Baltic archaeology

This study focuses on smithy and forge constructions in present day Estonia and Finland. The studied smithies can be divided into three time periods: pre-crusade Late Iron Age (11th-12th centuries); the age of transition (13th and 14th centuries), when foreign craftsmen settled in newly founded towns bringing their own traditions; and the 15-17th centuries, during which rivalry was established between rural and urban smiths. The most visible feature in the smithies-the forge-also changed during this period, evolving from a ground-level forge pit into a massive rectangular raised forge. The latter was adopted following the crusades and continued to be used until the 19th century.

Gegenstand der Studie sind Tierknochenreste, die im späten Mittelalter auf dem Markt deponiert wurden. Anhand zahlreicher Spuren von scharfen Werkzeugen sowie von anatomischen und artenbezogenen Analysen konnte festgestellt werden, dass es sich dabei hauptsächlich um Abfall vom Verzehr handelte. Insgesamt wurden mehr als 4.700 Exemplare in drei Untergruppen untersucht und analysiert, die wie folgt datiert wurden: a) 2. Hälfte des 13. Jh.; b) Anfang des 14. Jh.; c) 14. Jh.; d) 13.-14. Jh.
Die Zucht von Säugetieren, hauptsächlich von Rindern, weniger von Schweinen und Schafen/Ziegen, spielte eine wichtige Rolle bei der Versorgung der Stadt mit tierischen Rohstoffen. Ferner wurden Vögel in die Stadt gebracht, vor allem Hühner, zudem auch Fische und Wild. Letzteres war von untergeordneter Bedeutung. Grundlage für diese Schlussfolgerung ist ein kleinerer Anteil von Wildüberresten als bei den Vögeln. Von jagdbaren Säugetieren wurden am häufigsten Rehe und Hasen, aber auch Hirsche und Wildschweine verzehrt. Alle Teile der Schlachtkörper wurden auf den Markt gebracht, die wichtigsten darunter waren zweifellos die Rippen, die in mehrere Stücke geschnitten wurden (durchschnittlich etwa 85 mm lang im 13. Jh. und 76 mm lang im 14. Jh.). Spuren von Schlachterarbeiten, einschließlich des Zerlegens, konnten an Knochen aus verschiedenen topographischen Teilen des Skeletts aufgezeichnet werden. Bei allen Funden wurden die meisten Metzgerwerkzeug-Negative, die beim Schneiden/Zerhacken entstanden, an Knochen von Rindern gefunden, vor allem an Rippen, Mittelhand- und Mittelfußknochen. Zwei Gruppen von Rindern mit voll ausgewachsenen Schlachtkörpern wurden in die Stadt geleitet,
wovon die erste Gruppe etwas jünger war (ca. 2 Jahre). Das Fleisch von solchen Tieren hatte andere Eigenschaften als das der älteren Gruppe, deren Tiere etwa 3,5-5 Jahre lang gehalten wurden. Auch die jüngste Klasse, die Kälber, kamen in die Stadt, aber ihre Anzahl war definitiv geringer als die
von aufgezogenen Tieren. Die Qualität des verzehrten Schweinefleischs war unterschiedlich. Einerseits wurden viele relativ junge Exemplare, die nicht älter als 10 Monate waren, andererseits auch ältere Tiere, d. h. im Alter von etwa eineinhalb Jahr und zwei Jahren, geschlachtet. Viel seltener konsumierte
man Jungtiere, die nur wenige Wochen lebten. Bei Wiederkäuern wurde vermutlich Fleisch von jungen, aufgezogenen und voll ausgewachsenen Tieren geschätzt. Pferde wiederum wurden als Transport- oder landwirtschafliche Zugtiere eingesetzt. Von großer Bedeutung waren Rinder, daher fand man in den untersuchten Materialien Knochen von Kastraten sowie pathologische Veränderungen an Knochen, die bei Nutztieren (auch Kühen) entstehen.
Knochen und Hornscheiden waren äußerst wichtige Rohstoffe. Bei den ersteren spielten die Mittelhand- und Mittelfußknochen von Rindern sowie von Pferden eine große Rolle. Die gefundenen Rosenstöcke von Rindern und Ziegen, die als Abfälle von der Gewinnung von Hornscheide eingestuft wurden, weisen auf die große Bedeutung dieses Rohstoffs für die Herstellung von Gegenständen hin. Im Untersuchungszeitraum wurden Katzen immer beliebter. Es ist nicht auszuschließen, dass
von diesen Tieren das Fell abgezogen wurde. Darauf deuten jedenfalls Spuren von scharfen Werkzeugen
auf einem der gefundenen Schädel.
Die untersuchten Tierreste und die vorgelegten Forschungsergebnisse erlaubten es Beobachtungen
zu machen, die die Bedeutung der Fauna für die Entwicklung der spätmittelalterlichen Stadt Stargard
besser erklären. Gegenwärtig ist Stargard die einzige Stadt in diesem Teil Vorpommerns, für die so viele
archäozoologische Daten für das späte Mittelalter gewonnen werden konnten.

**please contact me if you would like a copy of my thesis**

The development of urbanism in the Viking Age is undoubtedly one of the best-studied fields in the archaeology of the period. The Viking towns of Birka, Kaupang, Hedeby and Ribe have captured the imagination of archaeologists and the public alike, presenting the lives of their enigmatic inhabitants. Discussed in the literature but only occasionally discussed comparatively are a significant number of other settlements founded across the Baltic coast in the Early Medieval Period, from northern Germany to the tributary rivers of north-western Russia. These settlements appear across the Mare Barbarum at a very similar time, in similar forms, in response to ostensibly similar circumstances. Some survive through to today, most meet a variety of different ends, but all transformed in some way into the world of the later, more easily recognisable High Medieval town.
This thesis presents a model of Early Medieval settlement in the Baltic region, acknowledging the modern day historical and political reasons for the lack of representation of the southern and eastern Baltic countries and emphasizing a comparative approach to remove these barriers of recent history. Thirteen settlements have been chosen for analysis, selected for the availability of information for the development of a quantitative model of settlement trajectory. Despite their similar beginnings, the settlements all met very different ends, and a triadic framework of settlement analysis is applied to this problem, emphasizing interconnection between material form, social operation, and settlement outcome. Regardless of just what these settlements were, as indeed discussions around the terminology of urbanism have predominated in recent years, they undoubtedly were something, strangers in an overwhelmingly rural and agricultural landscape, situated outside contemporary political and social systems. As the Viking-centric focus on archaeology of the Early Medieval period in Northern Europe begins to change, this thesis illustrates the role of comparative analysis in revealing the importance of sites less well-studied.

The House of Griffin or Griffin dynasty was a dynasty ruling the Duchy of Pomerania from the 12th century until 1637. The name "Griffins" was used by the dynasty after the 15th century and had been taken from the ducal coat of arms. Duke Wartislaw I (died 1135) was the first historical ruler of the Duchy of Pomerania and the founder of the Griffin dynasty. The most prominent Griffin was Eric of Pomerania, who became king of the Kalmar Union in 1397, thus ruling Denmark, Sweden and Norway. The last Griffin duke of Pomerania was Bogislaw XIV, who died during the Thirty Years' War, which led to the division of Pomerania between Brandenburg-Prussia and Sweden. Duchess Anna von Croy, daughter of Duke Bogislaw XIII and the last Griffin, died in 1660.
The dynasty is known by two names, Pomerania, after their primary fief, and Griffin, after their coat of arms, which had featured a griffin since the late 12th century: The first verifiable use of the griffin as the dynasty's heraldic emblem occurred in a seal of Casimir II, Duke of Pomerania, which showed the imaginary beast within a shield, and was attached to a document dated 1194.
The name Pomerania comes from Slavic 'po more', which means: 'land along the sea'.
The origins of the Griffins are not clear. Most theories derive them from either local Slavic nobility or a cadet branch of the Polish house of Piasts. Medieval Polish chronicler Jan Długosz connected them with Polish noble family of Świebodzice from the south province of Poland named the Lesser Poland, who also used a griffin as their coat-of-arms and who in turn might also have been a cadet branch of the Piasts. At any rate, chronicler Gallus Anonymus in his Gesta principum Polonorum calls the Griffins "close cousins" of then-contemporary Bolesław III of Poland, directly implying a close dynastic relationship with the Piasts.
In the 17th century, the Griffins derived their roots from legendary beings from Sorb mythology called Gryphus or Baltus.
The first known members of the Griffins were the brothers Wartislaw I and Ratibor I. Wartislaw would be the ancestor of the line of dukes that ruled the Duchy of Pomerania until 1630; Ratibor would be the ancestor of the Ratiborides branch of the Griffins, that was to rule the lands of Schlawe and Stolp (Slupsk) until the line became extinct and the area was incorporated in the Duchy of Pomerania. The first known member of the Swantiborides branch of the Griffins, notable as castellans of Pomeranian cities, was Wartislaw (II) Swantiboriz.

. The objects here considered are buckles with relief zoomorphic and anthropomorphic decoration
(late 5th – mid-6th century) indicating contacts between the eastern part of the Baltic Sea basin and the Eastern
Roman Empire during the later phase of the Great Migration period. These buckles directly or indirectly reflect
the connection between the Baltic region and Byzantine Empire and, perhaps, were introduced with the
appearance of the Scandinavians in the territory of the Empire. With the Byzantine-Baltic contacts, the spread
of the prestigious military fashion was possibly related and they can have been realised via Central Europe,
the famous ‘Amber Route’ and further on through the system of the circumBaltic riverine and sea routes

The  article introduces into scientific circulation the results of the exploratory excavations 2014 at the Vtyrka hillfort (Pillovo‑2) in the western part of the Leningrad region. The hillfort is located on the spur of the Izhora Plateau, which is surrounded on both sides by narrow rivers — second order tributaries of the Luga River. The site has the form an irregular pentagon, the fort was been protected by a rampart and a moat on the north side. The area of the site is small, only about 1400 square meters. Exploration excavation in 2014 was a trench, laid parallel to the rampart. Excavations revealed two main periods in the history of settlement. The first of these probably should be dated to the first centuries of our era; with it is connected the layer of light sandy soil on the basic earth, in which a few stone structures have been cleared, textile-impressed and scratched ceramics, bronze beads, an iron object, as well as fragments of polished slate tools were collected here.  It is not unlikely that there was a burial ground to the north of the settlement, later destroyed during the construction of a defensive rampart. The second period of life at the site belongs to the Viking Age and is represented by a stratified cultural layer, in which, in particular, four layers of coal and soot were traced.The found objects are diverse, the latest of them are dated to the 10th — beginning 11th century. Ceramics from the upper layers (fig. 9, 10) has the closest analogies in Estonia and on some more eastern sites, for example, on the stone graveyard Severik near Pskov. The isolated fragments of medieval wheel-made ceramics of the 12th century
were connected probably with a nearby medieval settlement.

Archaeological excavations carried out in 2014 allowed to uncover the bastion: a brick artillery tower being a
part of Stargard fortifi cations. An array of fi nds was discovered inside: a jett on, Apfelpfennig of Jorg Schultes
from Nuremberg, samples of architectural detail, and modern ceramics. On the basis of dendrochronlogical
analysis of pillar foundations it was established that the basion was built in the 1520s. Th e structure was a part
of the modernization of Stargard fortifi cations at the end of the 15th and the fi rst quarter of the 16th century.
It was at that time that sections of city walls and towers as well as fortifi cations allowing the use of artillery
during defence operations: brick bastions, roundels and earthwork walls were modernised. Early modern
fortifi cations of which major parts survived down to our times are unique in Western Pomerania.

The main goal of this dissertation is the evaluation of the current material from the Iron Age eastern Lithuanian settlements in the context of the settlement archaeology. Historically developed circumstances determined that Lithuanian archaeology nearly from its origins has been oriented mainly towards ethnocultural research. Consequently the material from the burial monuments has been under the greatest consideration, settlement excavations were considered less informative. As the goals of archaeological research are broadening in Lithuania recently, social, economic and ideological aspects of culture are becoming more relevant. Settlement material is essential for the analysis of these subjects. However, as the majority of the settlement excavations were implemented under the different goals with different methods, the employment of their data is complicated. The data is not fully reliable, it requires reconsideration. Methodological aspects of settlement excavation and interpretation of its data are widely analysed in this dissertation. The model of settlement archaeology fitted to the properties of Lithuanian Iron Age sites is introduced here. Data from the Eastern Lithuanian settlements are treated in the context of this model. Problems of the chronology of settlements are under consideration here as well. Pottery from the Eastern Lithuanian settlements was revised for this purpose. The chronological scale with the intervals of 1-3 centuries has been constructed.

Culture of Long Barrows  in South-East Estonia: common features and regional differences
Archaeologists have studied the Culture of Long Barrows (Fig. 1) for over a hundred years, and south-east Estonia can be regarded as one of the most thoroughly
investigated regions. The author characterizes the sites of the Culture of Long Barrows in south-east Estonia as a regional group where features similar throughout the whole culture as well as those specific for the region can be observed (Figs 2–4).
She mentions pottery and everyday items used in settlements as similarities. The sites of the Culture of Long Barrows in south-east Estonia form the westernmost group of the culture, the peculiarity of which appears most clearly in women’s garments. Most likely the Culture of Long Barrows appeared west of the lakes Pskov and Peipsi from the east quite early, at the beginning of the 6th century at the latest. It is difficult to establish if the spread of the new tradition was accompanied also by the arrival of a considerable number of people. Deciding by the close contacts between the sites of this culture known in Estonia and the bearers of the culture, and local population, which is expressed in the topographic coincidence of some sites, such people could not have been very numerous. Most likely the tradition of the Culture of Long Barrows subsided in Estonia in the 8th century. At the same time similar processes took place in the area south of Lake Peipsi, including the valley of the Obdekh River and the lower reaches of the Velikaya River. In this extensive region no more barrow cemeteries typical to the culture were established, although making of pottery and other items typical to the
culture continued for some time. Hence the Culture of Long Barrows in Estonia was but a brief episode, which nevertheless left its trace in the development of the communication system of the population on the shores of the lakes Peipsi and Pskov,
among the rest the contacts with the strengthening centres of Pskov and Izborsk.

This is my bachelors thesis I wrote in 2015. Drabešu Liepiņu gravefield is Late Iron Age Latgallian flat burial field, which is located near Āraišu lake. Excavations have been carried out on early 1970s. Although in many ways it is typical of its culture and era, it is distinguished by a particularly large number of cremations, and it is also the only Latgallian burial field in Gauja basin with intentionally damaged grave goods. For Latgalians such habits are atypical in general. The paper discusses the grave goods, connection between its characteristics and the geographic location of the cemetery, and social aspects of grave goods.

The article acquaints the readers with the manufacture of jewellery artefacts, old technologies and with the names of some processes. Technologies used in Lithuania in 2nd- 14th centuries are compared with some old metal processing technologies that came from the eastern Mediterranean sea region. To explain and visualise technological processes the author of the article, an archaeologist and jeweller, used his long time research and practical experience, which he has amassed when reconstructing non-ferrous metal processing technologies.

This paper focuses on the predominating east-west orientation of Iron Age graves (5 th century BC to the 13 th century AD) and the reasons that could have caused the custom. Based on the data of Baltic mythology and their reflections in folklore, the authors argue that the mythological conception of grave orientation is closely related to the mythological path of the Sun and the image of souls leaving the world of the living. Given the astronomical opposition of the Sun and the Moon, the hypothesis is justified by the fact that, when the graves of men and of women in the Baltic burial grounds adhering to the east-west axis, were oriented in opposite directions, the burial customs could have been affected by the mythological images of the heavenly family: the Sun (wife) and the Moon (husband). The search for symbolic meanings in archaeology is an attractive but challenging task. A theoretical possibility of research, cognitive archaeology in our case, requires special thoroughness and attention. When seeking harmony between the archaeological finds and the mythological images, a number of difficult questions have to be answered; it is necessary to renounce any preconceived ideas and to substantiate research assumptions and hypotheses in a consistent manner, by providing substantial arguments. The orientation of grave pits and the bodies of the dead is a part of the burial rite, an expression of mythological images. However, hitherto existing attempts of archaeologists to explain why a grave is oriented toward one or another cardinal point have not fully exhausted the opportunities of research on ancient religion and society. At the choice of researchers, contemporary scientific knowledge of the universe has frequently been unjustifiably transferred to prehistoric times, e.g., cosmological images that have a religious meaning have frequently been considered to be the expression of ancient astronomical achievements (Jovaiša 2002: 13). The authors of this paper are offering an opportunity to study the directions of the burial of the dead from the viewpoint of mythology instead of that of astronomy.

(in Russian) The present paper analyzes the history of the antiquities of Western Ingria (area of the Izhora Plateau with the contiguous maritime aтd riverine lowlands) over the 1st Millennium AD. This study is based predominantly
on evidence yielded by archaeological investigations of recent years including those conducted by the present author.
During the entire period under study, the antiquities from the region of Western Ingria are demonstrating distinct Baltic-Finnish features indicating stable contacts of the local population with Estonia and Southwestern Finland. In the beginning of the 2nd Millennium AD, the Old-Russian culture becomes widely distributed here levelling considerably the local peculiarities.

El sitio arqueológico de Paviken se sitúa en la costa occidental de la isla sueca de Gotland, la cual, gracias a su localización en el centro del Mar Báltico, tuvo un gran auge comercial durante la Edad Vikinga. Paviken fue un puerto que funcionó desde el siglo VIII al XI d.C., y contó con tres principales actividades: la construcción y reparación de barcos, el comercio y la producción y manufactura de diversos artículos.
Este artículo tiene como finalidad ser una introducción a este importante puerto vikingo, del cual aún se sabe relativamente poco. Esto a través de un recorrido por las diferentes etapas de estudio que el sitio ha tenido: los primeros acercamientos académicos en la década de 1930 y principios de la de 1960, la extensiva excavación de Per Lundström entre 1967 y 1973 y los recientes estudios a cargo de Dan Carlsson y la Escuela de Arqueología de Campo de Gotland, en los cuales tuve la oportunidad de colaborar como estudiante en la excavación del sitio en el verano de 2014.

Ponencia presentada en el II Encuentro de Arqueología e Historia Nórdicas de la Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia, México, 6 octubre de 2014.

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The archaeological site of Paviken is located in the western coast of the Swedish island of Gotland, which, due to its localization in the center of the Baltic Sea, had a great commercial importance during the VIking Age. Paviken was a harbor that operated from the 8th to the 11th centuries A.D., and it had three main activities: ship building, trade and production and manufacture of diverse articles and crafts.
This paper’s aim is to be an introduction to the important Viking harbor, from which still relatively little is known. This through a review of the different studies that the site has had: the first academic approaches in the 1930s and beginning of the 1960s, the extensive excavation led by Per Lundström between 1967 and 1973 and the more recent studies directed by Dan Carlsson and the Gotland Archaeological Field School, in which I had the opportunity to collaborate as a student in the site’s excavation in the summer of 2014.

Статья содержит анализ материалов грунтового могильника Заполье-2 в Верхнем Полужье, датированного третьей четвертью I тыс. н. э. До его открытия погребальные памятники V–VII вв. были неизвестны на этой территории. Материалы рассматриваются в контексте синхронных древностей, в первую очередь предсопочного культурного типа, занимавшего на Северо-Западе ту же экологическую нишу, что и культура сопок.
Погребальный обряд и инвентарь погребений могильника Заполье-2 детально проанализированы, уточнен круг их аналогий. Рассмотрена проблема преемственной связи предсопочных памятников с сопками и культурой ранней Древней Руси. Высказано предположение о принадлежности к предсопочному типу известного Никольского могильника в Старой Ладоге.

Työssä tarkastellaan Ravattulan Ristimäen ruumiskalmistosta vuosien 2010–2016 aikana löydettyjä pronssispiraalilöytöjä osana ristiretkiaikaista vaatetusta. Pronssispiraalit olivat rautakaudella tyypillinen itämerensuomalainen koristetyyppi mm. viitoissa, naisen esiliinassa ja päähineissä. Tavoitteena on rekonstruoida Ristimäen spiraalikoristeita vertaillen haudoista otettuja röntgenkuvia ja Suomen muita spiraalilöytöjä keskenään. Työssä kerrotaan spiraalikoristeiden valmistustavasta ja levinneisyydestä, sekä pohditaan tyylieroja ja käyttötapoja naisten viitoissa ja ohimoriipuksissa Ristimäen spiraalilöytöjen perusteella.

The subject of the article are interesting combs discovered in the stronghold in Pasym, NE Poland. For the older phases of the early Middle Ages, combs are unique finds, especially in the area of the West Balts. Results of the analysis show that combs from Pasym should be dated at the end of the 7th – the beginning of the 9th century AD. Numerous traces of bone and antler processing have been found in the stronghold in Pasym, however, no semi-products or waste left by comb manufac-ture were found, therefore, the existance of a local comb making workshop should be excluded. Combs of the types found in Pasym come from the Frisian areas, but there is no reason to treat these specimens as Frisian imports. The combs from Pasym bear the greatest resemblance to the artefacts from some of the early Slavic sites from the Polish Lowlands (Żukowice, Kałdus, Miszewko Strzałkowskie, Wyszogród) and Janów Pomorski as well as to a single find from Tumiany.

Personal  correspondence  alongside  reports  is  important for understanding the history of individual archaeological sites. This correspondence includes descriptions of archaeological sites and excavated artefacts, as well as a range of information  on  private  contacts  between  archaeologists. One of the most interesting collections of letters is the correspondence from Stary Dzierzgoń (Alt Christburg) relating to the excavations of strongholds in Stary Dzierzgoń  and Stare Miasto (Altstadt), which were conducted in association with the SS-Ahnenerbe by Hans Schleif and his assistant Wolf von Seefeld. The excavations took place in 1935–1937.  The  two  researchers  maintained  regular  contact with one of the most important figures in the archaeology of East Prussia of that period - Waldemar Heym, the director of the Heimatmuseum Westpreussen in Kwidzyn (Marienwerder). From the surviving correspondence, we learn of the excellent relations between Heym, Schleif and von Seefeld, we learn of the problems related to the archaeology  of  East  Prussia  and  the  scientific  plans  associated with this part of the Third Reich. The surviving letters also provide information that was previously absent in the literature, specifically the location of a prehistoric site in the
Stare Miasto which was discovered during the construction of a new school in 1937

Archaeology can contribute greatly to our understanding of past metalworking. The main goal of this thesis is to provide new information on Estonian metalworking between the 7th–17th centuries, based on archaeological sources. During this period there were political changes and technological developments that impacted Estonian society. The most important event was the 13th century crusade, after which Estonia was brought into Christian Europe. Western craftsmen started to settle into Estonia with the founding of new towns, bringing new techniques and tools as they came. My main contribution is the study of metalworking sites and the analysis of their production waste. Smithies, forges, iron blooms and bars are all investigated to gain a better understanding of ferrous metalworking. Local iron production and the scattered locations of smithies retained the pre-crusade workshop layout up until the 14th century. The 14th–17th century smithy site of Käku was studied in detail and the excavations between 2007–2014 revealed the remains of four consecutive smithies and thousands of finds. The smithy of Käku more resembles the 14th century urban smithies at Haapsalu, than the 13th–14th century rural smithy of Paatsa, which indicates a convergence of rural and urban smithing traditions by the 14th–15th centuries. Metallographic analysis of iron blooms and bars from the smithy site of Käku provides insight into how the smiths processed bloomery iron and how steel tools were reused. The non-ferrous metalwork is studied via crucibles and casting moulds. The residue they contained was analysed with a portable spectrometer (pXRF) and a scanning electron microscope (SEM-EDS). The results show that in the 7th to early 13th centuries the casting of silver and tin took place at hill forts and strongholds. Silver residues were detected in 27% of the crucibles, which suggests that silver casting was common. After the crusade, the towns became the main centres for the casting and crafting that previously was undertaken in the fortified centres. Foreign craftsmen introduced imported crucibles that were more durable at high temperatures than crucibles made from local clay. A few of the studied crucibles had residues of pure gold, which indicates a higher level of specialist goldsmithing, compared to the work of pre-crusade craftsmen.

The article is meant as a commentary to the reference in Tacitus (Germania 45,3) to 'fustis', i.e., a non-metal trauma weapon of the Balt Aestii who have been identified with the Dollkeim-Kovrovo Culture. The word 'fustis' was understood by the Romans as a straight or a wavy stick. From the surviving Roman soldiers' gravestones, the fustis appears to have been used as a coercive measure, in restraining an unruly crowd or during tax collecting. The written and the archaeological sources are analysed for evidence on the use of cudgels/clubs from the metal age. Examples are invoked from ethnography of cudgel use in hunting and combat (from a distance and at close range). The Balt 'fustis' has been interpreted also as a battle axe. The author challenges this view stressing that in writing of the fustis Tacitus makes it plain that it was not made of metal. An argument is made for the use of 'fustis' as a hunting cudgel, something that is confirmed in the West Balt Barrow Culture, the predecessor of the Dollkeim-Kovrovo Culture. One explanation is that when Tacitus wrote his account the latter was still at an early stage when conservative cultural features presumably were still strong; alternatively the information about 'fustis' is an archaism drawn from the period of the West Balt Barrow Culture.

Abstract. The paper publishes results of the 2015 excavations of the Il’ichevka 1
settlement in the Kaliningrad region. The excavated settlement sites dating to the period
of Roman influences and the early medieval period are of special interest. These sites
include remains of an above-ground structure, a number of middens and a standalone kiln.
The finds discovered at the sites are attributed to the Sambian-Natangian culture and the
Prussian culture characterizing the material culture of this region which bordered on the
Wielbark area in the first centuries of our era, and the Elbląg and the Olsztyn groups in
the 5th–7th centuries.