Multilingual Education and Development

A study of the limits of multilingual literary expression in print culture. Beginning with the insight that multilingual literature defies simple translation, Brian Lennon examines the resistance multilingual literature offers to book publication. Looking closely at the limit of multilingual literary expression and the literary journalism, criticism, and scholarship that comments on multilingual work, In Babel’s Shadow presents a critical reflection on the fate of literature in a world gripped by the crisis of globalization.

The optimal language for literature and educational materials is not the same for all Zay areas. The data gathered during the current study points to Zay as optimal for the islands on Lake Ziway and Oromo as optimal for the lakeshores. However, the Zay people living on the islands would probably be well served by Amharic literature and educational materials until most of them immigrate to the shore or the Oromo educational system causes a shift in preference to Oromo. Zay’s case is one of an endangered language that could prove to be a development success story, but only if the level of motivation for a language development project is high enough to initiate and sustain the effort.

Quando il bambino apprende la lingua materna è proiettato verso la stabilizzazione di ben definiti rapporti fra sè e le cose, è portato a considerare la lingua come strumento la cui utilizzazione è determinata dalle situazioni contestuali della comunità sociale, quelle situazioni in cui egli vive col suo corpo, con le sue sensazioni, con le sue esperienze quotidiane.

This paper involves an exploration into the experiences of students in post 16 education taking traditional academic subjects, in the UK, for whom studying in English means working in a foreign language and culture. The students who formed the sample were high achieving students aged sixteen and seventeen from China, Vietnam and Thailand who had come to study in the UK in order to proceed to a British University. In the first part of this paper I propose a conceptual framework suitable for this study. The second part of the paper consists of a summary of the findings from semi-structured interviews conducted with the eight participants. In this paper a variety of issues are explored related to the experience of living and studying in England. Although grounded in the specific context of students from three nations studying in the UK. This paper should inform our understanding of appropriate teaching strategies and pastoral and pedagogical approaches for students in a range of multi-linguistic settings.

The chapter  presents a brief overview of the characteristics of current multilingualism as opposed to the multilingualism of the past. The three main distinctions of the current multilingualism are specified: (1) the fact that the new linguistic dispensation relates to and affects the post-modern society as a whole; (2) the intensive and multifarious interaction between the two main trends of current language dispensation. The complex interplay between the two trends is dynamic and includes the perceptions and treatment of English with, and in opposition to other languages. It seems that no language has ever before given rise to such fervent controversy or has been positioned so seriously and problematically against other languages. In addition, it appears that never before was there such a strong and wide-ranging mutual dependency of the two tendencies, the spread of English and the diversification of languages other than English. (3) Typically, a set of several languages as a unit, rather than one single language performs the essential functions of communication, information and cognition for contemporary humankind.

Globalization and digitization have reshaped the communication landscape, affecting how and with whom we communicate, and deeply altering the terrain of language and literacy education. As children in urban contexts become socialized into communities of increasing cultural and communicational connectivity, complexity, and convergence , and funding for specialist second language (L2) support declines, classrooms have become linguistically heterogeneous spaces where every teacher is a teacher of L2 learners.

Dans cet article, nous présenterons un dispositif inclusif mis en place dans une classe de petite section depuis une dizaine d'années par la titulaire, également directrice de l'école maternelle classée REP+ (réseaux d'éducation prioritaire+) et suivi par une équipe de deux enseignants chercheurs pendant l'année scolaire 2014-15. Cette approche vise à prendre en compte les spécificités des enfants et des parents pour qui la/les langue(s) parlée(s) à la maison n'est/ne sont pas la langue de scolarisation. L'analyse des données recueillies par observations et entretiens enregistrés révèle les politiques linguistiques pratiquées par l'enseignante ainsi que les idéologies qui les sous-tendent. La création d'un espace sécurisant et l'emploi flexible des langues par l'enseignante lui permettent de construire des passerelles entre les langues, entre les cultures et entre la maison et l'école, favorisant ainsi l'inclusion de tous les enfants dans la classe. Summary: This article focuses on the inclusive translanguaging practices observed over the course of a school year (2014-15) in one pre-primary classroom of children aged between three and four years in an urban, low socioeconomic status context in north eastern France where many children and families speak a language other than the language of schooling at home. The data (primarily video recordings and recorded interviews) reveal one teacher's practiced language policies underpinned by ideologies which embrace a holistic image of the child as she moves between worlds constructing meaning through complementary linguistic and cultural lenses. The creation of 'safe spaces' and the flexible use of languages by the teacher allow her to build bridges between languages, cultures and between school and home, and in so doing include all the children in the class.

This article examines the perceived effectiveness of multilingual upbringing strategies and ways of communication adopted by families where the parents are of two different nationalities. The theoretical introduction presents an overview of the most important issues related to the linguistic development in bi-/multilingual children, debunking common myths and misconceptions surrounding the notions of bi-/multilingualism. The empirical part analyses the results of a survey conducted among parents who raise their children multilingually, looking at the strategies of communication adopted, the perceived effectiveness thereof, and whether the respondents would have changed or improved anything if they had been given a ‘second chance’. The results show that the most frequently implemented method is the one parent-one language approach, whose usefulness the majority assessed positively. Other practical conclusions concerning multilingual upbringing are also drawn.

First, the author analyses the current challenges of European institutions to implement plurilingual approaches to languages in national language policy. According to EU policies, the Slovak school system should be actively open to linguistic and cultural plurality. Plurilingual methodology uses educational approaches focused on awareness of the need both to acquire more languages and to use efficient means of acquisition. To describe the specific case of the Slovak Republic, the author first looks into the multilingual society living in the territory of current Slovakia in the 18th century, focusing on the response of Matej Bel – a Slovak polymath, scientist, teacher and language methodologist – to the challenge of his plurilingualism. In the next part, the study presents the current Slovak plurilingual policy. Data related to this policy are taken from state educational documents. Last part presents data from interviews with teachers and education students, specifically about their plurilingual needs and awareness.

This book discusses salient moments of multilingual encounters and brings together contributions focused on the interplay between language use by individuals and societies, and language-related inequalities or opportunities for speakers. The chapters demonstrate how biographical and speaker-centred approaches can contribute to an understanding of linguistic diversity, how researchers can empirically account for lived experiences of languages, and how such accounts are embedded in a larger discussion on social (in)equality. Together the chapters make a powerful case for the importance of speaker-centred methodologies in multilingual and multilingualism research. The book is a rich source of theoretical and methodological reflections and will thus be a valuable resource for both experienced researchers and students beginning to explore biographical research methods.

This paper examines strategies and ways of communication adopted by bilingual families who have been raising their offspring with more than one language. We analyse the results of a survey carried out in 32 families, looking at the strategies of communication adopted, parents’ assessment of their effectiveness, and whether the respondents would have changed or improved anything if they had been given a “second chance”. The results showed that the most frequently implemented method was the one parent-one language strategy, whose usefulness the majority assessed very positively. Other interesting conclusions concerning bi- and multilingual upbringing are also discussed.

In this paper, a series of ESL classroom observations of a teacher in an Indian primary level government run school are presented to show instances of concrete uses of translanguaging. The translanguaging practices were based on the inputs the teacher received from a training programme on using multilingual strategies to teach language and content. It is observed that the teacher applies translanguaging to clarify concepts using contrastive elaboration, to instruct students, practice discourse-based management, prepare students for classroom activities, and help them communicate. She also reflects upon her experience of translanguaging as she reports her plans to use students' L1 more systematically like drawing lexical and form based comparisons between Telugu, Hindi (L1s) and English (L2). Instances of translanguaging or fluid ways of communicating using two or three languages by this teacher and her experiences in using this approach help to validate the construct and to advance academic proficiency in students from low SES groups who would not otherwise comprehend the lessons if taught in the strict monolingual mode.

This paper deals with politeness phenomena which are general to all human societies, but draws many examples from Korea as understood by the writer (who is Australian). The emphasis in this analysis is on the problem of decoding politeness. It is noted that even within a culture, politeness signals can be manipulated, and that interlocutors calibrate their meaning according to knowledge of individual personalities. In Korean society, the requirement for formal politeness signals is very strong, both in body language and in fixed linguistic markers (such as verb endings). However, the pragmatic meaning of these signals is calibrated in ways that are difficult for foreigners to decode. The paper also considers the dilemma of that minority of Koreans who attempt to interact within the linguistic and social codes of English. It is noted that these attempts often go astray, both because the speaker misunderstands English politeness coding conventions and because listeners in English, almost by definition, come from radically different cultural backgrounds to the Korean.

As multi/plurilingual research advances understandings of plurilingual speakers’ fluid language use, particularly in multilingual settings, new research methods and pedagogical orientations that address this complex phenomenon are needed. The present study considered the development, reliability, and validity of the Plurilingual and Pluricultural Competence (PPC) scale. Informed by sociolinguistics theories in educational linguistics, including plurilingualism and translanguaging, the PPC scale had its content validated by researchers, language teachers and learners. It was then implemented with 379 plurilingual speakers in two multilingual cities in Canada: 129 in Toronto and 250 in Montréal. Exploratory factor analysis examined the factors in the scale and whether PPC referred to language and culture as separate dimensions or, as theoretically suggested, a unidimensional construct. Results reveal PPC as one construct, suggesting that language and culture are interrelated. With 22 items on a 4-point Likert scale, the PPC scale is a new instrument that can be used in future multi/plurilingual research and pedagogy. Its significance lies in that the scale can gather overall trends among plurilinguals’ PPC levels, which can have implications for language education, curriculum and policy. Recommendations for future use are discussed.

Let us suppose that you are a research linguist, tormented by some doubts and questions about the state of your profession, and not constrained by having to repeat a catechism of "known truths" to Linguistics 101 students, and not worried about employment tenure. How would you actually go about tackling "the central problem of linguistics", namely how we acquire and maintain knowledge of the probability of systemic relationships in a language?

This article draws attention to language choice and language use of Austrian bi-and multilingual school children. We explore some implications of their linguistic practices with regard to social inclusion in an Austrian educational school setting. Pursuing a Dynamic Systems and Complexity Theory approach, we hypothesise that before language users actually use a language within a certain context, they have to evaluate the respective communicative situation by taking multiple contextual factors into consideration, meaning language users choose to use, or not to use, a language based on the socio-contextual information at hand. We consider these contextual factors to be most relevant as they provide the basis on which speakers can actually make use of a certain language within a given context. By drawing on examples of empirical data obtained through a language background survey, we examine some of the complex and dynamic interactions of contextual parameters influencing language choice and language use in the formal educational setting of classroom instruction. Based on the results of this study, we display a selection of the dynamic and complex interactions of pupils' language use in one specific context as well as their language preferences and how these relate to social inclusion.

This is a project proposal, inviting suggestions for action and involvement, for rereading and completing Raja Rammohun Roy's unfulfilled mission. In this year, when Rammohun's quarter millennial celebration coincides with the celebration of 75th year of India's Independence, it is necessary to initiate collective action for taking the tasks undertaken by him for equality, religious unity, multilingualism, cultural diversity, universal peace, gender equity, harmony of reason and tradition, forward into the future. A plan is being put forth for the conservation and revitalization of the tangible and intangible heritage, associated with Rammohun, by revisiting his itinerary, exhibiting and retelling his ideas for social reform, carrying his crusade forward for women's protection and liberation, bridging cognitive divides in education and public policy, and uniting humanity on coexistential platforms. A multiversity is proposed, across disciplines, cognitive categories, denominations and traditions, to build and forge ahead for universal understanding and peace, after Rammohun's ideas.

This article reports on a study that used the online MULTITEACH questionnaire to examine the relationship between the multilingual pedagogies 111 language teachers, employed in upper-secondary schools in Norway and Russia, reported implementing, their beliefs about how multilingualism benefitted students and teachers, and their self-assessed ability to teach language aspects and skills. The study also investigated whether sociobiographical variables and participants’ language habits outside of work affected their beliefs about multilingualism benefitting their students and implementation of multilingual pedagogies. The findings revealed that participants utilized multilingual pedagogies least frequently when teaching in first language contexts and that those who used foreign languages outside of work applied such pedagogies more frequently than participants who did not. Moreover, their beliefs about multilingualism benefitting their students were positively predicted by their beliefs about multilingualism benefitting teachers and negatively predicted by their support of the monolingual approach to language learning and teaching.

This short informal paper stems from reflection on an address by Ken Hale, doyen of minority languages (and now sadly deceased). It looks at the role of linguists themselves in the dynamic of language maintenance and the twin phenomena of language loss and language birth. The uniqueness of each language is weighed against the costs and benefits of language homogenization. It is recognized that the majority of speakers are ultimately pragmatists about language choice, yet an argument remains for offering some minority language support to groups struggling with their ethnic identity. Finally, it is asked whether language maintenance or revival can actually pose other risks under certain conditions.

Competence has become a key word when describing pedagogical processes which involve teachers, students, contents, methodologies, and skills to be developed. Moreover, as the school of today must provide students with the necessary knowledge and competence for the world of tomorrow, multilingualism is also a must, especially, as migration has generated a plethora of new school environments and linguistic and cultural soundscapes. Thus, there is an objective need to incorporate teachers in the direct process(es) of task design and assessment, not as mere passive transmitters of knowledge, but as active facilitators of competence development. In the light of the aforementioned premises, the current paper analyzes PBL-Project-based Learning-as the working scenario for a flexible student-based and response-based methodology to ensure self-sustained engagement and motivation that may route the use of multiple intelligences to create new and more complex cognitive development and knowledge, hence, competence. To this respect, pedagogical processes must fulfill certain key factors: (i) the code and its accessibility; (ii) cultural difficulty; (iii) task familiarity, (iv) the teacher's role, and (v) cognitive difficulty. When correctly tackled, projects enhance meaningful learning. Additionally, teachers would need to be eclectic in its widest sense as for approach and competence with actual autonomy to generate and assess tasks and empowering students on decision-making spheres in order to provide new grounds for cooperative personal and academic development to pursue happiness as a primary goal of Education. This paper analyzes the case of two students who have displayed the ability to go beyond the limitations of traditional pedagogy and, within and despite this framework, mature a technology-based cooperative and interdisciplinary project of a wireless cellphone charger on their own as they realized and self-sustained the need to go beyond the academic constraints of the educational stage-Middle School-in which they are.

Cet ouvrage examine les pratiques discursives bi-plurilingues en classe pour faire une description empirique détaillée de l'apprentissage bilingue et intégré des savoirs dans diverses disciplines scolaires. En analysant les processus d'apprentissage mobilisés par l'enseignement bilingue, il participe à l'étude de ceux qui interviennent dans l'acquisition des langues secondes. En étudiant l'intégration de l'apprentissage des disciplines et des langues, ainsi que l'élaboration bilingue des savoirs, il contribue également à la recherche en didactique intégrée et en didactique du plurilinguisme. Au coeur de cet ouvrage, les disciplines et leurs enjeux linguistiques, ainsi que la dynamique entre travail disciplinaire et travail linguistique sont abordés dans une perspective interactionniste, située et bi-plurilingue.

Dans cet article, nous présentons un dispositif inclusif mis en place dans une classe de petite section depuis une dizaine d'années par la titulaire, également directrice de l'école maternelle, classée Rep+ (Réseaux d'éducation prioritaire+) et suivi par une équipe de deux enseignants chercheurs pendant l'année scolaire 2014-15. Cette approche vise à prendre en compte les spécificités des enfants et des parents pour qui la/les langue(s) parlée(s) à la maison n'est/ne sont pas la langue de scolarisation. L'analyse des données recueillies par observations et entretiens enregistrés révèle les politiques linguistiques pratiquées par l'enseignante, ainsi que les idéologies qui les sous-tendent. La création d'un espace sécurisant et l'emploi flexible des langues par l'enseignante lui permettent de construire des passerelles entre les langues, entre les cultures et entre la maison et l'école, favorisant ainsi l'inclusion de tous les enfants dans la classe.

This article draws attention to language choice and language use of Austrian bi-and multilingual school children. We explore some implications of their linguistic practices with regard to social inclusion in an Austrian educational school setting. Pursuing a Dynamic Systems and Complexity Theory approach, we hypothesise that before language users actually use a language within a certain context, they have to evaluate the respective communicative situation by taking multiple contextual factors into consideration, meaning language users choose to use, or not to use, a language based on the socio-contextual information at hand. We consider these contextual factors to be most relevant as they provide the basis on which speakers can actually make use of a certain language within a given context. By drawing on examples of empirical data obtained through a language background survey, we examine some of the complex and dynamic interactions of contextual parameters influencing language choice and language use in the formal educational setting of classroom instruction. Based on the results of this study, we display a selection of the dynamic and complex interactions of pupils' language use in one specific context as well as their language preferences and how these relate to social inclusion.

This chapter deals with situated and culturally appropriate self-directed multimodal learning in terms of distance education in a South African university. This approach has become relevant at this university as both contact and distance students are accommodated in the same degree programmes. In the South African university context, there is a need for decolonisation of the curriculum as contents were traditionally based on perspectives of the West and the Global North. Thus, it has become necessary to reconsider how HE could accommodate situated learning and be culturally appropriate in terms of dynamic sign-making processes. This qualitative research involved interviews with lecturers and a questionnaire with open-ended questions aimed at students. From the research it is evident that despite some good practices most of the learning materials and activities are not sufficiently situated or culturally appropriate. Students were divided, based on these issues. However, recommendations are made regarding how effectively content can be localised.

JOURNÉE D’ÉTUDE

du 18 octobre 2017 ouverte à tous

- Plurilinguisme et arts du langage - Pratiques et enjeux en didactique des langues et des cultures

Maison de la Recherche (salle Claude Simon)
4, rue des Irlandais-
75005 Paris

DILTEC- Didactique des Langues, des Textes et des Cultures (EA 2288)

Linguistic Typology has been a useful tool for the establishment of a unitary linguistic structure of language as a cognitive construct of the mind with the usage of various typological patterns to build a methodology that enables multilingual language teaching in infant, primary, and secondary education environments. This has occurred by making use of unified typological items, such as word order pattern, verb inflection, comparative morphology, or syntax, among others; permitting young learners to acquire second language(s) parallel to their own mother tongue in a direct manner in multilingual contexts through a unique methodology common to all multiple languages used as target languages, but considering pupils' native tongue as a solid reference. Such methodology breaks down language into a skeleton young learners approach to regardless of previous knowledge, cultural background, or age. It becomes sustainable at all levels, for all second languages are addressed through their features related to the native tongue of the learner, leading to a more efficient comprehension and quick, effortless, natural assimilation and acquisition through visual and memory methods, along a plethora of exercises that only act as tools for such process, not as the main source for language learning nor teaching. The methodology does not depend on economic basis, for it may be used traditionally, or with ICTs, in a fluid manner to help natives and migrants banish linguistic barriers when integrating within foreign communities and their educational institutions, as well as helping preserve and ensure the growth of minority languages through the increase of speakers, which may lead to the creation of cultural production of whatever type. This shall indeed reassure the preservation of the (minority) languages while building the knowledge of foreign ones. Although this methodology approaches the teaching of Basque (minority language being one of the oldest in the world) and other European or Asian languages, although expandable to whatever language, it may be adapted to any language.

This paper explores attitudes and reported behaviour in interactions amongst two groups of middle-class (professionally educated and employed) Australians: non-Anglophone immigrants and Anglo-Australians. ‘Non-Anglophone immigrants’ are defined as those who arrived in Australia as adults, grew up speaking a language other than English, and therefore usually speak English with a ‘foreign accent’. ‘Anglo-Australians’ are defined as people born in Australia, who grew up in families/households where only English was spoken, and who therefore speak with a ‘native Australian’ accent. Through a web-based survey of a targeted sample of respondents, the two groups were asked about their intergroup relationships and mutual perceptions. In this paper we present data on exogamy, intergroup friendships and experiences and perceptions of intergroup communication. Our findings indicate high levels of agreement between the two groups that Anglophone/non-Anglophone communication is minimally hindered by comprehension problems due to foreign-accented speech and cultural differences. Although the positive picture that emerges may reflect specific experiences and attitudes of middle-class professionals and may  not be  generalisable, increased contact of  members of the ‘multicultural middle class’ with their Anglo-Australian counterparts is likely to be a factor in dissociating foreign accent and negative stereotyping.

"The aim of this paper is to present my research : I am engaging typically monolingual lower secondary school students in linguistic problem solving when confronted to languages that are not being taught at school (pluralistic approaches). I hypothesize that metalinguistic reflection on an unknown language (L3) led by pupils collaboratively (in groups of four) can have an impact on students’ knowledge and performance in their L2 (English). The goal of our experimentation is to make learners understand the usefulness of metalinguistic knowledge. When having to reflect upon an unknown language, students need to resort to the metalinguistic knowledge they have of prior languages (L1 French and L2 English in our case) so as to carry out the required tasks. No metalinguistic instruction takes place as there is no teaching goal: the focus is essentially on language learning methodology.
During the school year 2011-2012, teachers of four year-9 classes will lead nine sessions of pluralistic approaches: three sessions in Dutch, three in Italian and three in Finnish (languages that do not belong to the ordinary curriculum). Students perform, in turn, a metalexical, metasyntaxical and metaphonological reflection in groups of four. These Language Related Episodes (Swain, 1998) are recorded and analyzed so as to identify the underlying processing operations (R. Ellis, 2004) and the socially constructed metalanguage (Fraser, 2001). The results of the pre- and post-test will be compared to those of the comparison group so as to measure the impact of the teaching methodology on the performance in English (L2) of the students.
In this paper, I will first present the theoretical framework that underlies my research before approaching the methodology used. I hope to be able to present some preliminary or expected results, although the post-test will just have been conducted.
"

In this paper, a series of ESL classroom observations of a teacher in an Indian primary level government run school are presented to show concrete uses of translanguaging. Translanguaging practices were based on the inputs the teacher received from a training programme on using multilingual strategies to teach language and content. It is observed that the teacher applies translanguaging to clarify concepts using contrastive elaboration, instruct students, practice discourse based management, prepare students for classroom activities, and help them communicate. She also reflects upon her experience of translanguaging which shows her plans to use students’ L1 more systematically like by drawing lexical and form based comparisons between Telugu, Hindi (L1s) and English. Instances of use of translanguaging or fluid ways of communicating using two or three languages by this teacher and her experiences in using this approach help in validating the concept for advancing school skills in st...

In this paper, a series of ESL classroom observations of a teacher in an Indian primary level government run school are presented to show concrete uses of translanguaging. Translanguaging practices were based on the inputs the teacher received from a training programme on using multilingual strategies to teach language and content. It is observed that the teacher applies translanguaging to clarify concepts using contrastive elaboration, instruct students, practice discourse based management, prepare students for classroom activities, and help them communicate. She also reflects upon her experience of translanguaging which shows her plans to use students’ L1 more systematically like by drawing lexical and form based comparisons between Telugu, Hindi (L1s) and English. Instances of use of translanguaging or fluid ways of communicating using two or three languages by this teacher and her experiences in using this approach help in validating the concept for advancing school skills in st...

This reflection illustrates the author’s teaching philosophy both as a second language composition student teacher in the United States and a German language tutor in India. He focuses on how to help his second language students be more accepting, integrating, and intentional about adapting to the target culture. How does he help his multilingual language learners in the classroom get relatively quickly acclimated to culture or backgrounds that might be different from their own?

The term “multilingualism” is often used to mark one of the human social and existential behavioral conditions produced especially by experiences of migration and displacement, but also by special intensities of education. To the extent that it stands in contrast with “monolingualism” as marking the state-managed sovereignty of a nationalized standard, or written dialect, “multilingualism” is also often used to mark the violation of de jure or de facto state-managed codes for public (and certain forms of private) communication, including those employed in and for the regulation of both labor and education. If “multilingualism” is in some ways thus often imagined as a litmus test for what we might call the humanity of a state exercising its monopolies of both knowledge and force, it might be worth considering the question of whether multilingualism can be simulated, as the spoken and written production of the state-managed code itself can now be simulated by software. For the fact is that multilingualism has long been simulated, in this way, in and as the unintended and unwanted mark of failure in efforts to computerize human communication. Such “simulated” multilingualism ought to be understood as a product not of the complexity of human social life as such, but rather of interesting breakdowns in the use of computers to manage that complexity, particularly the complexity of linguistic confusion.

This article draws attention to language choice and language use of Austrian bi-and multilingual school children. We explore some implications of their linguistic practices with regard to social inclusion in an Austrian educational school setting. Pursuing a Dynamic Systems and Complexity Theory approach, we hypothesise that before language users actually use a language within a certain context, they have to evaluate the respective communicative situation by taking multiple contextual factors into consideration, meaning language users choose to use, or not to use, a language based on the socio-contextual information at hand. We consider these contextual factors to be most relevant as they provide the basis on which speakers can actually make use of a certain language within a given context. By drawing on examples of empirical data obtained through a language background survey, we examine some of the complex and dynamic interactions of contextual parameters influencing language choice and language use in the formal educational setting of classroom instruction. Based on the results of this study, we display a selection of the dynamic and complex interactions of pupils' language use in one specific context as well as their language preferences and how these relate to social inclusion.

Drawing on recent developments within sociolinguistics, the objective of
the current article is to explore how six pre-service teachers (PSTs)
discursively positioned themselves and ‘the multilingual’ across two
narrating events focused on their lived experience of language. The
narrating events were focus groups with other PSTs (N = 24) and the
participants’ linguistic autobiographies (n = 6). A narrative analysis
across the two events demonstrated how the six PSTs used indexical
cues to discursively position themselves as monolingual speakers of
Norwegian in contrast with ‘multilinguals’ as speakers of ‘other
languages’. Based on these findings, the article argues that the PSTs do
not have an adequate understanding or vocabulary to discuss
multilingualism in education, leading them to present ‘the multilingual’
as someone radically different from themselves. However, teacher
educators can take PSTs’ lived experience of language as a point of
departure for discussing multilingualism in education and challenging
the traditional understandings of multilingualism.

The language classroom is a complex environment with a multitude of factors contributing to the students’ experiences. Largely outside of the awareness of teachers, researchers, and language learners themselves, private speech forms the foundation for language internalization (Gass, 2013; Ohta, 2001). This research focuses specifically on two aspects of private speech: repetition and language play in an introductory, undergraduate French language classroom. Student surveys, audio recordings of individuals during class, and interviews were conducted and synthesized to better understand the student learning experience. Findings from this study are presented as starting points for further lines of inquiry in second language acquisition research.

Bangladesh is a culturally, ethnically, religiously and linguistically diverse country. There are more than 45 ethnic groups living in Bangladesh. The rich tapestry of indigenous peoples makes up approximately 2 percent of the population of the country. Though these groups identify themselves as 'Adivasi' or 'indigenous', the terms 'ethnic minority', 'Adivasi', 'indigenous' and 'tribal' are used interchangeably in various documents and literature in Bangladesh. In the PRSP document they are mentioned as 'Indigenous Peoples', whereas 'Tribal' in the PEDPII documents.

The Chittagong Hill Tracts is a unique area in many respects from the rest of the country. The geographical terrain, environment, colourful culture and ethnic diversity, governance and administrative structures of the area form the characteristics of its own, which are dissimilar from the rest of the country. Due to decades-long political instability, the facilities of development in the region were limited. The CHT region remained virtually isolated from the rest parts of the country and the inhabitants were deprived from the benefits of development. The historical CHT Accord of 1997 has opened up the opportunities for developmental in the region.

This report intends to provide a snapshot on the issues of education in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. It also aims to provide an alternative ways and means to cope with the identified difficulties in order to improve the education situation. One of the most difficult obstacles to educational access faced by the CHT indigenous children is that of language diversity.

The CHT children, especially those living in the most remote locations, cannot speak or understand Bangla, yet, within the schools both the textbooks and the medium of instruction are in Bangla. As a result, their school performance is hampered in many ways: enrolment is reduced, attendance is irregular, the dropout rate is high, and achievement is extremely low. Under these conditions the natural mental growth and creativity of the children are also greatly constrained (Durnnian, 2007) .

In the CHT it is particularly important for learning to be relevant to the local context. Where this is not the case, experience has shown that parents do not value the learning at school, and the children themselves are unable to relate to the learning, and apply what they have learnt in to practice. The schools of Bangladesh use a centralized school calendar. The school calendar does not reflect local conditions.

Remoteness is also one of the most crucial barriers to access to education in CHT. Due to difficult geographical terrains many para communities remain out of school catchment areas.

To cope with the difficulties in education in CHT, the GO-NGO actors have taken different initiatives. The government of Bangladesh has and other legal arrangements. The National Strategy for Accelerated Poverty Reduction (PRSP) identifies the child right and quality education as the key issues in building strategies for accelerated poverty reduction.

The Second Primary Education Development Programme (PEDP II & III) aims to increase access to primary schools in accordance with the Government's EFA, Poverty Reduction Strategy, Millennium
Development Goals and other policy commitments and improve the quality of student's learning and
achievement outcomes, and decentralise the decision making process down to the school and upazila levels.

The most recent progress in the government initiative is the National Education Policy and initiatives for implementation of MLE in primary schools. Despite this progress, still there are challenges in primary education in CHT, such as lack of or slow implementation of government rules, regulations, acts and policies; no accessibility to schools by the remote communities, absence of any initiative to bring the excluded children into education and so on.

In this report we have collected some 'case stories' from different GO-NGO sources. , For instance, in one section a case story has been included, where MTBMLE implemented by NGOs, while hostel facilities provided by GO and individuals. We also have included stories on challenges, such facilities, and stories of dropped out children. In the end of the report, we have proposed some recommendations, which may be used for advocacy at different levels of policy-making.

La premiere partie de ce texte retrace le cadre historique du developpement de l'education bilingue aux USA. Avant la premiere guerre mondiale, le pays a connu une ouverture a la diversite linguistique avec l'utilisation de plusieurs langues dans l'instruction publique. Le debut des annees 60 a ete marque par l'instauration d'une legislation permettant l'utilisation de fonds publics pour l'education bilingue. Dans la deuxieme partie, les As. decrivent les principales justifications theoriques utilisees pour appuyer l'education bilingue. La troisieme partie resume l'evolution de la recherche sur l'education bilingue aux USA. Les chercheurs ont progressivement abandonne l'hypothese des effets negatifs du bilinguisme pour travailler sur les avantages du bilinguisme sur le plan individuel et social. La quatrieme partie du texte est consacree a une tentative de classification des programmes bilingues pratiques aux USA. Les As. ont identifie deu...

Cet ouvrage examine les pratiques discursives bi-plurilingues en classe pour faire une description empirique détaillée de l'apprentissage bilingue et intégré des savoirs dans diverses disciplines scolaires. En analysant les processus d'apprentissage mobilisés par l'enseignement bilingue, il participe à l'étude de ceux qui interviennent dans l'acquisition des langues secondes. En étudiant l'intégration de l'apprentissage des disciplines et des langues, ainsi que l'élaboration bilingue des savoirs, il contribue également à la recherche en didactique intégrée et en didactique du plurilinguisme. Au cœur de cet ouvrage, les disciplines et leurs enjeux linguistiques, ainsi que la dynamique entre travail disciplinaire et travail linguistique sont abordés dans une perspective interactionniste, située et bi-plurilingue.

Linguistic typology's applications have contributed to the layout of a unique linguistic structure of language as a cognitive construct of the mind. This relates to the use of typological patterns to form a methodology of multilingual language teaching for primary schools through the use of typological parameters, such as word order, verb inflection, comparative morphology, or syntax, among others. Their use would enable young learners to acquire second language(s) parallel to their own mother tongue in a direct manner in multilingual contexts through a single method common to the multiple target languages. Such methodology breaks down language into a skeleton learners approach regardless of previous knowledge, cultural background, or age. Permanently, all second languages are addressed through their features related to the native tongue of the learner, which leads to their comprehension and quick, effortless, natural assimilation and acquisition through visual and memory methods, along a plethora of exercises. It may be used traditionally, or with ITs, fluidly to help migrants banish linguistic barriers when integrating within foreign communities. Simultaneously, as migrants access alien educational institutions and life in the community within a minority language, this methodology may help preserve and ensure its growth through the increase of speakers. By doing so, the creation of cultural production in that minority language —and the preservation of the language itself— may be reassured. This methodology approaches the teaching of Basque —one of the oldest minority language in the world— and other European or Asian languages, although expandable to whatever language.