of Na (sodium)
is transferred to the outer shell of a
chlorine atom, forming a sodium ion,
Na+, and chloride ion, Cl-
• The electron structures of Na+ and Cl-
are now the same as the nearest noble
gas
• Square brackets are used to show that
the charge is spread over each ion and
the ions are separate entities
• Only the outer shell electrons are
shown as the inner shells are full and
not involved in bonding
Ionic Compounds- Dot and Cross
Diagrams
Example- Magnesium Chloride
• The 2 electrons in the outer shell of a
magnesium atom are transferred to
the outer shells of 2 chlorine atoms
to form a magnesium ion, Mg2+, and
2 chloride ions, Cl- x 2
• Electron structures of each of the
ions are therefore the same as the
nearest noble gas
Mg atom- 12p+, 12e-, 2,8,2
Mg2+ ion- 12p+, 10e-, 2,8 (2+)
2xCl atoms- 17p+, 17e-, 2,8,7
2xCl- ions- 17p+, 18e-, 2,8,8 (1-)
• A giant lattice is a key structural
feature in all ionic compounds

Structure of Ionic Compounds

• Each ion attracts oppositely charged ions in all directions
• Giant ionic lattice structure contains billions of billions of ions- the
actual number is only determined by the size of the crystal
• E.g. the giant ionic lattice of sodium chloride, NaCl
-each Na+ ion is surrounded by 6 Cl- ions
-each Cl- ion is surrounded by 6 Na+ ions
-each ion is surrounded by oppositely charged ions, forming a giant
ionic lattice
-regular, cubic arrangement of Na+ and Cl- ions which gives the crystal
its cubic shape
Properties of Ionic Compounds- Melting
and Boiling Points
• The physical properties of ionic compounds can be explained in terms of the
giant ionic lattice structure and ionic bonding
• Almost all ionic compounds are solids at room temperature
-at room temperature, there is insufficient energy to overcome the strong
electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely charged ions in the
giant ionic lattice
-high temperatures are needed to provide the large quantity of energy
needed to overcome the strong electrostatic attraction between the ions
-most ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points
• Melting points are higher for lattices containing ions with greater ionic
charges as there is a stronger attraction between the ions
• Ionic attraction also depends on the size of the ions- the smaller the ions, the
stronger the attraction because there is less shielding from the nucleus
• This is not a factor in the diagram as Na+ and Ca2+ ions are similar sizes
Properties of Ionic Compounds- Solubility
• Many ionic compounds dissolve in polar solvents e.g. water
• Polar water molecules break down the lattice and surround each ion
in solution
• In a compound made of ions with large charges, the ionic attraction
may be too strong for water to be able to break down the lattice
structure. The compound will not then be very soluble
!NOTE!
• Solubility requires 2 main processes:
-the ionic lattice must be broken down
-water molecules must attract and surround ions
• The solubility of an ionic compound in water therefore depends on
the relative strengths of the attractions within the giant ionic lattice
and the attractions between the ions and water molecules
• In the diagram on the left, attractions in the giant ionic lattice have
the greater effect and solubility decreases as ionic charge increases
• BUT predictions of solubility should be treated with caution
Properties of Ionic Compounds- Electrical
Conductivity
• In their solid states, ionic compounds do not conduct electricity
-this is because the ions are in a fixed position in the giant ionic lattice

-thee are no mobile charge carriers

• Once melted or dissolved in water, ionic compounds do conduct
electricity
-this is because the solid ionic lattice breaks down
-the ions are now free to move as mobile charge carriers
• So, ionic compounds are conductors of electricity in liquid and
aqueous states
Ionic Compounds- Summary of Properties
Most ionic compounds:
• Have high melting and boiling points
• Tend to dissolve in polar solvents such as water
• Conduct electricity only in the liquid state or in aqueous solution
Covalent Bonding- Covalent Compounds
and Molecules
• Covalent bonding  the strong electrostatic attraction between a shared
pair of electrons and the nuclei of the bonded atoms
• Covalent bonding occurs between atoms in:
-non-metallic elements e.g. H2 and O2
-compounds of non-metallic elements e.g. H2O and CO2
-polyatomic ions e.g. NH4+
• The key feature of covalent bonding is the sharing of a pair of electrons
between 2 atoms
-they’re bonded together in a single unit- a small molecule e.g. H2, a giant
covalent structure e.g. SiO2, or a charged polyatomic ion e.g. NH4+
• This is very different from the model of electron transfer to form separate
ions in ionic bonding
The Covalent Bond- Orbital Overlap
• A covalent bond is the overlap of atomic orbitals, each containing 1 electron,
to give a shared pair of electrons
• The shared pair of electrons is attracted to the nuclei of both the bonding
atoms
• The bonded atoms often have outer shells with the same electron structure
as the nearest noble gas
• The attraction in a covalent bond is localised, acting solely between the
shared pair of electrons and the nuclei of the 2 bonded atoms. The result can
be a small unit- a molecule, consisting of 2 or more atoms e.g. H2 and H2O
• A molecule is the smallest part of a covalent compound that can exist whilst
retaining the chemical properties of the compound
Single Covalent Bonds- Dot and Cross
Diagrams
• Used to account for electrons in covalent bonding
-in covalent bonding, electrons are shared
-in ionic bonding, electrons are transferred
• The use of dots and crosses allows the origin of each electron to be shown clearly
• Each bonding structure will not have the electron structure of the nearest noble
gas
• Displayed formula  shows the relative positioning of atoms and the bonds
between them as lines
• Lone pairs  paired electrons that are not shared. These can also be added to
Number of Covalent bonds:
the displayed formulae as in water, H2O, and ammonia, NH3 Most covalent compounds we will meet are
compounds of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
carbon. The number of covalent bonds usually
formed by the atoms of these elements are:
• Carbon- 4 bonds
• Nitrogen- 3 bonds
• Oxygen- 2 bonds
• Hydrogen- 1 bond
Covalent Bonding in Boron
• In period 2 of the periodic table
• Electron configuration 1s2,2s2,2p1 – so only 3 outer shell electrons
can be paired
• Boron forms covalent compounds e.g. boron trifluoride, BF3, in which
its 3 outer shell electrons are paired
• A molecule of BF3 therefore only has 6 electrons around the boron
atom
• BF3 shows that predictions for bonding cannot be solely based on the
noble gas electron structure
Covalent Bonding in Phosphorus, Sulphur
and Chlorine
• SF6- 6 unpaired electrons from sulphur are paired
• The outer shell of sulphur now contains 12 electrons, which is more than the nearest noble gas Argon
• Called expansion of the octet  this is only possible from the n=3 shell, when a d sub-shell becomes available for the
expansion (up to 18 electrons)

• Phosphorus trifluoride, PF3, sulphur dioxide, SF2, and chlorine

monofluoride, ClF, follow the expected pattern of formulae, with the
bonded atoms having a noble gas electron structure
• For elements in period 2, the n=2 outer shell can only hold 8 electrons
• But for phosphorus, sulphur and fluorine, the n=3 outer shell can hold
18 electrons, so more electrons are available for bonding
• Different numbers of
unpaired electrons lead to
different possibilities for
covalent compounds of
sulphur
• Different arrangements for
the 6 outer shell electrons of
sulphur and the different
number of bonds possible to
bond with fluorine
Multiple Covalent Bonds- Double Covalent
Bonds
• Multiple covalent bonds exist when 2 atoms share more than 1 pair of
electrons
• In a double covalent bond, the electrostatic attraction is between 2
shared pairs of electrons and the nuclei of the bonding atoms
e.g. molecule of O2, O=O
e.g. molecule of CO2, O=C=O

• All atoms have 8 electrons in their outer shell and the electron
structure of the nearest noble gas
• C=C and C=O bonds are very important in organic chemistry
Multiple Covalent Bonds- Triple Covalent
Bonds
• In a triple covalent bond, the electrostatic attraction is between 3
shared pairs of electrons and the nuclei of the bonded atoms
• E.g. N2
• E.g. HCN
• All molecules have the electron structure of the nearest noble gas
Dative Covalent Bonds
• Dative covalent bond/ coordinate bond  a covalent bond in which the shared
pair of electrons has been supplied by one of the bonding atoms only
-the shared pair was originally a lone pair of electrons on one of the bonded
atoms
• The formation of an ammonium ion, NH4+, from the reaction of ammonia,
NH3, and a hydrogen ion, H+
-an ammonia molecule donates its lone pair of electrons to a H+ ion
-the dative covalent bond in NH4+ is shown by a bond with an arrowhead, ,
to show that the nitrogen atom provides both electrons to the covalent bond
• In a NH4+ ion, all 4 bonds are equivalent and you can’t tell which is a dative
covalent bond. The arrowhead for the dative covalent bond just helps with the
accounting for all electrons
Average Bond Enthalpy- A Measurement
of Covalent Bond Strength
• Average bond enthalpy serves as a measurement of covalent bond
strength
• The larger the value of the average bond enthalpy, the stronger the
covalent bond