Engineering Design Handbook - Hydraulic Fluids

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AMCP-706-123
AMC PAMPHLET AMCP 706-123
ENGINEERING DESIGN
HANDBOOK
Mt* ******
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
REDSTONE SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION CENTER
5 0510 00036039 3
HEADQUARTERS, U.S. ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND APRIL 1971

HEADQUARTERS
UNITED STATES ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20315
15 April 1971
AMC PAMPHLET
No. 706-123
ENGINEERING DESIGN HANDBOOK
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
1 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
Paragraph Page
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS x
xvüi
LIST OF TABLES
PREFACE xx
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1-1 GENERAL 1-
1-2 METHODS OF TRANSMITTING POWER 1-
1-2.1 Electrical Power Transmission 1-
1-2.2 Mechanical Power Transmission .... 1-
1-2.3 Pneumatic Power Transmission 1-
1-2.4 Hydraulic Power Transmission 1-
1-3 PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULICS 1-2
1-3.1 Generation and Use of Fluid Power 1-2
1-3.1.1 Fluid Power Circuits 1-2
1-3.1.2 Symbolic Representation of Components 1-2
1-3.1.3 Uses of Hydraulic Power 1-3
1-3.2 Requirements for Hydraulic Fluids 1-4
1-3.2.1 System Dependency of the Hydraulic Fluid 1-4
1-3.2.1.1 Temperature 1-4
1-3.2.1.2 Viscosity 1-4
I 1-3.2.1.3 Compatibility With System Materials 1-4
T 1-3.2.1.4 Hydraulic System Accuracy, Speed of Response, and Stability 1-5
.1. 1-3.2.1.5 Fluid Stability (Temperature and Shear) 1-5
1-3.2.1.6 Lubricity 1-5
1-3.2.1.7 Pressure 1-6
1-3.2.1.8 Lacquer and Insoluble Material Formation 1-6
1-3.2.2 Other Considerations 1-6
1-3.2.2.1 Availability 1-6
1-3.2.2.2 Cost 1-6
1-3.2.2.3 Handling 1-6
1-3.2.2.4 Storage 1-6
1-3.2.2.5 Contamination 1-7
REFERENCES 1-7
AMCP 706-1 23
TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont'd)
Paragraph Page
CHAPTER 2
POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPMENT
2-0 LIST OF SYMBOLS 2-1

2-1 GENERAL 2-1
2-2 PUMPS 2-3
2-2.1 Gear Pumps 2-3
2-2.1.1 External Gear Pumps .2-3
2-2.1.2 Internal Gear Pumps 2-4
2-2.2 Vane Pumps 2-5
2-2.2.1 Unbalanced Vane Pumps 2-5
2-2.2.2 Balanced Vane Pumps 2-6
2-2.3 Piston Pumps 2-6
2-2.3.1 Axial-piston Pumps 2-6
2-2.3.2 Radial-piston Pumps 2-7
2-2.3.3 Rotating Piston Pumps 2-7
2-2.4 Screw Pumps 2-8
2-2.5 Bellows Pumps 2-8
2-2.6 Diaphragm Pumps 2-8
2-2.7 Connection Between Pump and Drive Motor 2-9
2-3 ACTUATORS 2-9
2-3.1 Linear Actuators 2-9
2-3.1.1 Classification of Linear Actuators 2-9
2-3.1.2 Mounting Configuration 2-11
2-3.1.3 Kinematics of Linear Actuators 2-11
2-3.2 Rotary Actuators or Motors 2-14
2-3.2.1 Gear Motors 2-14
2-3.2.2 Vane Motors 2-15
2-3.2.3 Limited-rotation Motors 2-15
2-3.2.4 Piston Motors 2-16
2-3.3 Fluid Transmissions 2-17
2-4 INTENSIFIERS 2-17
2-5 RESERVOIRS 2-18
2-5.1 Function 2-18
2-5.2 Capacity 2-18
2-5.3 Design 2-18
2-6 FILTERS 2-19
2-6.1 Classification of Filters 2-19
2-6.2 Filtering Methods 2-19
2-6.2.1 Mechanical Filters 2-19
2-6.2.2 Adsorbent Filters 2-20
2-6.2.3 Absorbent Filters 2-20
2-6.3 Hydraulic Fluid-filter Compatibility 2-21
2-6.4 Filter Pressure Drop 2-21
2-6.5 Replacement or Cleaning Intervals 2-21
2-7 ACCUMULATORS 2-21
2-7.1 Accumulator Loading 2-21
2-7.1.1 Weight-loaded Accumulators 2-22
2-7.1.2 Spring-loaded Accumulators 2-22
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2-7.1.3 Pneumatic-loaded Accumulators • 2-22

2-7.2 Accumulator Selection Considerations 2-23
2-8 VALVES 2-24
2-8.1 Valve Configurations 2-24
2-8.1.1 Sliding-spool Valves 2-24
2-8.1.2 Seating Valves 2-24
2-8.1.3 Flow-dividing Valves 2-24
2-8.2 Valve Types 2-24
2-8.2.1 Pressure-control Valves 2-26
2-8.2.2 Directional-control Valves 2-28
2-8.2.3 Volume-control Valves 2-30
2-8.3 Valve Actuation 2-31
2-8.3.1 Manual Actuation 2-31
2-8.3.2 Spring Actuation 2-31
2-8.3.3 Cam Actuation 2-31
2-8.3.4 Solenoid Actuation 2-31
2-8.3.5 Pilot Fluid Actuation 2-32
2-8.3.6 Servomechanism Actuation 2-32
2-8.4 Principles of Valve Analysis 2-32
2-8.5 Valve Design Considerations 2-33
2-9 HEAT EXCHANGERS 2-35
2-9.1 Modes of Heat Transfer 2-35
2-9.1.1 Conduction 2-35
2-9.1.2 Convection 2-35
2-9.1.3 Radiation 2-36
2-9.1.4 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 2-36
2-9.2 Types of Cooling Systems 2-36
2-9.2.1 Air-cooled Heat Exchangers 2-37
2-9.2.2 Water-cooled Heat Exchangers 2-37
2-10 HYDRAULIC PIPING 2-38
2-10.1 Hydraulic Line Size 2-38
2-10.1.1 Pressure Drop 2-38
2-10.1.2 Pressure Surges 2-39
2-10.1.3 Pipe and Tubing Sizes 2-39
2-10.2 Hose, Tubing, and Pipe Fittings 2-39
2-11 SHOCK ABSORBERS 2-39
2-11.1 Hydraulic Shock Absorbers ; 2-40
2-11.2 Hydropneumatic Shock Absorbers 2-41
2-11.3 Hydraulic Fluid Properties Pertinent to Shock Absorbers 2-44
2-12 LIQUID SPRINGS 2-44
REFERENCES 2-44
CHAPTER 3
FLUID PROPERTIES, SIGNIFICANCE, AND TEST METHODS
3-0 LIST OF SYMBOLS 3-1

3-1 GENERAL 3-1
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3-2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 3-2

3-2.1 Viscosity 3-2
3-2.1.1 Absolute Viscosity 3-2
3-2.1.2 Kinematic Viscosity 3-3
3-2.1.3 Other Viscosity Scales 3-3
3-2.1.4 Viscosity Unit Conversions 3-3
3-2.1.5 Newtonian Fluids ' 3-4
3-2.1.6 Non-Newtonian Materials 3-4
3-2.1.7 Determination of Viscosity of Non-Newtonian Materials 3-5
3-2.1.8 Turbulent Flow and Reynolds Number 3-6
3-2.1.9 Measurement of Viscosity 3-6
3-2.1.10 Significance of Viscosity 3-7
3-2.1.11 Test Methods for Viscosity 3-7
3-2.2 Viscosity-temperature Properties 3-8
3-2.2.1 ASTM Viscosity-temperature Charts 3-9
3-2.2.2 ASTM Slope 3-9
3-2.2.3 Viscosity-temperature Coefficient 3-11
3-2.2.4 Viscosity Index 3-11
3-2.2.5 Test Methods for Viscosity-temperature Properties 3-13
3-2.3 Viscosity of Blends of Two Liquids 3-14
3-2.4 Viscosity-pressure Properties 3-14
3-2.5 Viscosity-shear Characteristics 3-16
3-2.5.1 Temporary Viscosity Loss Due to Shear 3-16
3-2.5.2 Permanent Viscosity Loss Due to Shear 3-18
3-2.5.3 Test Methods for Viscosity-shear Characteristics 3-18
3-2.6 Low-temperature Properties 3-18
3-2.6.1 Cloud Point 3-20
3-2.6.2 Pour Point 3-20
3-2.6.3 Freezing Point 3-20
3-2.6.4 Test Methods for Low Temperature Properties 3-20
3-2.6.5 Significance of Cloud and Pour Points 3-22
3-2.7 Flammability Characteristics 3-22
3-2.7.1 Flash and Fire Points 3-22
3-2.7.1.1 Test Methods for Flash and Fire Points 3-22
3-2.7.1.2 Significance of Flash and Fire Points 3-24
3-2.7.2 Flammability Tests Under Simulated Service Conditions 3-24
3-2.7.3 Effects of Evaporation on Flammability (Pipe Cleaner Test) 3-27
3-2.7.4 Autoignition Temperature 3-27
3-2.7.5 Fire-resistant Liquids 3-28
3-2.8 Volatility 3-28
3-2.8.1 Vapor Pressure 3-32
3-2.8.2 Boiling Point 3-32
3-2.8.3 Evaporation , 3-33
3-2.9 Density, Specific Gravity, and Thermal Expansion 3-35
3-2.9.1 Density 3-35
3-2.9.2 Specific Gravity 3-38
3-2.9.3 API Gravity 3-40
3-2.9.4 Coefficient of Cubical Expansion 3-40
3-2.9.5 Test Methods for Density and Specific Gravity 3-40
3-2.10 Heat Transfer Characteristics 3-42
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3-2.10.1 Specific Heat 3-42

3-2.10.2 Thermal Conductivity 3-42
3-2.11 Compressibility and Bulk Modulus 3-44
3-2.11.1 Compressibility 3-44
3-2.11.2 Bulk Modulus 3-45
3-2.11.2.1 Secant Bulk Modulus 3-45
3-2.11.2.2 Tangent Bulk Modulus 3-46
3-2.11.3 Sonic Bulk Modulus 3-46
3-2.11.4 Measurement of Bulk Modulus 3-47
3-2.11.4.1 Secant and Tangent BulkModuli 3-47
3-2.11.4.2 Sonic Bulk Modulus 3-48
3-2.11.4.3 Estimation of Bulk Modulus (Penn State Method) 3-49
3-2.11.4.4 Estimation of Bulk Modulus (Other Methods) 3-51
3-2.12 Emulsions and Foaming in Hydraulic Fluids 3-51
3-2.12.1 Emulsion Characteristics 3-51
3-2.12.2 Foaming Characteristics 3-52
3-2.12.3 Tests for Emulsion and Foaming Characteristics 3-52
3-2.13 Gas Solubility 3-54
3-2.14 Low-temperature Stability 3-55
3-2.14.1 General 3-55
3-2.14.2 Test Methods for Low-temperature Stability 3-56
3-2.15 Sedimentation 3-56
3-3 LUBRICATION PROPERTIES 3-57
3-3.1 General 3-57
3-3.2 Hydrodynamic Lubrication 3-57
3-3.3 Transition from Hydrodynamic to Boundary Lubrication 3-57
3-3.4 Boundary Lubrication 3-58
3-3.5 Extreme Pressure Lubrication 3-59
3-3.6 Definition of Terms Used in Describing Lubricating Characteristics 3-59
3-3.6.1 Film Strength . 3-59
3-3.6.2 Oiliness 3-59
3-3.6.3 Lubricity 3-59
3-3.7 Prevention of Wear 3-60
3-3.7.1 Mechanical Factors 3-60
3-3.7.2 Lubrication Factors 3-60
3-3.8 Test Methods for Lubricating Properties 3-60
3-3.8.1 Bench-type Friction and Wear Testers 3-61
3-3.8.1.1 Timken Tester 3-61
3-3.8.1.2 Almen Tester 3-61
3-3.8.1.3 Falex Tester 3-61
3-3.8.1.4 Four-ball Tester 3-62
3-3.8.1.5 SAE Tester 3-63
3-3.8.2 Evaluation of Lubricating Properties by Pump Tests 3-63
3-3.8.2.1 Simulative Recirculating Pump Test 3-63
3-3.8.2.2 Pump Loop Wear Test 3-64
3-3.8.3 Other Lubricating Characteristics Tests 3-64
3-3.8.3.1 Load-carrying Ability of Lubricating Oils at 400° F .. 3-64
3-3.8.3.2 Load-carrying Capacity of Steam Turbine Oils 3-64
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3-3.8.3.3 Gear Fatigue Characteristics of Aircraft Gas Turbine
Lubricants at 400° F 3-64
3-3.8.3.4 Load-carrying Ability of Lubricating Oils (Ryder Gear Machine) 3-64
3-4 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES 3-65
3-4.1 Chemical Stability 3-65
3-4.2 Oxidation Stability 3-65
3-4.3 Thermal Stability 3-66
3-4.4. Hydrolytic Stability 3-67
3-4.5 Radiation Resistance 3-68
3-4.6 Chemical Stability Tests 3-69
3-4.6.1 Indicators of Liquid Stability 3-70
3-4.6.1.1 Color 3-70
3-4.6.1.2 Neutralization Number 3-70
3-4.6.1.3 Carbon Residue 3-71
3-4.6.2 Oxidation Stability Tests 3-72
3-4.6.2.1 Oxidation-corrosion Test 3-72
3-4.6.2.2 Steam Turbine Oxidation Test 3-72
3-4.6.2.3 Evaporation Tests 3-73
3-4.6.2.4 Thin Film Oxidation Tests 3-73
3-4.6.2.5 Dornte Oxidation Test 3-73
3-4.6.3 Thermal Stability Tests 3-73
3-4.6.3.1 Penn State Bomb Test 3-73
3-4.6.3.2 High-temperature Test 3-73
3-4.6.3.3 Sustained High-temperature Stability Tests 3-73
3-4.6.3.4 Low-temperature Stability Test 3-74
3-4.6.4 Hydrolytic Stability Tests 3-74
3-4.6.4.1 Beverage Bottle Test 3-74
3-4.6.4.2 Other Hydrolytic Stability Tests 3-74
3-4.6.5 Radiation Resistance Tests 3-74
3-5 CORROSIVENESS 3-75
3-5.1 Chemical Corrosion 3-75
3-5.2 Electrochemical Corrosion 3-75
3-5.3 Corrosiveness Tests 3-76
3-5.3.1 Metal-liquid Corrosiveness Tests 3-76
3-5.3.2 Humidity-type Corrosiveness Tests 3-76
3-5.3.3 Gear-box and Engine Corrosiveness Tests 3-79
3-6 COMPATIBILITY 3-79
3-6.1 Hydraulic Fluid Compatibility With Metals 3-80
3-6.1.1 Metal Fatigue 3-81
3-6.1.2 Cavitation 3-81
3-6.2 Elastomers 3-83
3-6.2.1 Basic Elastomer Materials 3-85
3-6.2.2 Effect of Radiation on Elastomers, Plastics, and Resins 3-87
3-6.2.3 Test Methods for Elastomer-liquid Compatibility 3-92
3-6.3 Compatibility With Coatings 3-93
3-6.3.1 Compatibility With Paints , 3-93
3-6.3.2 Compatibility With Other Coatings 3-93
3-6.4 Compatibility With Other Lubricants 3-93
3-6.5 Compatibility With Additives 3-96
REFERENCES 3-96
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CHAPTER 4
TYPES OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
4-1 GENERAL 4-1

4-2 CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS 4-1
4-2.1 Classification by Physical Properties 4-1
4-2.2 Classification by Chemical Properties 4-1
4-2.3 Classification by Operating Characteristics 4-2
4-2.4 Classification by Fire Resistance 4-2
4-2.5 Classification into Petroleum or Nonpetroleum Hydraulic Fluids 4-2
4-2.6 Classification Used in This Handbook 4-3
4-3 PETROLEUM BASE HYDRAULIC FLUIDS 4-3
4-4 NONPETROLEUM BASE HYDRAULIC FLUIDS 4-3
4-4.1 Phosphate Esters 4-3
4-4.2 Silicate Esters 4-5
4-4.3 Organic Acid Esters 4-5
4-4.4 Polysiloxanes 4-5
4-4.5 Glycols 4-5
4-4.6 Castor Oils 4-6
4-4.7 Polyoxyalkylene Glycols 4-6
4-4.8 Water Glycols 4-6
4-4.9 Emulsions 4-7
4-5 NONSPECIFICATION AND POTENTIAL HYDRAULIC FLUIDS 4-7
4-5.1 Petroleum Base Fluids 4-7
4-5.2 Nonpetroleum Base Hydraulic Fluids 4-7
4-5.2.1 Phosphate Esters 4-7
4-5.2.2 Halogenated Compounds 4-8
4-5.2.2.1 Polysiloxanes (Silanes) 4-8
4-5.2.2.2 Hydrocarbons 4-8
4-5.2.2.3 Perfluorinated Polymers 4-9
4-5.2.3 Polyphenyl Ethers 4-9
4-5.2.4 Heterocyclic Compounds 4-9
4-5.2.5 Phosphonitrilates 4-9
4-5.2.6 Liquid Metals 4-9
4-6 HYDRAULIC FLUID AND LUBRICANT SPECIFICATIONS 4-10
4-7 VISCOSITY-TEMPERATURE GRAPHS 4-55
CHAPTER 5
ADDITIVES
5-1 GENERAL 5-1

5-2 OXIDATION INHIBITORS 5-1
5-2.1 Mode of Action of Antioxidants 5-1
5-2.2 Classes of Antioxidants and Synergism 5-2
5-2.2.1 Metal Deactivators 5-2
5-2.2.2 Free Radical Acceptors 5-2
5-2.2.3 Hydroperoxide Destroyers 5-2
5-2.2.4 Synergism 5-2
5-2.3 Examples of the Use of Inhibitors in Various Fluid Lubricants 5-2
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5-2.3.1 Esters 5-2

5-2.3.2 Highly Refined Mineral Oils 5-3
5-2.3.3 Silicon-containing Fluids 5-3
5-2.3.4 Ethers 5-3
5-3 CORROSION INHIBITORS 5-4
5-3.1 Definitions 5-4
5-3.2 Mode of Action of Rust Inhibitors 5-4
5-3.3 Limitations in the Use of Rust Inhibitors 5-4
5-3.4 Examples of Rust and Corrosion Inhibitors 5-5
5-3.5 Volatile Corrosion Inhibitors 5-5
5-4 VISCOSITY INDEX IMPROVERS 5-6
5-4.1 Mode of Action 5-6
5-4.2 Limitations 5-6
5-4.3 Examples of Effective Polymers 5-6
5-5 FOAM INHIBITORS, EMULSIFIERS, AND DEMULSIFIERS 5-7
5-5.1 Characteristics of Foams and the Mode of Foam Inhibition 5-7
5-5.2 Examples of Foam Inhibitors 5-7
5-5.3 Emulsifiers and Demulsifiers 5-8
5-6. LUBRICITY 5-8
5-6.1 Hydrodynamic vs Boundary Lubrication 5-8
5-6.2 Oiliness, Antiwear, and Extreme-pressure Additives 5-8
5-6.2.1 Oiliness Additives 5-8
5-6.2.2 Antiwear Additives 5-9
5-6.2.3 Extreme-pressure Additives 5-9
5-6.3 Classes of Lubricity Additives 5-9
5-6.3.1 Additives for Mineral Oils and Esters 5-9
5-6.3.2 Additives for Silicon-containing Fluids 5-9
5-6.3.3 Additives for Aryl Ether Fluids 5-10
5-7 POURPOINTDEPRESSANTS 5-10
5-8 SEAL DEGRADATION RETARDANTS 5-10
5-9 HYDROLYTIC INHIBITORS 5-10
5-10 CAVITATION INHIBITORS 5-11
5-11 BIOCIDES 5-11
REFERENCES 5-11
CHAPTER 6
STORAGE AND HANDLING
6-1 CONTAINERS 6-1
6-1.1 General 6-1
6-1.2 Container Materials 6-1
6-1.3 Container Sizes, Storage, and Marking 6-1
6-2 CONTAMINANTS 6-3
6-2.1 Sources of Contamination 6-3
6-2.1.1 Contamination from Lint and Dust 6-3
6-2.1.2 Moisture Contamination During Storage 6-3
6-2.1.3 Contamination Accompanying Additives 6-3
6i2.2 Types of Contaminants 6-5
6-2.2.1 Water As a Contaminant 6-5
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6-2.2.2 Solid Contaminant Particles 6-6

6-2.2.3 Liquid Contaminants Other Than Water 6-6
6-2.2.4 Microbiological Contaminants 6-7
6-2.3 Effects of Contamination 6-8
6-2.3.1 Effects of Contamination on the Hydraulic Fluid 6-8
6-2.3.2 Effects of Contamination on the Hydraulic System 6-8
6-2.4 Methods of Determining Contamination 6-9
6-2.4.1 Solid Particle Contamination Measurement by Counting 6-9
6-2.4.2 Solid Particle Contamination Measurement by Weighing 6-10
6-2.4.3 Solid Particle Contamination Measurement by Combined Counting
and Weighing Methods 6-10
6-2.4.4 Liquid Contaminant Measurement 6-10
6-3 PRECAUTIONS 6-11
6-3.1 Health Hazard 6-11
6-3.1.1 Precautions Against Poisoning 6-11
6-3.1.2 Precautions Against Dangerous Vapors and Sprays 6-12
6-3.2 Danger of Explosion and Fire 6-12
6-3.3 Other Precautions 6-12
REFERENCES 6-12
GLOSSARY G-l
INDEX 1-1
AMCP 706-123
UST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Fig. No. Title Page
1-1 Graphic Symbol for a Three-position, Four-port Hydraulic Valve 1-3
1-2 Graphic Symbols for (A) a Hydraulic Pump With Variable Displacement and Pressure
Compensation; and (B) a Hydraulic'Motor With Variable Displacement j-3
1-3 Graphic Symbol for a Hydraulic Oscillatory Device 1-3
1-4 Graphic Symbol for a Variable-flow Hydraulic Volume Control, Such as a Needle Valve 1-3
1-5 Graphic Symbol for a Pressure Relief Valve 1-3
2-1 Rotary Motor Circuit Which Produces Constant Torque 2-2
2-2 Spur Gear Rotary Hydraulic Pump 2-3
2-3 Typical Operating Characteristic Curves for a Spur Gear Rotary Hydraulic Pump 2-4
2-4 Crescent Seal Internal Gear Hydraulic Pump 2-4
2-5 Gerotor Internal Gear Hydraulic Pump 2-4
2-6 Typical Operating Characteristic Curves for a Vane Hydraulic Pump 2-5
2-7 Unbalanced Vane Hydraulic Pump 2-5

2-8 Vane-type Hydraulic Pumps and Motors 2-5
2-9 Balanced Vane Hydraulic Pump 2-6
2-10 Axial-piston Hydraulic Pump 2-6
2-11 Redial-piston Hydraulic Pump With Rotating Piston Housing 2-7
2-12 Radial-piston Hydraulic Pump With Spherical Pistons 2-7
2-13 Rotating Piston Hydraulic Pump 2-7
2-14 Two-rotor Screw Hydraulic Pump With Helical Gears 2-8
2-15 Typical Bellows Pump 2-8
2-16 Typical Diaphragm Pump 2-9
2-17 Rotating Linear Actuator 2-9
2-18 Plunger-type Linear Actuator 2-10
2-19 Telescoping Linear Actuator 2-10

AMCP 706-123
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (cont'd)
Fig. No. Title Page
2-20 Double-acting Linear Actuator 2-10
2-21 Stepped-tandem Linear Actuator 2-11
2-22 Dual Linear Actuator 2-11
2-23 Cushioned Double-acting Linear Actuator 2-11
2-24 Mounting Arrangements for Linear Actuators 2-12
2-25 Applications of Linear Actuators 2-13
2-26 Typical Operating Characteristic Curves for a Spur Gear Hydraulic Motor 2-14
2-27 Typical Operating Characteristic Curves for a Crescent Seal Hydraulic Motor 2-14
2-28 Typical Operating Characteristic Curves for a Gerotor Hydraulic Motor 2-15
2-29 Typical Operating Characteristic Curves for a Vane Hydraulic Motor 2-15
2-30 Typical Single-vane Actuator 2-16
2-31 Typical Double-vane Actuator 2-16
2-32 Helix-spline Rotary Actuator 2-16
2-33 Piston-rack Rotary Actuator 2-16
2-34 Diagram of a Hydraulic Intensifier Circuit 2-18
2-35 Basic Configurations of Filter Assemblies 2-20
2-36 Hydraulic Fluid Filter With Disk-type Filter Elements 2-20
2-37 Weight-loaded Hydraulic Accumulator 2-22
2-38 Spring-loaded Hydraulic Accumulator 2-22
2-39 Nonseparated Pneumatic-loaded Hydraulic Accumulator 2-22
2-40 Diaphragm-type Pneumatic-loaded Hydraulic Accumulator 2-23
2-41 Bladder-type Pneumatic-loaded Hydraulic Accumulator 2-23
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Fig. No. Tide Page
2-42 Free-floating Piston, Pneumatic-loaded Hydraulic Accumulator 2-23
2-43 Major Types of Sliding-spool Hydraulic Valve Configurations 2-25
2-44 Sketch of a Flapper Seating Valve 2-25
2-45 Direct Spring-loaded Poppet-type Pressure Relief Valve 2-25
2-46 Jet-pipe Flow-dividing Valve 2-26
2-47 Direct-acting Pressure-relief Valve 2-26
2-48 Differential Pressure-relief Valve 2-26
2-49 Pilot-operated Pressure-relief Valve 2-27
2-50 Pilot-operated Unloading Valve 2-27
2-51 Load-dividing Valve 2-27
2-52 Sequence Valve 2-27
2-53 Counterbalance Back-pressure Valve 2-27
2-54 Pressure Reducing Valve (Constant Downstream Pressure) 2-28
2-55 Pressure Regulating Valve (Constant Pressure Differential) 2-28
2-56 Pressure Switch 2-28
2-57 Poppet-type Check Valve 2-29
2-58 Pilot-operated Check Valve 2-29
2-59 Mechanically Operated, Nonadjustable Deceleration Valve 2-29
2-60 Three-port Shuttle Valve 2-30
2-61 Time-delay Valve 2-30
2-62 Disk-type Globe Valve 2-30

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Fig. No. Title Page
2-63 Needle Valve 2-30
2-64 Pressure-compensated Flow-control Valve 2-30
2-65 Positive-displacement Metering Valve 2-31
2-66 Pressure-compensated Flow-divider 2-31
2-67 Two-stage Spool-type Servovalve 2-32
2-68 Servovalve Transducers 2-32
2-69 Servovalve Internal Feedback Systems 2-33
2-70 Flow Gain of a Spool Valve 2-34
2-71 Counterflow Plane Wall Heat Exchanger 2-37
2-72 Hydraulic Circuit With Air-cooled Heat Exchangers 2-37
2-73 Shell and Tube Single-pass Heat Exchanger 2-38
2-74 Typical Flare Fittings for Hydraulic Tubing 2-41
2-75 Typical Flareless Fittings for Hydraulic Tubing 2-41
2-76 Typical Self-sealing Couplings for Hydraulic Hose 2-42
2-77 Cross-sectional Sketch of a Typical Shock Absorber 2-43
2-78 Sketch of a Hydropneumatic Shock Mechanism 2-43
2-79 Sketch of a Hydropneumatic Recoil Mechanism 2-43
3-1 Velocity Distribution in a Liquid Between Two Parallel Plates With the Top Plate Moving
With Respect to the Stationary Bottom Plate 3-2
3-2 Viscosity and Shear Stress Curves for a Newtonian Fluid 3-4
3-3 Viscosity and Shear Stress Curves for a Plastic Material 3-4
3-4 Viscosity and Shear Stress Curves for a Pseudoplastic Material 3-5
3-5 Viscosity and Shear Stress Curves for a Dilatant Material 3-5
3-6 Viscosity and Shear Stress Curves for a Thixotropic Material 3-5
AMCP 706-123
Fig. No. Title Page
3.7 Viscosity and Shear Stress Curves for a Rheopectic Material 3-5
3-8 Viscosity Curves for a Newtonian Fluid and a Non-Newtonian Fluid 3-6
3-9 Streamline Flow and Turbulent Flow in a Pipe 3-6
3-10 Cannon-Fenske Capillary Tube Viscometer 3-7
3-11 Cross-sectional View of a Saybolt Viscometer 3-7
3-12 Cannon-Master Viscometer 3-8
3-13 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Four Military Specification Hydraulic Fluids 3-10
3-14 Method of Calculating the ASTM Slope of a Hydraulic Fluid 3-12
3-15 Schematic Representation of Viscosity Index (V.l.) 3-13
3-16 Viscosity Blending Chart 3-15
3-17 Viscosity vs Pressure at Several Temperatures for a Typical Petroleum Fluid 3-16
3-18 Viscosity vs Temperature at Various Pressures for MLO-60-50 Fluid 3-17
3-19 Schematic Diagram of Pump Test Apparatus for Determining Shear Stability of Hydraulic
Fluids 3-19
3-20 Effect of Shear Upon Viscosity of a MIL-H-5606B Hydraulic Fluid in a Pump Test 3-20
3-21 Effect of Sonic Irradiation on the Viscosity of a MIL-H-5606B Hydraulic Fluid 3-20
3-22 Cleveland Open Cup Flash and Fire Point Test Apparatus 3-23
3-23 High-pressure Spray Ignition Test Apparatus 3-25
3-24 Low-pressure Spray Ignition Test Apparatus 3-25
3-25 Hot Manifold Ignition Test Apparatus 3-26
3-26 Test Apparatus for the Pipe Cleaner Evaporation Test 3-27
xiv
AMCP 706-123
Fig. No. Title Page
3-27 Autoignition Temperature Test Apparatus 3-28
3_28 Spontaneous Ignition Temperature of a MIL-O-5606 Fluid in Air in Contact With Various
Surfaces As a Function of Test Chamber Pressure 3-29
3-29 Spontaneous Ignition Temperature of a Chlorinated Phenyl Methyl Silicone in Air in

Contact With Various Surfaces As a Function of Test Chamber Pressure 3-30
3-30 Spontaneous Ignition Temperature of Seven Hydraulic Fluids at Atmospheric Pressure in

Contact With a Pyrex Glass Surface As a Function of Oxygen Concentrations 3-31
3-31 Vapor Pressure vs Temperature of Typical Fluids (Approximate) 3-33
3-32 Vapor Pressure vs Temperature of Several Types of Hydraulic Fluids 3.34
3-33 Cut-away Sketch of the Evaporation Loss Apparatus Used in ASTM D-972 Test Method 3-35
3-34 Density vs Temperature of Typical Fluids (Approximate) 3-36
3-35 Density vs Temperature of Several Types of Hydraulic Fluids at Atmospheric Pressure 3-37
3-36 Relative Density vs Pressure at Several Temperatures of a Typical Fluid Conforming to

MIL-H-5606B , 3-38
3-37 Density vs Pressure at Several Temperatures for MLO-60-50 Fluid (an ester of
trimethylolpropane) 3.39
3-38 Coefficient of Cubical Expansion vs Temperature of Several Types of Hydraulic Fluids 3-40
3-39 Lipkin Bicapillary Pycnometer for Determining Density and Specific Gravity of Liquids 3-41
3-40 Bingham Pycnometer for Determining Density and Specific Gravity of Liquids 3-41
3-41 Specific Heat vs Temperature of Several Types of Hydraulic Fluids 3-43
3-42 Thermal Conductivity vs Temperature of Several Types of Hydraulic Fluids 3-44
XV
AMCP 706-123
Fig. No. Title Page
3-43 Fluid Percent Volume Compression vs Pressure of Typical Fluids 3-45
3-44 Bulk Modulus vs Pressure-A Generalized jlelationship for a Variety of Fluids Over
the Range of 32° to 425°F 3-47
3-45 Example Representation of Secant and Tangent Bulk Moduli 3-48
3-46 Apparatus for Measurement of Adiabatic Bulk Modulus by Sonic Speed 3-49
3-47 Graph of Constant Used in Eq. 3-27 3-50
3-48 Emulsion Test Apparatus 3-53
3-49 Foaming Test Apparatus 3-53
3-50 Nitrogen Solubility vs Pressure of Two Petroleum Products 3-55
3-51 Air Solubility vs Pressure of Typical Fluids 3-55
3-52 Trace Sediment Test Tube 3-57
3-53 Coefficient of Friction in the Transition from Hydrodynamic to Boundary Lubrication 3-58
3-54 Five Bench-type Friction and Wear Testers 3-62
3-55 Cavity Formation and Collapse Between Rollers or

Gear Teeth 3-83
3-56 Cavity Formation and Collapse in an Orifice 3-84
3-57 Relative Radiation Resistance of Elastomers 3-89
3-58 Relative Radiation Resistance of Thermosetting Resins 3-90
3-59 Relative Radiation Resistance of Thermoplastic Resins 3-91
4-1 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Specification Liquids MIL-L- 10295A, M1L-L-21260A,

MIL-H-27601A (USAF), and MIL-H-46004(ORD) 4-56
4-2 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Specification Liquids W-L-800, MIL-L2104B,

MIL-F-25598(USAF), and MIL-L-45199A 4-57
xvi
AMCP 706-123
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (concluded)
Fig .No. Tide Page
4-3 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Specification Liquids MIL-H-8446B and

MIL-H-19457B(SHIPS) 4-58
4-4 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Specification Liquids MIL-H-5606B, MIL-H-6083C,

and MIL-F-17111(NORD) 4-59
4-5 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Specification Liquids MIL-L-6085A, MIL-L-7808G,

and MIL-L-23699A 4-60
4-6 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Commercial Phosphate Ester Liquids 4-61
4-7 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Commercial Hydrocarbon Liquids 4-62
4-8 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Commercial Polysiloxane, Halocarbon, and Fluorolube

Liquids 4-63
4-9 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Commercial Phosphate Ester Liquids 4-64
4-10 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Commercial Halofluorocarbon Liquids 4-65
4-11 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Specification Requirements for MIL-H-13910B,

MIL-H-22072A(WP), and MII^L-46002(ORD) 4-66
4-12 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Specification Requirements for W-B-680a, MIS-10137,

and MIL-S-81087A(AGS) 4.67
4-13 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Specification Requirements for MIL-H-13866B(MR),

MIL-L-17672B, and MIL-H-81019(WEP) 4-68
4-14 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Specification Requirements for MIL-H-13919B,

MIL-F-17111(NORD), and MIS-10150 4-69
6-1 One-gal Screw Cap Can, Type V, Class 4 6-1
6-2 One-qt Hermetically Sealed Can, Type I 6-2
6-3 One-pt Spout Top Can, Type V, Class 8 6-2
6-4 Markings on Top and Side of 55-gal Drum 6-4
6-5 Markings on Sides of 5-gal Tight-head Pail 6-5
xvii
AMCP 706-123
LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Title Page
2-1 Loss Coefficients of Hydraulic Systems 2-39
2-2 Dimensions and Characteristics of Pipe for Hydraulic Systems 2-40
2-3 Wall Thickness Equivalents 2-40
3-1 Viscosity Requirements of Five Specification Hydraulic Fluids 3-9
3-2 Estimated Shear Rates of Lubricants 3-16
3-3 Pour Point Requirements of Four Military Specification Fluids 3-21
3-4 Flash Point Requirement of Five Military Specification Fluids 3-23
3-5 Bulk Modulus 3-46
3-6 Foaming Requirement of Military Specifications 3-54
3-7 Maximum Operating Temperature of Hydraulic Fluids 3-67
3-8 Oxidation and Varnishing Resistance of Hydraulic Fluids 3-68
3-9 Deterioration Temperature of Hydraulic Fluids . 3-69
3-10 Hydrolytic Stability of Hydraulic Fluids 3-69
3-11 Radiation Resistance of Hydraulic Fluids 3-70
3-12 Liquid-metal Corrosiveness Test Methods 3-77
3-13 Oxidation-corrosion Limits of Several Military Hydraulic Fluid Specifications 3-78
3-14 Fog or Humidity Corrosiveness Test Methods 3-79
3-15 Gear-box Corrosiveness Test Methods 3-80
3-16 Effect of Mechanical and Liquid Variables on Cavitation 3-82
3-17 Properties of Elastomers 3-84
3-18 Common Trade Names and Recommended Uses of Basic Types of Elastomers 3-86
xviii
AMCP 706-123
LIST OF TABLES (cont'd)
Table No. Title Page
3-19 Comparative Properties of Commonly Used Elastomers 3-87
3-20 Compatibility of Commercial Hydraulic Fluids With Elastomers 3-88
3-21 Rubber Swell Requirements of Military Specification Hydraulic Fluids 3-92
3-22 Effect of Hydraulic Fluids on Standard Paints 3-93
3-23 Resistance of Military Specification Coatings to Hydraulic Fluids 3-94
3-24 Resistance of Paints to Attack by Chemical Media 3-95
4-1 Characteristics of Hydraulic Fluid Base Stocks 4-4
6-1 Hydraulic Fluid Container Sizes 6-2
6-2 Recommended Abbreviations 6-3
6-3 AIA Particle Contamination Limits for Hydraulic Fluids 6-7
6-4 Particle Contamination Limits for Hydraulic Systems at Martin Aircraft Company 6-7
6-5 Effects of Various Contaminants on Hydraulic System Components 6-9
6-6 Solid Particle Contamination Limits in Hydraulic Fluid Corresponding to MIL-H-5606B .... 6-11
xix
AMCP 706-123
PREFACE
The Engineering Design Handbook Series of the Army Materiel Command is a

coordinated series of handbooks containing basic information and fundamental data.
The handbooks are authoritative reference books of practical information and quantita-
tive facts helpful in the design and development of materiel that will meet the tactical
and technical needs of the Armed Forces.
The use of hydraulics for power transmission and control has increased spectacularly
in the past few decades. There are numerous reasons for this trend. The forces available
in electrical systems are limited. Mechanical systems frequently require complex, and
sometimes impractical, linkages for remote use of power. In applications requiring
transmission of large amounts of power or large forces, the power-to-weight ratio of
electrical or mechanical systems is generally much lower than that of hydraulic sys-
tems. The general field of hydraulic power transmission has been developing in both
the equipment and fluid areas. Virtually every major piece of stationary and mobile
equipment used by industry and the Armed Forces now incorporates at least one
hydraulic system.
The objectives of this Handbook are: (1) to collect diverse sources of information to
conserve time, materials, and money in the successful design of new equipment, (2) to
provide guidance in capsule form for new personnel, Armed Forces contractors, or
experienced design engineers in other fields who require information about hydraulic
fluids, (3) to supply current fundamental information, and (4) to place the reader in
a position to use new information generated subsequent to the publication of this
handbook. To meet these objectives, the handbook has been written to provide the
necessary background regarding hydraulic equipment and fluids so that more complete
information and data available in the references can be utilized.
This handbook is organized into six chapters. Chapter 1 presents the inherent advan-
tages, disadvantages, and areas of application of electrical, mechanical, and hydraulic
systems along with a brief review of the principles of hydraulics. Chapter 2 includes
descriptions of the major types of hydraulic circuit components and explanations,
where applicable, of the methods of operation. Chapter 3 discusses the important
properties of hydraulic fluids. These discussions are directed toward the significance
of each property and the method(s) and accuracy of determination. Chapter 4 presents
fluids currently conforming to Federal Specifications along with pertinent information
from each specification. This chapter also includes a review of new nonspecification
fluids which may find applications under extreme environmental conditions. Chapter
5 discusses additives frequently required to modify properties of base stock fluids.
Chapter 6 presents the methods of handling and storing hydraulic fluids.
The text of this handbook was prepared by D. R. Wilson, M. E. Campbell, L. W.
Breed, H. S. Hass, and J. Galate of Midwest Research Institute under subcontract to
the Engineering Handbook Office of Duke University, prime contractor to the U.S.
Army Materiel Command for the Engineering Design Handbook Series. Many helpful
AMCP 706-123
comments were supplied by J. Messina of Frankford Arsenal and other members of the
Ad Hoc Working Group of which Mr. Messina was chairman.
The Handbooks are readily available to all elements of AMC including personnel and
contractors having a need and/or requirement. The Army Materiel Command policy
is to release these Engineering Design Handbooks to other DOD activities and their
contractors and other Government agencies in accordance with current Army Regula-
tion 70-31, dated 9 September 1966. Procedures for acquiring these Handbooks follow:
a. Activities within AMC and other DOD agencies should direct their request
on an official form to:
Commanding Officer
Letterkenny Army Depot
ATTN: AMXLE-ATD
Chambersburg, Pennsylvania 17201
b. Contractors who have Department of Defense contracts should submit their

requests, through their contracting officer with proper justification, to the address
indicated in par. a.
c. Government agencies other than DOD having need for the Handbooks may
submit their request directly to the Letterkenny Army Depot, as indicated in par. a
above, or to:
Commanding General
U.S. Army Materiel Command
ATTN: AMCAM-ABS
Washington, D. C. 20315
d. Industries not having a Government contract (this includes universities) must

forward their requests to:
Commanding General
U.S. Army Materiel Command
ATTN: AMCRD-TV
e. All foreign requests must be submitted through the Washington, D. C,

Embassy to:
Office of the Assistant Chief of Staff for Intelligence
ATTN: Foreign Liaison Office
Department of the Army
All requests-other than those originating within the DOD-must be accompanied by

a valid justification.
Comments and suggestions on this handbook are welcome and should be addressed to:
U.S. Army Research Office-Durham

Box CM, Duke Station
Durham, North Carolina 27706
XXI
AMCP 706-123
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1-1 GENERAL speed with which electrical servomechanisms can re-

spond. Heat dissipation is a problem of frequent impor-
The development of our present level of technology tance in electrical power transmission.
has depended on the evolution of methods for the gen-
eration, distribution, and utilization of power. The en-
ergy requirements of the domestic population and the 1-2.2 MECHANICAL POWER TRANSMISSION
national defense effort increase at a rate of 2 to 3 per-
cent per year. Various estimates place the rate of energy Mechanical power transmission systems employ a
consumption in the United States at 1.0 to 1.5 X variety of kinematic mechanisms such as belts, chains,
1017Btu per year by the year 2000 (Ref. 1). This in- pulleys, sprockets, gear trains, bar linkages, and cams.
creasing demand for power requires the continued They are suitable for the transmission of motion and
development of methods for power transmission, con- force over relatively short distances. The disadvantages
trol, and utilization. Fluid power technology plays an of mechanical systems include lubrication prob-
important role in this task and promises to be even lems, limited speed and torque control capabilities,
more important in the future. uneven force distribution, and relatively large space
requirements.
1-2 METHODS OF TRANSMITTING 1-2.3 PNEUMATIC POWER TRANSMISSION

POWER
Pneumatic power is transmitted by the pressure and
The majority of contemporary power transmission flow of compressed gases. The most common gas used
systems can be classified as electrical, mechanical, or is air. Pneumatic systems use simple equipment, have
fluid. Fluid power systems can be further divided into small transmission lines, and do not present a fire haz-
pneumatic and hydraulic systems, depending on the ard. Disadvantages include a high fluid compressibility
fluid medium used to transmit force. The fluids em- and a small power-to-size ratio of components. Pneu-
ployed in pneumatic power and control systems are matic power systems are more elastic than mechanical
gases which are characterized by high compressibility. systems and are very sensitive to small changes in pres-
In contrast, hydraulic fluids are relatively incompressi- sure or flow. For this reason they are especially suited
ble liquids. for pilot or control systems.
1-2.1 ELECTRICAL POWER TRANSMISSION 1-2.4 HYDRAULIC POWER TRANSMISSION
Power is transmitted electrically by imposing an Hydraulic power is transmitted by the pressure and
electromagnetic field on a conductor. Electric systems flow of liquids. For many years petroleum oils were the
are especially suitable for power transmission over long most common liquids, but other types of liquids are
distances and are best applicable to low-power opera- now finding widespread use. Hydraulic systems are
tions. mechanically stiff, and can be designed to give fast
Magnetic saturation, a fundamental limitation of operation and move very large loads. They can be em-
electrical machines, limits the torque developed by an ployed over greater distances than mechanical types
electric motor. Material limitations also affect the but not as far as electrical systems.
1-1
AMCP 706-123
Fitch (Ref. 2) lists the following advantages of hy- 1-3.1.1 Fluid Power Circuits
draulic power systems:
(1) Large torques and forces transmitted to any The application of fluid power requires some type of
part of a machine fluid circuit. Many different circuit designs are possible
(2) Cushioning for shock loads for a given application. However, most hydraulic cir-
(3) Reversible, infinitely variable speed and load cuits represent some variation of a few basic circuit
control designs such as pump circuits, fluid motor circuits,
(4) Completely automatic operations accumulator or intensifier circuits, and control circuits.
(5) Accurate position control for linear and rotary All hydraulic circuits consist of some combination of
elements six basic components: (1) a source of pressure, e.g., a
(6) Power linkage where kinematic linkage is im- pump; (2) a means of converting pressure into mechani-
practical cal motion, e.g., a hydraulic motor or actuator; (3)
(7) Reduction of wear by the self-lubrication action fluid-transfer piping; (4) pressure, directional, and flow
of the transmission medium controls; (5) a fluid reservoir; and (6) a hydraulic fluid.
(8) Safe power system operation for both operator The output of the hydraulic circuit is determined by the
and machine. manner in which the various components are arranged.
Some of the major disadvantages of hydraulic sys- The individual components are described in Chapter 2.
tems are:
(1) Impairment of system operation by contamina-
1-3.1.2 Symbolic Representation of
tion Components
(2) Hydraulic fluid leakage
(3) Fire hazards with flammable hydraulic fluids.
The rapid development of fluid-power applications
The functions of a hydraulic fluid are to transmit following World War II created a need for standard
force applied at one point in the system to some other fluid power symbols and specifications to facilitate
location and to produce any desired change in direction communication and provide a widely accepted means
or magnitude of this force. To carry out this function of representing fluid-power systems. This need was first
in the most efficient manner, the hydraulic fluid must met by the Joint Industry Conference (JIC) which pub-
be relatively incompressible and must flow readily. In lished a set of graphical symbols for system compo-
addition, the hydraulic fluid must perform certain nents in September 1948. In 1958, the American Stand-
other functions-such as lubrication and cooling-which ards Association (ASA) adopted symbols based upon a
are secondary in nature, but are important to the over- revision of the JIC symbols. Since then, the ASA stand-
all operation of the hydraulic system. ards have been periodically revised. The current stand-
ard is USA Standard Y32.10-1967, Graphic Symbols
for Fluid Power Diagrams (Ref. 6).
Graphic fluid power symbols are now widely used
1-3 PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULICS both for preparing circuit diagrams and as an aid in
circuit design and analysis. They illustrate flow paths,
connections, and component functions but do not indi-
1-3.1 GENERATION AND USE OF FLUID cate operating parameters or construction details.
POWER There are nine basic symbol classifications-fluid con-
ductors, energy and fluid storage, fluid conditioners,
The use of hydraulic fluids to generate and transmit linear devices, controls, rotary devices, instruments
power is based upon physical laws which govern the and accessories, valves, and composite symbols. A de-
mechanics of liquids. The principles of fluid mechanics, tailed discussion of the use and meaning of the ASA
including both hydrostatics and fluid dynamics, have fluid power symbols can be found in the ASA Standard
been developed over a period of several centuries and (Ref. 6); however, a brief explanation of a few of the
now constitute a fundamental branch of science and more common symbols will aid the reader in further
engineering. A knowledge of the application of these study.
principles to the design and use of fluid power systems (1) Valves: The basic valve symbol consists of one
can be obtained by a study of any of several references or more squares called envelopes, the number of en-
drawn from the vast literature of fluid mechanics (Refs. velopes corresponding to the number of valve positions.
2, 3, 4, 5). Inside each envelope are lines representing the flow
1-2
AMCP 706-123
path and flow conditions between ports. The connec- (3) Volume controls: Orifice-type volume flow con-
tion lines are drawn to the envelope representing the trols, such as globe and needle valves, are indicated
neutral position. The flow paths of the actuated valve graphically by arcs on both sides of the flow line (Fig.
are visualized by mentally shifting the corresponding 1-4). If the size of the restriction is variable, an arrow
envelope to the port position. Consider, for example, is placed at an angle through the symbol. Pressure
the three-position valve illustrated in Fig. 1-1. The nor- compensation is indicated by adding a rectangular en-
mal position of the four-port valve is that of blocked velope and a small vertical arrow across the flow line.
flow, represented by the center envelope. To obtain the
flow condition represented by the left envelope, that
envelope is mentally shifted to the center position. Con-
versely, the crossed-flow path of the right envelope is
obtained by mentally shifting the right envelope to the
center position. Multiposition, multiport valves of any
complexity can be represented by a suitable combina-
tion of such symbols.
W Fig. 1-4. Graphic Symbol for a Variable-flow Hydraulic
X Volume Control, Such as a Needle Value
Fig. 1-1. Graphic Symbol for a Three-position, Four- (4) Pressure controls: Pressure relief valve symbols
port Hydraulic Valve consist of a square envelope with a closed normal posi-
tion and an actuated position which relieves to a reser-
voir. Upstream pilot pressure is shown by a broken line
(2) Rotary pumps and motors: The basic symbol for (Fig. 1-5). Pressure reducing valves have an open neu-
a hydraulic pump is a circle with connecting lines in- tral position and a downstream pilot pressure.
dicating ports, and triangles indicating flow direction
(Fig. 1-2(A)). Variable displacement is indicated by an
arrow through the envelope at an angle. Pressure com-
pensation is denoted by a short vertical arrow. Motors
are distinguished from pumps by the location of the
flow direction triangles. Flow triangles point outwards
i-
for pumps and inwards for motors (Fig. 1-2(B)). The AA -j
envelope for an oscillatory device is a closed semicircle

(Fig. 1-3).
d7
Fig. 1-5. Graphic Symbol for a Pressure Relief Valve
1-3.1.3 Uses of Hydraulic Power
The manner in which hydraulic power can be put to

Fig. 1-2. Graphic Symbols for (A) a Hydraulic Pump
use is limited primarily by the imagination of the de-
With Variable Displacement and Pressure Com-
signer. Hydraulic power has found its most extensive
pensation; and (B) a Hydraulic Motor With
use in manufacturing and construction machinery.
Variable Displacement
Fluid-power operated presses and material-handling
machinery are common fixtures in any production
plant. In construction and earth-moving industries, hy-
draulic power is used on almost every piece of equip-
ment. Other industries making extensive use of fluid
Fig. 1-3. Graphic Symbol for a Hydraulic Oscillatory power are aerospace, agriculture, petroleum, automo-
Device tive, chemical, and food processing.
1-3
AMCP 706-123
1-3.2 REQUIREMENTS FOR HYDRAULIC tures of local system hot spots. With these known, it
FLUIDS then becomes necessary to know the manner in which
the liquid properties vary within the system tempera-
The hydraulic fluid is an essential and important ture range.
component of any hydraulic power or control system.
No other component of the circuit must perform as
many functions or meet as many requirements as the 1-3.2.1.2 Viscosity
hydraulic fluid. The hydraulic fluid must not only pro-
vide a medium for efficient power transmission, but it Viscosity, often referred to as the most important
must also lubricate, cool, protect from corrosion, not single property of a hydraulic fluid, is the property
leak excessively, and perform numerous other func- which characterizes the flow resistance of liquid. Low-
tions depending on the system design. However, even viscosity liquids transmit power more effectively,
if a hydraulic fluid can adequately perform these sys- whereas high viscosity is required to lubricate and to
tem functions, it may still be less than satisfactory in reduce leakage. Thus, the allowable viscosity range de-
terms of usage and compatibility factors. In many hy- pends on a compromise between the power-transmis-
draulic systems, it is necessary that the hydraulic fluid sion characteristics on the one hand and the sealing and
be nontoxic and fire-resistant. It must be compatible lubricating properties on the other.
with the structural materials of the system. The hy- Viscosity depends upon temperature and pressure,
draulic fluid should exhibit stable physical properties and generally increases with decreasing temperature or
during a suitable period of use. It should be easy to increasing pressure. The viscosity index (V.l.) is a
handle when in use and in storage, and it is desirable, measure of the temperature dependence. Liquids with
of course, that it be readily available and inexpensive. a high viscosity index exhibit a smaller variation of
The selection of a hydraulic fluid is further com- viscosity with temperature than do liquids with a low
plicated by the vast number of liquids currently availa- V.l. Low-viscosity liquids are less affected by pressure
ble. These range from water and mineral oils to special- than high-viscosity liquids. Liquids which exhibit a
purpose synthetic liquids. It is thus necessary for the large variation of viscosity with temperature usually
system designer to have at least an elementary under- exhibit a large viscosity change with pressure.
standing of the terminology prevalent in the specifica- Another factor which can influence the viscosity is
tion of hydraulic fluids. the rate of shear. Liquids with large polymer molecules
can exhibit a temporary decrease in viscosity when
subjected to high shear rates. If the liquid is subjected
1-3.2.1 System Dependency of the Hydraulic to shear-rate conditions which tend to break down
Fluid large molecules, permanent changes in viscosity can
result.
Viscosity affects many operational factors in a hy-
1-3.2.1.1 Temperature draulic system-mechanical friction, fluid friction,
pump slippage, cavitation, leakage, power consump-
Temperature is a system parameter rather than a tion, and system control ability. The use of a hydraulic
characteristic of the fluid. However, the physical prop- fluid with a low viscosity can lead to increased pump
erties of hydraulic fluids are influenced by the operat- slippage, excessive wear of moving parts, and hydraulic
ing temperature. High temperature can cause a de- fluid loss due to leakage. A viscosity which is too high
crease in viscosity and lubricity, resulting in increased will cause increased pressure loss and power consump-
leakage through seals and detrimental friction and tion and, as a result of liquid friction, can lead to exces-
wear. Many hydraulic fluids experience molecular sive system temperatures.
breakdown at elevated temperatures.
Viscosity increases with decreasing temperature, and
thus the lowest operating temperature for a given liquid 1-3.2.1.3 Compatibility With System Materials
is that corresponding to the maximum viscosity which
can be satisfactorily accommodated by the system. Chemical compatibility of a hydraulic fluid with the
Hence, an important requisite in the selection of hy- system materials sometimes requires compromises in
draulic fluids is a thorough knowledge of the storage the selection of the hydraulic fluid or the materials of
temperature, the average operating temperature, the construction. The hydraulic fluid should be chemically
high and low operating temperatures, and the tempera- inert and should not react with materials of the system
1-4
AMCP 706-123
or the environment. In turn, the construction materials transmission lines are long, compression delays in con-
should not affect the properties of the hydraulic fluid. trol signals can result in interference of various signals
Corrosion prevention is one of the many functions of and erratic component response. If a hydraulic fluid
the hydraulic fluid. Air and moisture are always pre- having too high a viscosity is used, flow resistance and
sent, to some degree, in hydraulic systems. Therefore, pressure drops in the system increase and operation
most hydraulic fluids have a rust inhibitor and/or a becomes sluggish. If the viscosity is too low, control
metal deactivator which coats the metal surfaces. precision may be lost.
Copper is an undesirable material for hydraulic sys-
tems because it serves as a catalyst for the oxidation of
many hydraulic fluids. Liquid oxidation rate increases 1-3.2.1.5 Fluid Stability (Temperature and Shear)
with increasing temperature and is enhanced by the
presence of water, air, and solid contaminants in the The stability of a hydraulic fluid determines the
fluid. Chemical additives are commonly used in hy- length of time during which it remains useful either in
draulic fluids to control the rate of oxidation. service or in storage. A stable liquid exhibits only small
Seal materials often present a difficult design prob- changes in characteristics over a suitable period. The
lem from the viewpoint of compatibility with hydraulic degree to which a hydraulic fluid is stable depends
fluids. Natural rubber reacts in some manner with upon two factors: (1) its tendency to react with the
nearly all hydraulic oils. The reaction of synthetic rub- environment, and (2) the changes induced by opera-
bers depends upon the type of synthetic and the liquid tional use.
to which it is exposed. The aniline point can be used as The oxidation stability of a hydraulic fluid is mea-
a relative indication of the effect of mineral oils on sured by its tendency to decompose or polymerize. Oxi-
rubber. Oils with high aniline points generally cause dation reactions are markedly accelerated by an in-
less swelling or shrinking than oils with low aniline crease in temperature. Over a prolonged period,
points. High aromaticity of a mineral oil is usually an accumulation of oxidation products can cause deterio-
indication that the oil will cause a high degree of swell- ration of the hydraulic fluid appearing as increased
ing in conventional rubber. viscosity and sludge deposits. Since all liquids oxidize
As mentioned above, compatibility is not solely a to some extent at all temperatures, a hydraulic fluid is
problem of selecting a hydraulic fluid. When a hydrau- considered to possess oxidation stability if the changes
lic fluid is found that has desirable performance charac- induced by oxidation over a reasonable period of time
teristics but is chemically incompatible with some sys- do not render the hydraulic fluid unsatisfactory for
tem material, a better overall system is often obtained operational use.
if the construction material is changed rather than the Changes in viscosity can also result from (1) thermal
hydraulic fluid. However, in many military applica- decomposition at local hot spots, and (2) the break-
tions, a change in construction material is not easily down of molecules due to high rates of shear.
accomplished. It has often been necessary to change the Like the other factors discussed, stability require-
hydraulic fluid or develop a new hydraulic fluid for ments depend upon system design as well as hydraulic
existing equipment. fluid selection. For example, oxidation and hydrolytic
stability of a given hydraulic fluid can be extended if
the hydraulic system is designed to minimize the
1-3.2.1.4 Hydraulic System Accuracy, Speed of amount of air and water which can enter the fluid
Response, and Stability circuit. Stability is discussed in further detail in
Chapter 3.
The type of hydraulic fluid used in a hydraulic sys-
tem is an important factor in determining system ac-
curacy, response speed, and stability. These character- 1-3.2.1.6 Lubricity
istics of a system are not determined by any one
property of a liquid but depend on the combination of The hydraulic fluid must serve as a lubricant be-
several properties, especially viscosity (par. 1-3.2.1.2) tween moving parts of the system in order to minimize
and compressibility (par. 1-3.2.1.7). If the hydraulic friction and wear. To do so, it must have a suitable
fluid is one of the more compressible types, much of the viscosity and must possess adequate lubricity. The term
energy supplied to the system is used in deforming the "lubricity" refers to the ability of a liquid to reduce
liquid with a resultant loss in response speed and ac- friction and prevent wear under even the most severe
curacy of system component operation. Also, if liquid circumstances. Lubricity is a complex function that
1-5
AMCP 706-123
refers to the shear strength of a thin lubricating film. 1-3.2.2 Other Considerations
A liquid that forms a film of low shear strength is said
to have good lubricity.
The ability of a liquid to form a film on a surface is 1-3.2.2.1 Availability
important in lubrication. The film should be capable of
supporting the loads encountered during operation. It is obviously desirable that a hydraulic fluid be
Breakdown of the lubricating film causes wear and readily available. If a hydraulic fluid possesses widely
shortens the life of the system components. In general, applicable properties and is competitive in terms of
higher viscosity liquids are better able to maintain films cost, it will usually be readily available.
than those of lower viscosity. However, system consid-
erations other than lubrication limit the value of vis-
cosity in some applications. Antiwear additives provide 1-3.2.2.2 Cost
a solution to some of these problems.
Several factors must be considered in the evaluation
of the cost of a hydraulic fluid. The original cost, the
1-3.2.1.7 Pressure
service longevity, storage costs, and rate of system leak-
age enter into the overall cost evaluation. The purchase
The reduction of volume of a liquid under pressure
of an expensive hydraulic fluid is justified if its proper-
is a measure of the compressibility of the liquid. Com-
ties can result in lower ultimate system costs because
pressibility influences the power required by the pump,
of reduced replacement frequency, increased compo-
the time required to generate pressure, the speed with
nent life, or other factors. However, consideration
which the transmission and control systems respond to
should be given to the economy afforded by changes in
input, and the manner in which energy is converted by
system design to allow use of a less expensive hydrau-
pressure reduction. The bulk modulus is the reciprocal
lic fluid.
of the compressibility and is always a positive quantity.
A high bulk modulus indicates low liquid elasticity
and, hence, a small spring effect when subjected to a
pressure change. A liquid with high bulk modulus is 1-3.2.2.3 Handling
desirable in order to obtain good dynamic performance
in a hydraulic system. Entrained air in the fluid reduces The ease with which a hydraulic fluid can be handled
the bulk modulus. Pressure and temperature also affect is important to the user and to maintenance personnel.
the bulk modulus. For most liquids, the bulk modulus Toxicity is perhaps the first factor to consider in eva-
decreases with increasing temperature and also with luating handling characteristics. The hydraulic fluid,
decreasing pressure. its vapor, and its decomposition products should have
very low toxicity, in terms of inhalation, ingestion, or
contact with the skin. Toxic liquids can be used only if
extreme precautions are taken to insure no harmful
1-3.2.1.8 Lacquer and Insoluble Material effects to the operating and maintenance personnel.
Formation A hydraulic fluid should not have an unpleasant or
nauseating odor. Although odor does not influence per-
The hydraulic fluid should remain homogeneous formance, it is important to the user.
while in use. The formation and deposit of insoluble
materials on parts of the system can cause system mal-
function or failure. Insoluble materials can be formed 1-3.2.2.4 Storage
by many different processes. Oxidation, contamination,
thermal degradation, hydrolytic degradation, etc., can The storage characteristics of a hydraulic fluid are
all produce insoluble materials. Changes in the hydrau- closely related to chemical stability and handling char-
lic fluid caused by the above processes can also affect acteristics. The properties of a hydraulic fluid should
the solubility of additives and result in the additives not deteriorate if the fluid stands in storage for long
becoming insoluble. Insoluble materials can plug small periods. Precautions should be taken to insure that
orifices, reduce clearances, damage surfaces, or form contaminants cannot enter the stored hydraulic fluid.
deposits on working surfaces. The deposits show up as Oxidation stability is often used as a criterion in eva-
coatings, varnishes, lacquers, etc. luating the storage characteristics.
1-6
AMCP 706-123
1-3.2.2.5 Contamination removed after it separates from the liquid in a reservoir

or storage vessel.
A hydraulic fluid is subjected to several sources of
contamination, both in use or in storage. Air and mois-
ture can leak into the system. These contaminants pro- REFERENCES
mote oxidation and hydrolysis. Entrained water can
also cause emulsions which, in turn, tend to collect 1. M.A. Elliott, "What's Ahead in Energy", Pe-
solid impurities. It should be noted that emulsions are troleum Management, 70 (October 1964).
formed more readily in contaminated liquids than in 2. E.C. Fitch, Fluid Power and Control Systems,
clean ones. Solid contaminants can result from fabrica- McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1966.
tion, handling, or cleaning procedures, and from wear
debris. Solid contaminant particles can increase wear, 3. J.J. Pippenger and T.G. Hicks, Industrial
accelerate corrosion, and contribute to sludge and foam Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York,
formation. Oxidation products and the compounds 1962.
formed by additive decomposition are contaminants. 4. H.E. Merritt, Hydraulic Control Systems, John
Several methods are used to remove various con- Wiley and Sons, New York, 1967.
taminants. Filtration devices, which are discussed in
5. F.D. Yeaple, Ed., Hydraulic and Pneumatic
Chapter 2, can be used to remove solid particles. Mag-
Power and Control, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New
netic plugs and filters can remove ferrous metal parti-
York, 1966.
cles. Storage in settling tanks allow solid particles to
settle out by gravitational forces. Centrifuges are some- 6. USA Standard Y32.10-1967, Graphic Symbols
times used to remove heavy contaminants. If the liquid for Fluid Power Diagrams, American Society of
has good demulsibility properties, water can be Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1967.
1-7
AMCP 706-123
CHAPTER 2
POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPMENT
2-0 LIST OF SYMBOLS s = specific gravity of liquid

Ta = ambient temperature
cross-sectional area or area of a T'a = final ambient temperature after
radiating surface, ft2 a pressure or volume change
D diameter, in. U = liquid velocity, fps; or overall
De- equivalent diameter, in. heat transfer coefficient,
F- force, lb; or in heat transfer, a Btu/(hr)(ft2(°F)
dimensionless factor which V = volume, ft3, in , or cm
accounts for the geometric Vg = final gas valume
orientation of surfaces and Zg = compressibility factor of gas,
their emittances dimensionless
coefficient of friction, or Zg = final compressibility factor of
f=
friction factor gas, dimensionless
G= flow rate, gpm A P = change in pressure, psi
h = convective film coefficient, A T = temperature difference, °F
Btu/(hr)(ft2)(°F) A Ttotal = total temperature difference
K= friction loss coefficient across which heat is being
k= thermal conductivity, transferred, °F
TJ = decimal operating efficiency
Btu/(hr)(ft2)(°F/ft)
damping length or length of a o- = Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
pipeline, ft 0.1714 x l(f8Btu/(hrXftY/fl
Le = equivalent length of a pipeline, ft
i= thickness of a material, ft
Note: Where more than one set of units have been
N= number of pound moles
specified, or no units specified, a consistent set of units
P= pressure, psi or mm Hg must be used.
Pf = liquid pressure, psi
Pg = gas pressure, psi
p
k= final accumulator pressure after 2-1 GENERAL
a pressure or volume change, psi
Q= volumetric flow rate, gpm; or The preceding chapter pointed out that the hydraulic
rate of heat flow, Btu/hr fluid performs a basic function in a hydraulic power or
QP = increase in thermal energy due control system and must satisfy numerous require-
to pumping, Btu/hr ments to perform adequately in a given circuit. Fur-
increase in thermal energy due thermore, the hydraulic fluid influences the operation
to friction in a valve, Btu/hr of the system components and they, in turn, affect the
R = universal gas constant, 10.72 performance of the hydraulic fluid. Hence, the compo-
psia-ft3/°/Mb mole nents of a system cannot be designed or specified in-
°R = degrees Rankine (°F+460) dependently of the hydraulic fluid, nor can the hydrau-
Rn = thermal resistance of system lic fluid be selected independently of the component
component n, hr-°F/Btu design.The hydraulic circuit, involvingbothmechanical
2-1
AMCP 706-123
components and hydraulic fluid, must be designed The pressure regulator (d) and the relief valve (g) pro-
as an integral system. vide pressure control. A fluid reservoir (b) serves both
This chapter is devoted to a discussion of the me- for storage and as a system vent location. Less obvious
chanical components of the system and their interrela- is the hydraulic fluid without which the system could
tionship with the hydraulic fluid. No attempt is made not perform a single useful function.
to provide a comprehensive discussion of equipment The design of a hydraulic system encompasses many
design. For this, the reader is referred to any one of factors. Given a particular power transmission or con-
several works devoted to the subject (Refs. 1, 2, 3, trol problem, the designer must first determine what
4, 5). type of components will accomplish the desired objec-
To illustrate the manner in which system compo- tive. A conceptual layout of the system is then followed
nents are integrated into a hydraulic circuit, consider by engineering analysis to determine the necessary size,
the circuit illustrated in Fig. 2-1. This is a rotary liquid configuration, and details of the hardware. Suitable
motor circuit which produces constant torque. To do materials must be selected for component construction,
so, a constant hydraulic pressure must be maintained and engineering drawings must be prepared. Underly-
on the motor. This condition is achieved by using a ing each of these steps is the nebulous factor commonly
pressure regulator valve upstream of the motor. Con- referred to as good engineering practice. This entails a
stant pressure could also be obtained by using a pres- knowledge, usually acquired through experience, of the
sure-compensated, variable-displacement pump. features which constitute good design practice, i.e.,
those factors which cannot be readily subjected to pre-
cise mathematical and engineering analysis.
r^> The equations with which the designer constructs a
i—i mathematical model of a hydraulic system are, in gen-
eral, nonlinear differential equations, frequently of sec-
ond or higher order. Such equations usually require
numerical solutions and, hence, digital and analog
computers have become valuable aids in the design of
hydraulic systems. A thorough engineering analysis be-
gins with the specification of certain parameters which
the system must satisfy-such as force or load require-
wc==l
\=y
g
I <►—(I
E] ments, stability, speed of response, accuracy, and reso-

lution. The mathematical model is then manipulated
until the desired specifications are met on paper. The
resulting information can be used in system specifica-
r tion and fabrication.

However, a detailed computer solution of the equa-
tions which describe the system does not always result
in a design which performs as predicted by the analysis.
Fig. 2-1. Rotary Motor Circuit Which Produces Constant
Torque [Shown are: (a) hydraulic pump and It is frequently possible, using the appropriate approxi-
drive motor, (b) reservoir and strainer, mations and sound engineering practice, to design a
(c) manually operated control valve, (d) pres- system based upon hand computations which will per-
sure regulator valve, (e) check valve, (f) hy- form as well as, or better than, one based upon a de-
draulic motor, and (g) pressure relief valve] tailed computer analysis. Usually, it is desirable to use
a preliminary hand-calculated analysis to optimize a
The circuit of Fig. 2-1 contains all six of the basic subsequent, more detailed computer analysis. Math-
components mentioned in Chapter 1. The pump (a), ematical techniques in the form of computer programs
driven by an electric motor, serves as the source of fluid are now available, which facilitate detailed analysis by
energy. The fixed-displacement hydraulic motor (f) relieving the designer of the necessity of developing
converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. Hy- routines for the solution of complex nonlinear equa-
draulic piping is provided between the system compo- tions.
nents. Directional controls are provided by the manu- Merritt (Ref. 4) distinguishes between two types of
ally actuated control valve (c) and the check valve (e). parameters involved in hydraulic system design. A
2-2
AMCP 706-123
hard parameter is defined as a physical quantity which 2-2.1.1 External Gear Pumps
can be measured with good precision and which re-
mains essentially constant. A soft parameter, on the In external gear pumps, two or more gears mesh with
other hand, is a quantity which is difficult to measure minimum clearance. The gear motion generates a suc-
or compute and, for a given system, can be determined tion at the inlet, which causes fluid to be drawn into the
only within a range of values. The most important pump housing. The liquid is drawn through the pump
design features of a system should be based upon hard and is displaced as the teeth mesh on the outlet side.
parameters, if possible. Merritt points out that an im- (1) Spur gear pumps: A spur gear rotary hydraulic
portant part of sound engineering design practice is the pump is illustrated in Fig. 2-2. The two gears rotate in
ability to distinguish between hard and soft parameters. opposite directions and transfer liquid from the inlet to
the outlet through the volume between the teeth and
the housing. The output depends on tooth width and
2-2 PUMPS depth, and is largest for a minimum number of teeth.
Involute teeth with a pressure angle of 20-30 deg are
A hydraulic pump is a device used to impart motion common in spur gear pumps. However, progressive-
to a liquid and thereby convert mechanical energy to contact and edge-contact gears are sometimes used to
hydraulic energy. It provides the force required to avoid the severe loads generated by liquid trapped be-
transmit power. Pumps are rated in terms of flow and tween the contact points of the meshed involute teeth.
pressure. The flow rating (volumetric output) is the
amount of liquid which can be delivered by the pump
per unit time at a specified speed. A pump does not
produce pressure. The pressure developed at the outlet
depends on the resistance to flow in the circuit.
Pumps are classified according to configuration or
operating characteristics. One obvious classification is
that of rotary or reciprocating pumps. Rotary pumps
utilize a rotating assembly to transfer the fluid from the
inlet to the outlet and to impart motion. Rotary pumps
can be further classified as gear, vane, or rotating piston
pumps. Reciprocating pumps employ a plunger or pis-
ton to impart motion to the fluid.
Pumps can also be classified as positive- or non-
positive-displacement devices. Positive-displacement
pumps move a definite amount of fluid during each
stroke or revolution. They are most frequently used in
hydraulic systems. Nonpositive-displacement, or hy-
drodynamic, pumps provide continuous flow. They are
primarily low-pressure devices with high volumetric
output.
Positive-displacement pumps can be of either fixed Fig. 2-2. Spur Gear Rotary Hydraulic Pump
or variable displacement. The output of a fixed-dis- 4*
placement pump is constant at a given pump speed. [From: H. E. Merrit, Hydraulic Control Systems.
The output of a variable-displacement pump can be Used by permission of John Wiley and Sons]
changed by adjusting the geometry of the displacement
chamber. The spur gear pump is a fixed-displacement pump.
Output at a given speed decreases slightly with pres-
sure. Typical operating characteristics are shown in
2-2.1 GEAR PUMPS Fig. 2-3. These curves are for a spur gear pump operat-
ing with a liquid of constant viscosity. This viscosity
Gear pumps are the most widely used pumps for effect illustrates one of the ways in which the liquid
hydraulic systems. They are available in a wide range influences the specification of system components.
of flow and pressure ratings. The drive and gears are
'Superscript numbers refer to References at the end of each
the only moving parts. chapter.
2-3
AMCP 706-123
of both gears. The contact point of the gear teeth forms

a seal, as does the small tip clearance at the crescent.
This pump is generally used for low output applications
at pressures below 1,000 psi.
DISCHARGE INTERNAL GEAR

OR ROTOR
DRIVE
GEAR
SUCTION
CASING
CRESCENT
60 120 180 210 300
DISCHARGE PRESSURE, psi
Fig. 2-4. Crescent Seal Internal Gear Hydraulic
Fig. 2-3. Typical Operating Characteristic Curves Pump [Shown are: crescent C, gear teeth
for a Spur Gear Rotary Hydraulic Pump T, and drive gear G ]
[From: Pippenger and Hicks, Industrial Hydraulics. 2
[From: Pippenger and Hicks, Industrial Hydraulics.
Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.] Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
(2) Helical gear pumps: A variation of the external (2) Gerotor pumps: The gerotor pump consists of a
gear spur gear pump is the helical gear pump. The fact pair of gears which are always in sliding contact (Fig.
that several teeth are engaged simultaneously allows 2-5). The larger internal gear has one more tooth than
the helical gear pump to carry larger loads at high the external gear. Both gears rotate in the same direc-
speeds than can the spur gear pump. Operation is simi- tion. Liquid is drawn into the chamber where the teeth
lar to that of the spur gear pump, but with less noise are separating, and is ejected when the teeth again start
and usually smaller flow pulsations. Because of the to mesh. The seal is provided by the sliding contact.
helical gear configuration, end thrusts are developed by Gerotor pumps are restricted to low-pressure opera-
helical gears. These forces act in opposite directions on tion because of the loads generated by the hydraulic
the drive and driven gears. unbalance.
(3) Herringbone gear pumps: Another variation of OUTER INNER
the external gear pump incorporates herringbone gears. ELEMENT ELEMENT
Like all gear pumps, the herringbone device is a con-
stant displacement pump. It is generally available for
pressures up to about 2,000 psi but some models are
rated at over 3,000 psi.
2-2.1.2 Internal Gear Pumps

DISCHARGE INTAKE
There are two types of internal gear pumps: the cres- SIDE SIDE
cent seal pump and the geroter pump.
(1) Crescent seal pumps: The crescent seal pump
DECREASING INCREASING
consists of an inner and outer gear separated by a cres- POCKETS POCKETS
cent-shaped seal (Fig. 2-4). The gears rotate the same
direction, with the inner gear rotating at a higher speed. Fig. 2-5. Gerotor Internal Gear Hydraulic Pump
The liquid is drawn into the pump at the point where
the gear teeth begin to separate and is carried to the [From: Pippenger and Hicks, Industrial Hydraulics.
outlet in the space between the crescent and the teeth Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
2-4
AMCP 706-123
2-2.2 VANE PUMPS 2-2.2.1 Unbalanced Vane Pumps
Vane pumps consist of a rotor mounted in a cam- In the unbalanced vane pump, the rotor and cam
shaped housing. The rotor is provided with radial slots housing are eccentric (Fig. 2-7). The pump suction is
which accommodate vanes. As the internal assembly generated in the region where the vanes begin to move
rotates, the vanes are forced radially outward against outward. The liquid is carried around the rotor by the
the housing by centrifugal force sometimes assisted by vanes, which form a seal with the housing and the end
springs. Vane pumps can operate at speeds up to 2,000 plates, and it is discharged as the vanes are forced back
rpm and are available in pressure ratings to 2,500 psi. into the rotor slots by the eccentric housing.
Their simple construction results in a high degree of Springs-
reliability and easy maintenance. They are relatively Shaft
low in cost and exhibit long operating life partially due /Tsf \ \ / ^^^
to the fact that vane wear is accommodated by the j-'.'y v/\ Afct /A \v/A
Vanes
radial motion of the vanes. They have comparatively
high volumetric and overall efficiencies, and are availa-
ble in a wide range of output ratings. Typical operating
characteristic curves of a vane pump are shown in
Fig. 2-6.
Fig. 2-7. Unbalanced Vane Hydraulic Pump

3ooooooooo<
i—r—l—t—■ |
Volumetric efficiency' 90
J l—1—1— [From: H. E. Merrit, Hydraulic Control Systems.
80 ■£
s^"Over-oil efficiency
Input Power (hp)
Used by permission of John Wiley and Sons]

Delivery (gpm)
70 S
/ 60 a
50 "£,
Unbalanced vane pumps can be either fixed- or vari-
40 §j able-displacement pumps. In the fixed-displacement
ûeiivery 50 5 pump the rotor-housing eccentricity is constant and,
—1
20 ui
hence, the displacement volume is fixed. A constant
jnpur power 10
1 i [ volume of fluid is discharged during each revolution of
3 400 800 1200 1600 2CKM
the rotor. Variable displacement can be provided if the
Pressure (psi)
housing can be moved with respect to the rotor. This
movement changes the eccentricity and, therefore, the
Fi$>. 2-6 . Typical Operating Characteristic Curves for displacement.
a Vane Hydraulic Pump In addition to sliding vanes, rolling vanes and
swinging vanes are also available in unbalanced vane
[From: Fluid Power Issue; Machine Design. Used by pumps (Fig. 2-8). Each of these variations is hydro-
permission of Penton Publishing Co.] statically unbalanced. This unbalance causes high bearing
Operating limitations of vane pumps are imposed by

vane tip speed, bearing loads, and cavitation. The force
exerted by the vanes against the housing can be con-
trolled by using dual vanes, i.e., two vanes in each slot.
Each of the dual vanes has a smaller contact area than
a single vane. The dual vane design also provides a
better seal between the vanes and the housing.
Vane pumps exhibit a good tolerance to liquid con-
tamination. They are generally used with petroleum- (A) (B)
base or Military Specification hydraulic fluids in mo- Fig. 2-8. Vane-type Hydraulic Pumps and Motors
bile operations and with petroleum or fire-resistant (A) Rolling Vane, and (B) Swinging Vane
hydraulic fluids in stationary applications. Discharge 4
pulsations can sometimes constitute a problem if high [From: H. E. Merrit, Hydraulic Control Systems.
response is desired. Used by permission of John Wiley and Sons]
2-5
AMCP 706-123
loads and generally limits the application of unbalanced ROTOR

DISCHARGE SUCTION
vane pumps to operating pressures less than about 1,500 PORT PORT
B A
psi (Ref. 4).
CASING
2-2.2.2 Balanced Vane Pumps
Hydraulic balance is achieved in the balanced vane
pump in which the rotor is in an elliptic housing (Fig.
2-9). This configuration creates two diametrically-
opposed displacement volumes. The two high-pressure
zones balance the forces on the rotor shaft. In many
such units no springs are provided to assist the outward
VANE
motion of the vanes. This condition restricts operation
to speeds above a minimum at which the centrifugal
Fig. 2-?. Balanced Vane Hydraulic Pump
force is sufficient to hold the vanes against the housing.
Other designs utilize springs for start-up and low-speed
operation. Balanced vane pumps are necessarily fixed- 2-2.3.1 Axial-piston Pumps
displacement machines.
In the axial-piston pump, rotary shaft motion is con-
2-2.3 PISTON PUMPS verted to axial reciprocating motion which drives the
The applications for which the piston pump is well- piston. Most axial-piston pumps are multi-piston de-
suited are determined by its two principal advantages- signs and utilize check valves or port plates to direct
high-pressure capability and high volumetric effi- liquid flow from inlet to discharge. Output can be con-
ciency. In addition, the piston pump can operate at trolled by manual, mechanical, or pressure-compen-
speeds over 2,000 rpm; is available in a wide range of sated controls. An axial-piston pump is shown in Fig.
output ratings; and provides a compact, lightweight 2-10. Rotary drive motion is converted to reciprocat-
unit for high power applications, low noise level when ing, axial piston motion by means of the thrust cam, or
flow path is linear, and better system economy in the wobble plate, mounted on the drive shaft. Variable-
higher power ranges (above 20 hp). displacement volume is provided by the internal valv-
Piston pumps are classified by the motion of the ing arrangement. Axial-piston pumps are available
piston relative to the drive shaft. There are three with output ratings of over 100 gpm, and some types
categories-axial, radial, or rotating. are rated at pressures above 5,000 psi.
INLET OR OUTLET PORT BARREL PISTON KEEPER PLATE
DRAIN PORT PISTON SHOE
THRUST CAM
VALVE HEAD
BEARING
VALVE HEAD' SHAFT BEARING
MOUNTING FLANGE
INLET OR OUTLET PORT BARREL BEARING
Fig. 2-10. Axial-piston Hydraulic Pump

[From: H. E. Merrit, Hydraulic Control Systems?\Jsed by permission of John Wiley and Sons.]
2-6
AMCP 706-123
2-2.3.2 Radial-piston Pumps Pumps of this type operate at high speeds, ranging from
about 7,000 rpm for a 35-gpm unit to nearly 20,000
In a radial-piston pump, the pistons move perpen- rpm for pumps with 2- to 8-gpm output ratings (Ref.
dicularly to the shaft centerline. Two basic types of 1). One advantage of the spherical-piston pump is a
radial-piston pumps are available. One uses cylindrical- relatively high power-to-weight ratio.
shaped pistons and the other uses spherical-shaped pis-
tons. In the pump shown in Fig. 2-11, the pistons move
in a rotating cylinder block and are forced outward by
centrifugal force. In Fig. 2-11, only one piston is
shown (in four positions); however, most pumps are
multi-piston.
CYLINDER BLOCK
Fig. 2-12. Radial-piston Hydraulic Pump With Spher-

SLIDE BLOCK
ical Pistons
PINTLE
(STATIONARY) [From: E. C. Fitch, Fluid Power and Control Systems1.
Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
ROTOR
SLIDE BLOCK *^^~ -^Zt VlSTON 2-2.3.3 Rotating Piston Pumps

C0MTR0L
Fig. 2-11. Radial-piston Hydraulic Pump With Ro- The rotating piston pump (sometimes called the ro-
tating Piston Housing [One piston is shown tary abutment pump) has three parallel synchronous
at four positions-A, B, C, and D] shafts (Fig. 2-13). Piston rotors are mounted on the
2 outside shafts and seal dynamically against the cylin-
[From: Pippenger and Hicks, Industrial Hydraulics. drical housing. The rotor mounted on the center shaft
Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.] forms an abutment valve. The rims of the piston rotors
pass through a bucket cut in the center rotor. Except
A radial-piston pump which employs spherical pis- when the rim is meshed with the abutment valve, a
tons is shown in Fig. 2-12. The pistons move radially rolling-contact seal is maintained between the rotors.
in a rotating cylinder block. They are forced against the Liquid is drawn into the right cylinder shown in Fig.
eccentric housing by centrifugal force. Liquid porting 2-13, pumped through to the left cylinder, and dis-
is achieved by means of a pintle. The displacement can charged by the left piston. Pumps of this type are avail-
be varied by changing the eccentricity of the housing. able with ratings to over 150 gpm at 1,500 psi.
Fig. 2-13. Rotating Piston Hydraulic Pump [Shown are two rotating pistons P, and P2, and rotating abutment V.]
4
[From: H. E. Merrit, Hydraulic Control Systems. Used by permission of John Wiley and Sons]
2-7
AMCP 706-123
2-2.4 SCREW PUMPS materials. Bellows pumps also are very effective pumps
for liquids that are contaminated with solid particle
A screw pump is an axial-flow gear pump. Fig. 2-14 material, and for abrasive slurries. There are no small
shows a two-rotor screw pump with helical gears. Liq- clearance areas for the particles to damage or close.
uid is introduced at the two ends and discharged at the
center. The seal is formed by the contact of the two
gears at the intersection of their addenda and by the
ACTUATOR
small clearance between the gears and the pump hous-
ing. In pumps employing double helical gears, as shown
in Fig. 2-14, the thrust loads are balanced. This design =0
is frequently employed in large pumps. Screw pumps
are especially applicable where quiet operation is essen-
tial. In screw pumps, the gears must be in contact at the BELLOWS -
intersection of their addenda. This contact plus the
minimum clearance at the outside diameter of the
gears, provides a series of sealed chambers along the
length of the screws. Screw pumps can also be arranged
with three rotors. The center gear is the driver, and no LIQUID LIQUID
timing gears are necessary. - OUT«-
GS
m-m < - IN
Fig. 2-15. Typical Bellows Pump
2-2.6 DIAPHRAGM PUMPS
A sketch of a typical diaphragm pump is shown in

Fig. 2-16. The diaphragm is a flexible disk attached
about its circumference to the pump housing. The ac-
SIDE VIEW
tuator moves the diaphragm in a reciprocating motion
INTAKE which provides the pumping action. Diaphragms can
be flexible sheets of metal or elastic nonmetals. Liquid
Fig. 2-14. Two-rotor Screw Hydraulic Pump With
flow is controlled by check valves at the inlet and outlet
Helical Gears
ports. Diaphragm pumps are primarily low pressure,
2
[From: Pippenger and Hicks, Industrial Hydraulics. pulsating flow pumps and are not often used for hy-
Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.] draulic power sources. Diaphragm pumps are occa-
sionally used as hydraulic power sources where a
remote pump is required-such as in high-temperature
2-2.5 BELLOWS PUMPS or corrosive environments. The valve head, containing
the inlet and outlet valves, can be located in the hostile
A sketch of a typical bellows pump is shown in Fig.
2-15. The bellows is constructed of thin flexible metals environment and the diaphragm unit located in a
or elastic nonmetals. Compression of the bellows by the remote place. One of the most common uses of dia-
actuator provides the pumping action. Liquid flow is phragm pumps is the fuel pump on automobiles.
controlled by check valves at the inlet and outlet ports. Diaphragm pump advantages include simple con-
Bellows pumps are not generally used in hydraulic sys- struction, no lubrication problems, high volumetric ef-
tems and find only limited applications in other fields.
One area of application has been the medical field ficiency, and insensitivity to contamination. Major
where they have the advantage of simple construction disadvantages are the low pressures obtainable, pulsat-
and are easily fabricated of inexpensive disposable ing flow, and low flow rates.
2-8
AMCP 706-123
2-3.1 LINEAR ACTUATORS

— DIAPHRAGM
ACTUATOR A linear actuator or hydraulic cylinder is a fluid
motor that generates linear motion. Various types are
DIAPHRAGM widely used in hydraulic systems because of their high
force capability, ease of speed control, and high power
output for a given size and weight. They are especially
suitable for control systems due to their high mechani-
cal stiffness and speed of response.
2-3.1.1 Classification of Linear Actuators
The many types of linear actuators which are availa-

ble give rise to several criteria for classification.
(1) Rotating or nonrotating: In a rotating actuator
Fig. 2-16. Typical Diaphragm Pump
the cylinder, rod, and piston can rotate. In many ap-
plications, such as on rotary machine tools, this
feature is necessary to allow unrestricted motion of
2-2.7 CONNECTION BETWEEN PUMP AND the piston rod. Such an actuator is illustrated in Fig.
DRIVE MOTOR 2-17. In order to permit stationary mounting of the
fluid connections, a rotating seal is required.
The physical connection between the hydraulic
The nonrotating linear actuator, in which the cylin-
pump and its drive motor is not technically a hydraulic
der is not free to rotate, is the most widely used fluid
component. However, it is an important part of the
motor.
hydraulic system, and in many cases, may be the weak-
est link in the power train. There are a number of
methods for coupling the drive motor output shaft to
the hydraulic pump input shaft. Some of the more com-
mon methods are keys and pins, flexible couplings,
universal joints, clutches, and splines. The most fre-
quently used connector in hydraulic systems is the
spline. Fig. 2-17. Rotating Linear Actuator
Splines offer the advantage of being able to transmit
[From: E. C. Fitch, Fluid Power and Control Systems*.
the maximum load with the smallest coupling diame-
ter. In addition, they are self-centering, tend to equally
distribute the load, and are simple to manufacture with
standard gear-cutting equipment. Their major disad- (2) Piston or plunger: The piston and rod assembly
vantage is the problem of wear. Even the best designed in a piston-type linear actuator serves to divide the
splines are subject to relative motion of the parts and cylinder volume into two separate chambers. The pis-
are difficult to lubricate. ton and attached sealing devices provide the seal be-
tween the two chambers. The rotating actuator shown
in Fig. 2-17 is a piston actuator.
In a plunger-type there is no piston. The end of the
2-3 ACTUATORS reciprocating rod serves as the working face (see Fig.
2-18). The only seal provided is at the point where the
An actuator is a device for converting hydraulic en- plunger passes through the end of the cylinder. An
ergy to mechanical energy, and thus has a function external force is required to move the plunger into
opposite that of a pump. An actuator, or fluid motor, the cylinder.
can be used to produce linear, rotary, or oscillatory Both types provide a longer stroke and permit the
motion. use of the highest pressure.
2-9
AMCP 706-123
(4) Cylinder action: The type of cylinder action is

important in the specification of linear actuators. An
actuator can be single-acting or double-acting. The sin-
gle-acting type can move the piston rod in only one
direction by the application of hydraulic pressure. A
plunger-type actuator, discussed in subparagraph 2-
3.1.1(2), is a single-acting actuator. In the double-
acting actuator, liquid pressure can be applied to either
side of the piston, thereby providing a hydraulic force
in both directions (Fig. 2-20). Double-acting actuators
are also shown in Figs. 2-17 and 2-19. Springs, external
forces, or a combination of both can be used to assist
return of the piston rod or plunger.
DOUBLE-ACTING CIRCUIT
tTHRUST IN BOTH 01RECTI0NSI
Fig. 2-18. Plunger-type Linear Actuator

[From: E. C. Fitch, Fluid Power and Control Systems.
PACKED
GLAND
(3) Rod classification: Linear actuators can also be

classified as to rod type. A cylinder with one piston rod
is termed a single-rod actuator. The actuators shown in
Figs. 2-17 and 2-18 are single-rod actuators. A double-
Fig. 2-20. Double-acting Linear Actuator
rod actuator has piston rods extending from both ends
2
of the cylinder. A telescoping rod consists of a series of [From: Pippenger and Hicks, Industrial Hydraulics.
nested rods which provide a long extension (Fig. 2-19). Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
Such rods are useful for applications requiring a long
stroke but with only limited space available for the
unextended rod. A positional rod is used where the (5) Single, tandem, and dual actuators.Yet another
stroke is split up into two or more portions. The cylin- means of actuator classification is its assembly. Assem-
der can be actuated to any one of the positions. blies of actuators can be designed to obtain various
types of cylinder operation. A tandem actuator is one
in which two or more piston and rod combinations are
assembled as a rigid unit with all pistons mounted on
a single rod. Fig. 2-21 shows a stepped-tandem
actuator-two pistons of different sizes mounted on one
J RAISE rod. Such actuators can be designed to obtain, for ex-
ample, a low-force, high-speed action followed by a
high-force, low-speed action. Tandem pistons can also
be designed to provide a large working area (and thus
large forces for a given pressure) for a small cylinder
diameter. The piston and rod assemblies of a dual ac-
tuator (Fig. 2-22) are not fastened together as in the
tandem actuator. In most dual actuator designs, a given
LOWER piston acts on another only in one direction. Tandem
Fig. 2-19. Telescoping Linear Actuator and dual actuators are frequently used in hydro-
[From: Pippenger and Hicks, Industrial Hydraulics. pneumatic systems where air is used as the power source
Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.] and a hydraulic fluid is used for control.
2-10
AMCP 706-123
'/////4&///A ports as the piston nears the end of the stroke (Fig.
2-23). A cushion-plunger attached to the piston enters
a cushion cylinder. This cushion plunger then blocks
wzzz 7///M the discharge port and traps liquid beneath the piston.
This liquid assists in the deceleration of the piston as
Fig. 2-21. Stepped-tandem Linear Actuator it approaches the cylinder head. A check valve allows
fluid to flow back into the cylinder at the start of the
return stroke. The rate of piston deceleration can be
controlled by designing the cushion plunger with a
proper taper. This taper then permits a gradual closing
of the discharge ports.
W////£y//77?,
*--—>-
2-3.1.2 Mounting Configuration
XA &ZZ,7/S//A V kl
One of the advantageous features of linear actuators
Fig. 2-22. Dual Linear Actuator is the variety of ways in which they can be mounted in
a system. Several mounting arrangements are illus-
[From: E. C. Fitch, Fluid Power and Control Systems. trated in Fig. 2-24.
2-3.1.3 Kinematics of Linear Actuators
(6) Cushioned or noncushioned type: In noncush- The nature of the force provided by a linear actuator
ioned actuators, no provision is made for controlled depends on the kinematic linkage between the straight-
acceleration or deceleration of the piston assembly. line output of the cylinder and the point at which the
Therefore, such units have speed and inertia limitations force and motion are utilized. Because of the many
imposed at both ends of the stroke. Cushioned actua- alternatives in the design of the linkage, the linear ac-
tors are designed to enable the kinetic energy of the tuator can be used to produce rotary or oscillatory
moving piston to be absorbed at the ends of the stroke motion as well as linear motion. The resultant ver-
and thereby reduce peak pressures and forces. Cushion- satility of linear actuators is partially illustrated by the
ing can be accomplished by blocking the discharge applications shown in Fig. 2-25.
CUSHION
SEAL
FLUID FLUID
INLET AND INLET AND
OUTLET^ PISTON OUTLET ROD
SCRAPER
HEAD
ROD '
CYLINDER PACKING
BARREL
Fig. 2-23. Cushioned Double-acting Linear Actuator

2
[From: Pippenger and Hicks, Industrial Hydraulics. Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
2-11
AMCP 706-123
®—®
'— 1^ —* fljjjrjfj ,„,i, ,.„l fg; -ij
l@ ©
SIDE FOOT MOUNT CENTERLINE MOUNT
IP (SI
o
mm m
END FOOT MOUNT SIDE FLUSH MOUNT
p m
O wri
a as
REAR FLANGE MOUNT FRONT FLANGE MOUNT
-. Ö 0
u a- o Ö J
3)
o is 1
to]
unnrj
o o o rori
3
o o o o
SQUARE REAR FLANGE MOUNT SQUARE FRONT FLANGE MOUNT
ol l-l 0 © 3 rai®
§> ©
FRONT TRUNNION MOUNT'
CLEVIS MOUNT INTERMEDIATE TRUNNION AVAILABLE
c IS)
© <sT^
D © ©
REAR TRUNNION MOUNT*
INTERMEDIATE TRUNNION AVAILABLE TIE RODS EXTENDED BOTH ENDS
JEM @
©
§ @ fr™ a i
TIE RODS EXTENDED REAR END ONLY TIE RODS EXTENDED FRONT END ONLY
HLSi Es
BASIC MOUNT
HLBJT
DOUBLE-END CONSTRUCTION
AVAILABLE IN ANY MOUNT
Fig. 2-24. Mounting Arrangements for Linear Actuators
[From: Stewart and Storer, Fluid Power. Used by permission of Howard W. Sams and Co., Inc.]
2-12
AMCP 706-123
'/////////,
'/////// I K',,"//'////.
1 st class lever 2 nd class lever 3rd class lever 4 positive
positions with
two cylinders
I
' 7/7/77777//' V7777 0
Toggle Straight line Straight line Trammel
thrust reduced motion plate
multiplied 2M
"777,
7777777777777?- >///////
Motion
Straight line motion Straight push Horizontal transterred to
in two directions parallel motion a distant ooint
77/77/7//,
7777777
///////// 77777777
Practically Engine barring Fast rotary
continuous rotary motion using
motion steep screw nut
Fig. 2-25. Applications of Linear Actuators
[From: E. C. Fitch, Fluid Power and Control Systems. Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
2-13
AMCP 706-123
2-3.2 ROTARY ACTUATORS OR MOTORS
As in the case of a linear actuator, the function of a

rotary actuator, or rotary fluid motor, is to convert
hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. Rotary mo-
tors are usually rated in terms of the theoretical torque
developed per 100 psi of inlet or differential pressure.
The actual running torque and the stalled torque may
be from 60 to 90 percent of the theoretical torque,
depending on the type of motor. The running volumet-
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
ric efficiency may vary from about 75 to 95 percent,
Speed (rpm)
again depending on the particular motor. The highest
operating efficiency occurs near the rated torque
and speed. Fig. 2-26. Typical Operating Characteristic Curves
The desirable features of the various types of rotary for a Spur Gear Hydraulic Motor
motors include:
[From: Fluid Power Issue; Machine Design. Used by
(1) The ability to suddenly start, stop, and reverse
permission of Penton Publishing Co.]
without motor damage
(2) The ability to operate as a pump for braking
(3) A higher horsepower-to-weight ratio than any
other conventional power source (2) Crescent seal motors: The crescent seal motor
(4) An infinitely-variable speed range employs an inner and outer gear with a crescent-shaped
(5) The ability to operate through zero speed for seal separating the teeth during part of the revolution.
overrunning loads Its operational features are the reverse of those of the
(6) The ability to accommodate contaminants in crescent seal pump illustrated in Fig. 2-4. Motor units
the fluid. of this type are suitable for high-speed, low-power oper-
Rotary fluid motors are essentially rotary pumps ations at low-to-moderate pressure. Starting torque and
operating in reverse. The mechanical characteristics of running efficiencies are low. Typical operating curves
a particular rotary motor are nearly identical with for crescent seal motors are shown in Fig. 2-27.
those of the corresponding pump.
200
2-3.2.1 Gear Motors 150 6 £
Gear motors, like gear pumps, can be classified as — 100

external or internal gear units. Also like gear pumps, Flov»,300psi
they are fixed-displacement devices. External gear mo- 'Flow, 100 psi
tors include the gear-on-gear units such as the spur gear Torque, lOOpsi
motor. Internal gear motors include the crescent seal
400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200
types and the gerotor-type unit.
Speed (rpm)
(1) Gear-on-gear motors: In the gear-on-gear motor,
rotary motion is produced by the unbalanced hydraulic
forces on the gear teeth which are exposed to the inlet Fig. 2-27. Typical Operating Characteristic Curves
pressure. An example is the spur gear motor which has for a Crescent Seal Hydraulic Motor
the same mechanical features as the spur gear pump [From: Fluid Power Issue; Machine Design. Used by
shown in Fig. 2-2. These units are applicable for peak permission of Penton Publishing Co.]
operating pressures up to about 1,500 psi and are avail-
able with rated capacities up to 120 gpm, maximum
speeds of about 3,000 rpm, and power ratings up to (3) Gerotor-type motors: The gerotor motor (see
approximately 50 hp. Bearing loads generated by the Fig. 2-5 for corresponding pump) is suitable for high-
hydraulic unbalance are high, as in the case with un- speed operation and exhibits relatively high starting-
balanced gear pumps. Typical operating curves for spur torque efficiency. It can be used for operating pressures
gear motors are given in Fig. 2-26. up to about 2,000 psi. Volumetric efficiency is relatively
2-14
AMCP 706-123
low and leakage rates are high at most speeds. The cost
2400 90
of gerotor motors is relatively high in comparison with Torque, 2000 psi
the other gear motors. The operating curves of Fig.
2-28 are typical of the gerotor motor. 2000
1600 60
600
Torque, 1500psi
Flow,500psi
-o 1200 45
500
Flow, '
Flow, lOOOpsi
400
Torque, IQOOpsi o 800 30 ,T
Flow,1000psi
300 F
Torque, 500psi
Flow, 200 psi
v 400
Flbw, 500psi
200
Torque, 500psi
100 0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
Torque, 200psi
Speed (rpm)
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Speed (rpm)
Fig. 2-29. Typical Operating Characteristic Curves
for a Vane Hydraulic Motor
Fig. 2-28. Typical Operating Characteristic Curves [From: Fluid Power Issue; Machine Design. Used by
for a Gerotor Hydraulic Motor permission of Penton Publishing Co.]
2-3.2.3 Limited-rotation Motors
Limited-rotation motors, or rotary actuators, pro-

2-3.2.2 Vane Motors
vide an oscillating power output. A variety of such
units is available, all of which consist of one or more
Most vane motors are of the balanced-rotor type fluid chambers and a movable surface against which
because hydraulic unbalance causes large radial bear- the fluid pressure is applied. Both vane-type and piston-
ing loads which limit the use of unbalanced vane mo- type motors can be used to obtain an oscillatory output.
tors to low pressure operation and applications where (1) Vane type: There are two types of limited-rota-
weight and space considerations do not preclude the tion vane motors, the single-vane and the double-vane.
use of large, heavy bearings. Therefore, most vane mo- The single-vane unit consists of a cylindrical housing,
tors have a mechanical configuration similar to that of a shaft with a single vane, a barrier which limits the
the balanced vane pump shown in Fig. 2-9 and are thus vane rotation, and end pieces which support the shaft
fixed-displacement units. To accommodate starting (Fig. 2-30). High-pressure liquid enters on one side of
and low-speed operation, it is usually necessary to pro- the vane, forcing the vane to rotate to the barrier. A
vide a force-in addition to the centrifugal force-to rotation of approximately 280 deg can be obtained with
move the vane radially outward. Springs are commonly the single-vane unit. In the double-vane unit, the high-
used for this purpose. pressure fluid enters on one side of a vane and is ported
As with vane pumps, rolling and swinging vanes can through the shaft to the corresponding side of the other
also be used in vane motor design (see Fig. 2-8). The vane (Fig. 2-31). A rotation of about 100 deg is possible
overall running efficiencies of vane motors are typically with the double-vane motor. In both the double- and
80 to 85 percent. They are available at rated powers up the single-vane units, seals are maintained between the
to approximately 125 hp, pressure ratings to about 2,- rotor and the barriers and between the vanes and the
500 psi, and maximum speeds of approximately 3,000 housing. Limited-rotation vane motors are available
rpm. Characteristic operating curves of a vane motor with torque outputs ranging from less than 10 in.-lb at
are shown in Fig. 2-29. about 50 psi to nearly 750,000 in.-lb at 3,000 psi.
2-15
AMCP 706-123
CYLINDER PISTON
/OUTPUT
SHAFT
-GUIDE ROD
Fig. 2-32. Helix-spline Rotary Actuator

Fig. 2-30. Typical Single-vane Actuator Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]

permission of Penton Publishing Co.] PISTON SEAL\ PISTON
Shoft and vane^^^-, —_^~ ^Stationary

assemblyv^-jT7^ TlV^c barrier
PINION GEAR' PISTON' "OIL-FILLED CHAMBER

Seal \ ^—J
Fig. 2-33. Piston-rack Rotary Actuator
2
Fig. 2-31. Typical Double-vane Actuator
2-3.2.4 Piston Motors
permission of Penton Publishing Co.] Piston motors which generate a continuous rotary
output motion (as opposed to linear actuators) can be
classified in terms of the piston motion-axial, radial, or
(2) Piston type: Piston-driven actuators are availa- rotary. They can be fixed- or variable-displacement de-
ble in several configurations designed to produce an vices. They can operate at high pressures and have high
oscillating output. The helix-spline unit employs a shaft volumetric efficiencies. The power-to-weight ratio of
with a helical screw which passes through the piston piston motors is not as favorable as that of gear and
(Fig. 2-32). A guide rod prevents rotation of the piston. vane motors, but piston units are available with power
Rotations of greater than 360 deg are possible. A self- outputs greater than 300 hp. Relative cost per horse-
locking helix angle prevents rotation when an external power is high.
torque is applied. The piston-rack unit consists of two (1) Axial-piston type: The operation of an axial-pis-
or more pistons which provide the rack for a rack-and- ton motor is essentially the same as that of an axial-
pinion system (Fig. 2-33). Many variations of the latter piston pump except for the direction of flow (see Fig.
design are available. 2-10). The high-pressure liquid introduced through the
2-16
AMCP 706-123
motor inlet forces the piston assembly against the (2) Fixed-displacement pump and variable-displace-
thrust cam or wobble plate. The angular application of ment motor: The pump operates as described in par.
this force causes the plate to rotate and this rotation is 2-3.3(1). The torque of the motor varies inversely with
transmitted by the shaft. The displacement can be var- speed. Motor flow rate is a function of both displace-
ied by changing the angle of the thrust cam. Leakage ment and relief-valve flow. The transmission produces
is low under both running and stalled conditions. constant horsepower and a torque which varies
(2) Radial-piston type: The radial-piston motor is with speed.
also essentially its pump counterpart operating in re- (3) Variable-displacement pump and fixed-displace-
verse (Fig. 2-11). Liquid enters the piston chamber ment motor: The pump pressure and speed are con-
through a central pintle. The piston is forced radially stant, but the torque and horsepower vary. The motor
outward against the thrust ring, thereby producing a pressure and torque are constant while the speed and
force tangent to the piston chamber. The resulting horsepower vary. The resulting transmission has con-
torque causes the shaft to rotate. This motor type ex- stant torque. The horsepower varies with speed.
hibits very high volumetric efficiencies and high (4) Variable-displacement pump and motor: The
torque, and is well-suited for low-speed application be- pump operates as in the preceding case. The motor
cause of the small mass of the rotating parts. torque and speed are inverse functions of the displace-
(3) Rotary-piston type: The rotary-piston motor is ment. The torque and horsepower transmitted by the
the same as the rotary-piston pump except for the flow system can be constant or variable.
direction. The pump was described in par. 2-2.3.3.
Units are available with a rating of up to 300 hp at
2,800 rpm with a maximum torque of over 20,000 in.- 2-4 INTENSIFIERS
lb. Weight and space-to-power ratios are high, and cost
per horsepower is usually high. A liquid intensifier-used only in single cylinder ap-
plications-is a device used to compress the liquid by a
pressure greater than the system pressure generated by
2-3.3 FLUID TRANSMISSIONS the primary pump. This is accomplished by using dif-
ferent piston working areas to boost the pressure. The
A fluid transmission is a device which converts me- increase in pressure obtained in the simple intensifier
chanical power into fluid power, transports this power, shown in Fig. 2-34 is directly related to the area ratio
and then converts it back into mechanical power. of the pistons. The high-pressure piston is attached to
Therefore, the circuit consists of some suitable combi- the same rod as the larger low-pressure piston. When
nation of pump and motor with the necessary piping. the control valve is in the neutral position, the liquid,
The transmission characteristics depend on the pump which is at system pressure, is directed to a reservoir.
and motor combination. The various possible combina- If the left solenoid is actuated, fluid is introduced to the
tions are outlined in the paragraphs which follow. As- rod side of the low-pressure piston and into the cham-
sumptions made are that the pump outlet and motor ber on the downstream side of the high-pressure piston.
inlet pressure are the same; a constant output pressure The piston assembly moves to the right, returning the
is maintained on variable-displacement pumps; and the fluid in the low-pressure chamber to a reservoir. The
pump speed is constant. Fixed-displacement pumps are intensifier is then ready for a working stroke. When the
assumed to have relief valves. right solenoid is energized, fluid is introduced into the
(1) Fixed-displacement pump and motor: The tor- low-pressure chamber. The piston assembly is driven to
que and horsepower of the pump are functions of the the left, compressing the fluid in the high-pressure
pressure but the speed and flow rate are usually con- chamber. Because of the reciprocating pumping action,
stant. Below the relief-valve setting, the motor torque the intensifier produces a pulsating high-pressure flow.
and horsepower vary with pressure while the speed and The high-pressure flow rate is less than the system flow
flow rate are constant. At or above the relief-valve rate by the same ratio as that of system pressure to
pressure, the motor torque is constant, but motor speed boosted pressure.
and flow rate are functions of the volume flow rate In circuits which require high-volume, low-pressure
through the relief valve. The resulting transmission ex- flows-as well as smaller high-pressure flow over short
hibits constant speed with variable torque and horse- periods-the fluid intensifier offers an economic alterna-
power below the relief valve pressure, and constant tive to the necessity of providing two primary power
torque with variable speed and horsepower at sources.The intensifier has several additional advan-
higher pressures. tages. A low power input can be used to maintain a
2-17
AMCP 706-123
CYLINDER
, CYLINDER LOW-PRESSURE
PISTON
LIMIT SWITCH G '(AREA=10x
HIGH
PRESSURE C THAT OF THE
HIGH-PRESSURE
PISTON)
LIMIT SWITCH ^
HIGH-PISTON
(AREA=O.I THAT -4fc-D
OF LOW PRESSURE
PISTON)
rs\MT ffiXl^Tsön
DIRECTIONAL
CONTROL
VALVE
Fig. 2-34. Diagram of a Hydraulic Intensifier Circuit

2
high pressure for a period of time. The high-pressure must be determined. The size and configuration depend
regions of the circuit can be localized, thereby reducing on many factors. The minimum required capacity can
the amount of high-pressure piping and the number of vary from one to three times the volumetric rating of
high-pressure seals required. Because of the seal be- the pump in gallons per minute. The reservoir should
tween the high- and low-pressure chambers, the inten- be sufficiently large to accommodate the liquid neces-
sifier can be operated with a liquid different from that sary to fill all system components if the liquid drains
used in the high-pressure part of the circuit. Since no back to the reservoir. It should have sufficient capacity
heat is generated while static pressure is maintained to maintain a liquid supply at the pump suction at all
and little heat is generated during rapid cycling, only times. Sufficient liquid should be in the system to pre-
small reserves of oil are required. vent the formation of vortices at the pump suction.
Reservoir volume should be provided to allow time for
solid contaminants and gases to separate from the liq-
uid. This factor also depends on both the charac-
2-5 RESERVOIRS teristics of the liquid and filtering system design. Ade-
quate space above the liquid level should be provided
to accommodate thermal expansion of the liquid. If the
2-5.1 FUNCTION reservoir serves as the primary means of dissipating
heat from the liquid, it should be large enough to ac-
Reservoirs not only provide a storage facility for the commodate the required cooling. In some applications,
liquid but can also serve to separate entrained air, the liquid in the reservoir is intermittently used as a
remove contaminants, and dissipate heat from the heat sink. It is then necessary to provide storage for
liquid. Thus, along with heat exchangers and fil- enough liquid to give the desired heat capacity. For
ters, the reservoir is an important liquid-condition- operation in cold environments excessive cooling can
ing component. also be avoided by proper reservoir capacities.
2-5.2 CAPACITY 2-5.3 DESIGN
Even before the conditioning functions of the reser- There are three basic reservoir arrangements-sepa-
voir are considered in design, the necessary capacity rate, integral, and dual-purpose. Separate reservoirs are
2-18
AMCP 706-123
commonly used in large stationary systems where space Filters are rated in terms of the degree of filtration.
and weight are not important considerations. Integral The ratings are usually expressed in microns (1 micron
reservoirs are spaces provided within the hydraulic sys- = 3.937 x 10 in.). If a filter can remove 98 percent of
tem-such as piping, tubular structural members, or the particles of a certain size or larger, then this particle
machine bases. Such a design minimizes space and size, expressed in microns, is termed the nominal filtra-
weight requirements. However, the storage of a hot tion value. The absolute filtration value is the size of the
liquid within the system can sometimes cause thermal smallest particle which the filter can completely
distortion of precision components. If the liquid can remove from the flow. Filters are usually rated in terms
serve as both a lubricant and a hydraulic fluid, in- of both nominal and absolute values. It is common
dividual reservoirs are not required. The reservoir in practice to specify filters with an absolute filtration
which such a liquid is stored is termed a dual-purpose value equal to one-half of the smallest clearance
reservoir. For example, the case which houses the or tolerance in the components which the filter
transmission in some vehicles, and which thus contains must protect.
the transmission lubricant, also serves as the hydraulic
fluid reservoir. In such applications it is, of course,
necessary that the liquid function satisfactorily both as 2-6.1 CLASSIFICATION OF FILTERS
a lubricant and as a hydraulic fluid. Also, since the
liquid absorbs heat from two sources, it may be difficult Filters are classified according to the filter media, the
to provide adequate cooling. configuration, or the filtering method. The filter media
Many of the guidelines which assist in the design of can be either the surface-type or the depth-type. The
reservoirs are the same regardless of the reservoir type. surface-type filtering media contain numerous orifices
Baffles should be provided between the suction line and of relatively uniform size. Particles larger than the ori-
the fluid-return lines to prevent continual use of the fice size are trapped on the surface of the media. Depth-
same liquid. Baffles also reduce the liquid velocity and type media have long tortuous paths through which the
thereby facilitate the settling of solid contaminants and liquid must flow. Particles larger than the cross section
deaeration of the liquid. of these flow paths are retained except perhaps for
Lines which return liquid to the reservoir should be some particles which are larger in only one dimension.
well below the liquid level to minimize aeration. Suc- Wire mesh is an example of a surface filter medium.
tion lines should also terminate below the minimum Depth media include sintered metal powders and fi-
liquid level, but the inlet should be at least 1-1/2 pipe brous materials such as paper, felt, glass, and cellulose.
diameters above the tank floor. If the suction line Classification by filter media is closely related to clas-
strainer is not sufficiently beneath the liquid level at all sification by filtering method, which is discussed in
times, a vortex could form and permit air to enter the par. 2-6.2.
suction line. Gravity drains from seal cavities should be There are five basic filter configurations (see Fig.
separate from the liquid return lines and should enter 2-35). The T-type filter is the most widely used unit
the reservoir above the liquid level. because it is compact and easy to clean or replace.
Ample provision must be made for draining and By-pass reliefs and pressure-difference indicators are
cleaning. Liquid-level indicators should be provided to frequently incorporated to determine when a filter
indicate the maximum and minimum allowable liquid is clogged.
levels. An air breather and filter allow air to enter or
leave the reservoir as the liquid level fluctuates. Some
reservoirs are pressurized to assist pump suction. 2-6.2 FILTERING METHODS
There are three basic physical mechanisms by which

filters can remove contaminants from a hydraulic
2-6 FILTERS fluid-mechanical, adsorbent, and absorbent. The filter-
The ability to keep the liquid clean is a very impor- ing methods sometimes function in combination.
tant factor in the long-term operation of a hydraulic
system. To minimize contaminant levels, foreign mat-
ter should be prevented from entering the system; con- 2-6.2.1 Mechanical Filters
ditions conducive to contaminant formation within the
system should be avoided; and filters should be used to In a mechanical filter, particles are removed from the
remove contaminants. hydraulic fluid by virtue of their inability to pass
2-19
AMCP 706-123
T-type Pot type Y-type
570
gpm
FF- 3-
600
gpm
In-line type Wash type

30 gpm -
Fig. 2-35. Basic Configurations of Filter Assemblies

4
[From: H. E. Merrit, Hydraulic Control Systems. Used by permission of John Wiley and Sons]
through the multitude of small holes or orifices in the between the disks. The filter can be cleaned while in
filter. Metal or fabric screens are commonly used as the service by revolving the central shaft to which alternate
filter media. The disk-type filter shown in Fig. 2-36 is disks are keyed. The stationary elements then act as
also a mechanical filter. The size of particles which can wipers. Wire-screen mechanical filters can also be
be removed by this filter depends on the spacing cleaned if care is taken not to force contaminant parti-
cles inside or through the elements.
2-6.2.2 Adsorbent Filters
Adsorption is the phenomenon by which particles of

one material tend to adhere to solid or liquid surfaces.
The filter medium in an adsorbent-type filter is finely
divided to present maximum surface area to the flow.
Materials used in the filter elements include activated
clay, charcoal, fuller's earth, chemically treated paper,
and bone black. The flow passages of the filter can also
mechanically remove contaminants. One disadvantage
of the adsorbent filter is the tendency to remove certain
additives in the hydraulic fluid. Hence, it is not usually
recommended for service with fluids which contain ad-
ditives. Many adsorbent filter housings are designed to
accommodate either an adsorbent filter element or a
mechanical filter element.
2-6.2.3 Absorbent Filters

Fig. 2-36.Hydraulic Fluid Filter With Disk-type A porous, permeable medium is used as an element
Filter Elements in an absorbent filter. Element materials include
2
[From: Pippenger and Hicks, Industrial Hydraulics diatomaceous earth, wood, pulp, asbestos, paper, vari-
Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.] ous textiles, and a variety of other substances. As the
2-20
AMCP 706-123
hydraulic fluid passes through the filter medium, con- 2-6.5 REPLACEMENT OR CLEANING
taminants are trapped by absorption. Water and water- INTERVALS
soluble contaminants can be removed by some absorb-
ent filters. The size of solid contaminant which can be Two approaches can be made to establish a mainte-
filtered depends upon the permeability and porosity of nance program for hydraulic fluid filters. If instru-
the filter element. ments are provided to monitor filter operation, replace-
ment or cleaning can be based upon the data obtained
from these measurements. If no such data are available,
2-6.3 HYDRAULIC FLUID-FILTER it is necessary to establish a systematic maintenance
COMPATIBILITY program which specifies the operating intervals for
each filter.
The hydraulic fluid filter must not be affected by the Pippenger and Hicks (Ref. 2) present the following
hydraulic fluid at any operating condition. Also, the guidelines on which to base a filter maintenance
filter must not have any effect on the hydraulic fluid- schedule:
such as removing additives in the liquid. Filter compat- (1) Provide instruments to monitor filter saturation
ibility is not often a problem with pure mechanical-type and indicate cleaning or replacement requirements
filters. In this case it is only necessary to use a filter (2) Stress the importance of the filters in the system
element made of materials (usually metal) that are operating procedure by instructing all operating and
compatible with the particular hydraulic fluid. This is maintenance personnel in the filter locations, functions,
not the case, however, when absorbent- or adsorbent- and service schedules
type filters are used. In addition to their mechanical (3) Establish service procedures which minimize
filtering action, these filters also have a chemical filter- downtime and fluid loss
ing action. The chemical action may result in the re- (4) Maintain records of filter performance and use
moval of additives as well as impurities and contami- these to establish satisfactory filter service times
nants. Because additives are usually included to (5) Evaluate filter performance to determine if dif-
improve properties of the liquid, their removal is not ferent filters might improve the system operation.
desirable. Special consideration must be given to the
use of these filters when the hydraulic fluid is not a
straight unmodified base stock.
2-7 ACCUMULATORS
2-6.4 FILTER PRESSURE DROP
An accumulator is a device which can store hydrau-
The influence of pressure drop on filter selection lic energy. It is useful in intermittent operation of hy-
involves a compromise between two conflicting factors. draulic machines when the accumulator can be charged
In order to filter small particles from a hydraulic fluid, at a low flow rate during the idle portion of the cycle
the size of the filter passages must be small, and this of the driven machine. Accumulators can be used for
results in high pressure drop. However, if the pressure pressure compensation, pulse damping, leakage com-
drop is too high, contaminant particles can penetrate pensation, emergency power, auxiliary pressure, and
into or through the filter element. A pressure drop several other applications. They can also be used to
greater than 12 or 15 psi is usually sufficient to force apply pressure across a physical boundary between two
the contaminants commonly found in hydraulic sys- liquids without contact or mixing of the liquids. This
tems through a typical filter. feature permits the pressurization of hazardous fluids,
The pressure drop is a function of contaminant parti- e.g., a volatile liquid, by means of a second liquid which
cle size, the fineness of the filter medium, the ability of can be safely pumped.
the particle to resist the drag forces created by the flow,
the rate at which particles accumulate in the filter, and
the mechanical strength of the filter element. The pres- 2-7.1 ACCUMULATOR LOADING
sure differential which can be tolerated across a filter
also depends upon the location of the filter in the sys- Accumulators are classified in terms of the manner
tem. Allowable pressure drop is also an important fac- in which the load is applied. This is the major factor
tor in establishing the cleaning and service schedule of which influences design. Accumulators can be weight-
a filter. loaded, spring-loaded, or pneumatic-loaded.
2-21
AMCP 706-123
2-7.1.1 Weight-loaded Accumulators
The weight-loaded accumulator consists of a piston

mounted vertically in a cylinder (Fig. 2-37). The piston
rod or plunger is loaded with weights which provide
potential energy to compress the fluid. This accumula-
tor produces virtually constant pressure at all fluid
levels. However, weight-loaded accumulators are very
Fig. 2-38. Spring-loaded Hydraulic Accumulator
heavy and expensive. They also do not respond quickly
to changes in the system demand. For these reasons, [From: Fluid Power Issue; Machine Design. Used by
they are not often used in modern hydraulic systems. permission of Penton Publishing Co.]
WEIGHT W
direct contact with the hydraulic fluid, whereas in the
second type they are separated by a diaphragm, blad-
der, or piston.
CYLINDER RAM
PACKING P (1) Nonseparated-type: Pressurization in a non-
separated, pneumatic-loaded accumulator is achieved
DIAMETER CYLINDER C
■ X—->
by introducing a pressurizing gas into a container
above the liquid level. The pressurized storage vessel is
a simple example of this type. Limit switches, which are
PRESSURIZED
-;-;-2 FLUID :-i-z-
actuated by liquid level, are usually used to limit pres-
sure. This type can accommodate large liquid volumes,
but aeration of the liquid often precludes their use in
hydraulic systems. Fig. 2-39 shows a diagram of a non-
separated pneumatic accumulator in a circuit.
CHECK VALVE V
FROM SOURCE Accumulator, Relief valve
OF FLUID Sg:----------r--Hy—TO WORK LOAD Shop air
Cjh level
UNDER PRESSURE switch
Fig. 2-37- Weight-loaded Hydraulic Accumulator

2
Low level
switch
2-7.1.2 Spring-loaded Accumulators

To
f switch
An accumulator in which the compression energy is Closing
supplied by a spring is shown in Fig. 2-38. The pressure valve
varies with the amount of fluid in the accumulator
since the spring force depends on displacement. Al-
Fig. 2-39. Nonseparated Pneumatic-loaded Hydrau-
though such spring-loaded devices are easy to main-
tain, they are relatively bulky and costly. Most applica- lic Accumulator
tions are for low-volume, low-pressure systems. [From: Fluid Power Issue; Machine Design. Used by
2-7.1.3 Pneumatic-loaded Accumulators

(2) Separated-type: Aeration in the pneumatic-
There are two types of pneumatic-loaded accumula- loaded accumulator can be eliminated by providing a
tors. In one type, the gas which provides the load is in barrier between the pressurizing gas and the hydraulic
2-22
AMCP 706-123
fluid. Diaphragms, bladders, or pistons are used as A free-floating piston can also serve as a barrier
barriers. A diaphragm-type accumulator is shown in between the gas and hydraulic fluid (Fig. 2-42). This
Fig. 2-40. The spherical vessel is separated into two type is less effective as a pulsation damper than is the
compartments by a flexible diaphragm. One compart- bladder-type.
ment is connected to the hydraulic system and the Fluid port-
Air port-
other to the high-pressure gas system. In most designs
a spring-loaded, normally-open check valve or a screen
is provided at the liquid connection to prevent extru-
Air valve
sion of the diaphragm into the liquid line when the fluid
is discharged. Accumulator charged with air and fluid pressure
Piston shown in "bolanced" position
To pressure
manifold
Screen
Hydraulic fluid discharged

Piston "bottomed"against fluid port head
Fluid Air
Fig. 2-42. Free-floating Piston, Pneumatic-loaded
Hydraulic Accumulator
Air valve [From: E. Lewis, Design of Hydraulic Control Systems.
Fig. 2-40 . Diaphragm-type Pneumatic-loaded Hydrau- Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
lic Accumulator
The separated, pneumatic-loaded accumulators are
[From: E. Lewis, Design of Hydraulic Control Systems. the most commonly used. They are small, lightweight,
Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.] and can be mounted in any position.
The bladder-type accumulator usually has a bladder 2-7.2 ACCUMULATOR SELECTION

inside a cylindrical shell with pressurized gas inside the CONSIDERATIONS
bladder and the hydraulic fluid between the bladder
and the housing (Fig. 2-41). The bladder is usually The factors which enter into the selection or specifi-
constructed with the thinnest wall near the gas port. It cation of accumulators depend on the desired function
thus expands at the top first and then along the walls, of the unit in the hydraulic system. The compression
forcing the liquid out through the poppet valve. This and expansion of the gas in pneumatic-loaded ac-
design can be used for ratios of maximum to minimum cumulators are governed by the laws of gas dynamics.
pressure up to about 5 to 1 and, because of the low If discharge time is rapid (less than about 1 min for
inertia of the bladder, it is especially suitable for damp- most applications), the expansion process can be as-
ing pulsations. sumed to be adiabatic. Isothermal relations can be used
for compression if the process is slow.
The precharge pressure should be selected so that use
is made of all liquid in the accumulator. The total
volume required is the sum of the compressed gas
volume and the volume of the liquid required by the
system. The compressed gas volume is a function of the
Air Oil
Fig. 2-41. Bladder-type Pneumatic-loaded Hydrau- charge and discharge times. The required liquid
lic Accumulator volume must be determined from the desired perform-
ance of the accumulator. Empirical relations are availa-
[From: Fluid Power Issue; Machine Design. Used by ble to determine the liquid volume required to effec-
permission of Penton Publishing Co.] tively damp pump pressure surges or to suppress line
2-23
AMCP 706-123
shock caused by sudden liquid deceleration. When used 2-8.1.1 Sliding-spool Valves
to decrease line shock, the accumulator should be
located near the source of shock. The sliding-spool valve is the most frequently used
Accumulator systems, if they are used to store liquid type in hydraulic systems. Fig. 2-43 illustrates the ma-
energy, are often separated from the power source by jor configurations which employ the sliding spool.
a check valve. If the leakage is negligible, temperature These are classified in terms of the type of center which
fluctuations can induce gas-volume changes which, in exists when the spool is in the neutral position. Other
turn, could generate harmful pressure variations in the factors used in spool-valve classification are the num-
system. If the hydraulic system must operate through- ber of ways in which flow can traverse the valve and the
out a range of temperatures, it is necessary to conduct number of lands on the spool.
a P- V-T analysis of all locked accumulator circuits. The
accumulator is precharged to a pressure Pg with gas
which occupies the total accumulator volume. Then 2-8.1.2 Seating Valves
liquid at pressure Pfand temperature TB\s introduced
into the accumulator, compressing the gas to a volume The two-jet flapper valve shown in Fig. 2-44 is an
Vg, with a liquid-gas temperature of Ta', Changing the example of a seating valve. Such devices are frequently
liquid-gas temperature to T'a does not result in a signifi- used as the first stage in a two-stage servovalve (see par.
cant volume change but rather a change in accumulator 2-8.3.6). They are limited to low-power applications
pressure to Pg. It is this pressure which could harm because of their relatively high leakage rates. Toler-
components or cause system malfunctions. Using the ances are not as close on flapper valves as on spool
gas compressibility factor Zg, defined as Zg = valves and, hence, they are less expensive and less sensi-
PV/NR°R, the pressures and temperatures at constant tive to fluid contamination.
volume are related by Poppet valves (Fig. 2-45) also use the seating con-
figuration. However, they are essentially two-way
valves and, therefore, are limited to applications in
which flow reversal is not required, e.g., relief valves
P' and check valves.
(2-1)
V« 7' lT'a
t,g
2-8.1.3 Flow-dividing Valves
Since both Pg and Zg are unknown in this relation, a The jet-pipe valve, Fig. 2-46, utilizes the flow-divid-
trial-and-error method, using appropriate values from ing configuration. In the arrangement shown, flow is
compressibility charts, must be used to evaluate the metered into two receivers by a nozzle. Equal areas of
pressure change which results from a specified temper- the two receivers are covered by the nozzle. The result-
ature change. ing forces provide hydraulic balance. The principal ad-
vantage of the jet-pipe valve is its ability to accommo-
date relatively high levels of fluid contamination.
However, its characteristics are difficult to predict, and
2-8 VALVES it exhibits slow response and large null flow. Like the
flapper valve, the jet-pipe valve is more effective as a
Valves are used in hydraulic circuits to control pres- pilot stage than as a main second stage in servovalves.
sure, flow direction, or flow rate. They utilize mechani- This is particularly the case if high pressure gain is
cal motion to control the distribution of hydraulic en- required at high flow rates.
ergy within the system.
2-8.2 VALVE TYPES

2-8.1 VALVE CONFIGURATIONS
Valves are classified according to their function in
A valve directs the distribution of hydraulic energy the hydraulic system. These basic types are pressure-
within a system by the operation of a mechanical ele- control valves, directional-control valves, and volume-
ment in the valve. There are three configurations or control valves. Most valves can be regarded as some
modes of operation-sliding, seating, and flow dividing. combination of these basic types.
2-24
AMCP 706-123
(A ) ®ben Center [T)\ Tandem Center

P, /4, and B open to T P open to 7"; A and B blocked
22222 m
VM
A P B
(B) Closed Center (E ) Partially Closed Center

P,A,anü B blocked ^ blocked; 4 and B open to T
^»««^ W^W«M
^»
T A P B A P B
fQ) Semiopen Center

/ând 5 open to T
Fig. 2-43. Major Types of Sliding-spool Hydraulic Valve Configurations

[From: Fluid. Power Issue; Machine Design. Used by permission of Penton Publishing Co.]
Fixed
restriction*
'tapper
Supply,
'Nozzle
Nozzle tack pressure

(to load)
Fig. 2-45 • Direct Spring-loaded Poppet-type Pres-

Fig. 2-44. Sketch of a Flapper Seating Valve sure Relief Valve
[From: Fluid Power Handbook. Used by permission of [From: Fluid Power Issue; Machine Design. Used by
Industrial Publishing Co.] permission of Penton Publishing Co.]
2-25
AMCP 706-123
Fig. 2-46. Jet-pipe Flow-dividing Valve

[From: Fluid Power Issue; Machine Design. Used by permission of Penton Publishing Co.]
2-8.2.1 Pressure-control Valves
A pressure-control valve either limits the pressure in

various circuit components or changes the direction of
all or part of the flow when the pressure at a certain
point reaches a specified level. Such controls are di-
rectly or indirectly actuated by some system-pressure
level.
(1) Relief valves: A relief valve limits the maximum
pressure that can be applied to the part of the system
to which it is connected. It acts as an orifice between
Fig. 2-47. Direct-acting Pressure-relief Valve
the pressurized region and a secondary region at a
lower pressure. In most applications, the relief valve is [From: E. C. Fitch, Fluid Power and Control Systems.
closed until the pressure attains a specified value. Then Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
the flow through the valve increases as the system pres-
sure rises until the entire system flow is vented to the
low-pressure region. As the system pressure decreases,
the valve closes.
There are three types of relief valves-direct-acting, Drain
differential, and pilot. An adjustable spring load pro-

vides the pressure setting in all three types. In the
direct-acting pressure-relief valve, the system pressure
acts directly on the spring (Fig. 2-47). This type is
usually used on low-pressure systems or when relief-
valve conditions are expected only rarely. Valve chatter
or pressure fluctuations are often a problem, which
results from the fact that the springs required in such
^Differential
a valve are heavy. The differential relief valve shown in shoulder area
Pressure
Fig. 2-48 can be constructed with a much lighter spring input
than the direct-acting type because the system pressure Fig. 2-48. Differential Pressure-relief Valve
acts over only a differential area. In the pilot-operated
relief valve, pressurized liquid is used to assist the [From: Fluid Power Handbook. Used by permission of
spring (Fig. 2-49). The liquid passes from the supply Industrial Publishing Co.]
line through a restricted passage to a control chamber
where it acts on a plunger to add to the spring force.
The force is limited by a small-capacity, direct-acting (2) Unloading valves: An unloading valve provides
pilot relief valve. The pilot-operated relief valve a vent to a low-pressure area when a specified pilot
is usually specified for systems which require fre- pressure is applied (Fig. 2-50). The signal is provided
quent relieving. by an external source. These valves can be applied in
2-26
AMCP&06-123
Control chamber, rRestricted passage
" ft
fc^yfM/J- "*>—J ^
Fig. 2-51. Load-dividing Valve
v
Pilot relief valve Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
(4) Sequence valves: The order of flow to different

parts of a hydraulic system can be controlled by se-
quence valves. This is accomplished by controlling
Fig. 2-49. Pilot-operated Pressure-relief Valve minimum pressure. Either an internal or external pilot
pressure can be applied. Fig. 2-52 shows an externally-
[From: Fluid Power Issue; Machine Design. Used by piloted, externally-drained sequence valve. The inlet
permission of Penton Publishing Co.] pressure must reach a prescribed value before the flow
is allowed to pass through the valve. In some designs
the spring is assisted by a signal pressure applied at
circuits which allow a pump to build up to a specified the drain.
pressure and then discharge to a reservoir at very low
pressure. A typical application is in a double pump
system where a high-volume, low-pressure pump is
completely loaded at maximum pressure, while a low-
volume, high-pressure pump continues to develop
higher pressure.
Pilot
Removable plug for pressure
internal drain Fig. 2-52. Sequence Valve
(5) Back-pressure valves: The counterbalance back-

Fig. 2-50. Pilot-operated Unloading Valve pressure valve can be used to allow free flow in one
[From: Fluid Power Issue; Machine Design. Used by direction but restricted flow in the opposite direction
permission of Penton Publishing Co.] (Fig. 2-53). The pilot pressure can be external or inter-
nal. This valve can be used, for example, to prevent the
(3) Load-dividing valves: In a circuit with two

pumps operating in series, the load can be equally di-
vided between the pumps by a load-dividing valve (Fig.
2-51). The low-pressure pump discharge is connected
to a larger piston area. The low-pressure flow tends to
open the valve and relieve the pump discharge to the
reservoir. The high-pressure pump discharge is con-
nected to the small area and, assisted by the spring,
tends to close the valve. The ratio of the pressure pro- Fig. 2-53. Counterbalance Back-pressure Valve
duced at the low-pressure pump to the discharge pres-
sure of the high-pressure pump is the same as the valve- [From: E. C. Fitch, Fluid Power and Control Systems.
area ratio. Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
2-27
AMCP 706-123
weight of a vertically mounted piston from causing the

piston to descend. The spring setting produces a back
pressure on the piston which counterbalances the force
of gravity.
(6) Regulator valves: The function of one type of
pressure-regulator valve, or pressure-reducing valve, is
to supply a prescribed reduced outlet pressure regard-
less of the pressure at the valve inlet. In this type,
shown in Fig. 2-54, the outlet pressure is balanced
against a spring. A drop in downstream pressure allows
the spring to increase the valve opening and increase
the downstream pressure. In the second type of regula-
tor valve, the inlet pressure is balanced against both the Fig. 2-56. Pressure Switch
spring and the outlet pressure (Fig. 2-55). The spring
setting then determines the amount of pressure reduc- [From: E. C. Fitch, Fluid Power and Control Systems.
tion across the valve. Hence, this type is used to main- Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
tain a fixed pressure differential across the valve for all
values of upstream pressure.
(8) Hydraulic fuzes: A hydraulic fuze employs a
frangible diaphragm or similar device which fractures
at a preset pressure. It can thus be used as a substitute
for, or in conjunction with, a pressure control valve.
Hydraulic fuzes can be used with safety valves to pre-
Fig. 2-54. Pressure Reducing Valve (Constant Down- vent hydraulic fluid loss under normal operating condi-
stream Pressure) tions. They usually do not have automatic reset
capabilities. It is necessary to manually replace the
[From: E. C. Fitch, Fluid Power and Control Systems. diaphragm if the hydraulic fuze is actuated.
2-8.2.2 Directional-control Valves
V///////ZZZX Controlling where and when the hydraulic fluid is

delivered to various parts of the system is the function
m V////)//////7A
'A UZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ.
of directional-control valves. These valves are used to
control the operation of actuators.
(1) Check valves: The simple check valve permits
free flow in one direction and blocks flow in the reverse
Fig. 2-55. Pressure Regulating Valve (Constant Pres-
direction (Fig. 2-57). When flow is in the normal direc-
sure Differential) tion, the liquid pressure acts against the spring tension
to hold the poppet off the seat. When flow stops, the
[From: E. C. Fitch, Fluid Power and Control Systems'.
spring seats the poppet and liquid cannot pass in the
reverse direction. Check valves can also be pilot-
operated (Fig. 2-58). In such a unit, flow can proceed
freely in one direction, but reversed flow depends upon
(7) Pressure switch: When a pressure-actuated elec-
the pilot actuation. Pilot-operated check valves can be
tric signal is required for system control, a pressure
either normally closed or normally open.
switch is used (Fig. 2-56). The system pressure acts (2) Position valves: The function of the position
against an adjustable spring used to preset the switch. valve is to control the introduction of liquid to the lines
When the pressure reaches the specified value, the mi- of the system. When the valve is operated, the liquid
croswitch is actuated. The signal can be used to actuate lines within it are shifted. Position valves are classified
a variety of control elements. Although the pressure in terms of the number of valve positions and the num-
switch is not a valve, it is a valuable control element in ber of liquid ports, e.g., a four-way, three-posi-
valving systems. tion valve.
2-28
AMCP 706-123
to provide a bypass to the reservoir around the actua-

tor, or to hold an actuator in an intermediate position.
The open-center configuration, when centered, permits
the liquid to flow back to the reservoir with little pres-
sure drop. In the closed-center configuration, the ports
are blocked when the valve is centered. The same
Fig. 2-57. Poppet-type Check Valve
source can then be used for other valves in parallel.
[From: E. C. Fitch, Fluid Power and Control Systems. When the tandem-center configuration is centered, the
Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.] downstream ports are blocked; but liquid can freely
flow to the reservoir and, hence, the pump does not
necessarily have to operate at maximum pressure. The
partially-closed center is commonly used as a pilot
/Pilot connection spool to actuate a primary spool. The inlet is closed but
the system ports are open to the reservoir. In the semi-
open configuration, the cylinder ports are open to the
high-pressure port. This type permits relief of high
pressure at the cylinder ports caused by a temporary
■Drain
overload force on the actuator.
Many of the position-valve designs incorporate other
functions in addition to flow-direction control. One
such example is the deceleration valve illustrated in
Fig. 2-59. The flow can be shut off at a rate determined
by the taper of the spool. Several deceleration valve
Jf- , 1\
designs are available, and some are provided with ad-
justable spool tapers.
Fig. 2-58. Pilot-operated Check Valve

Two-way valves are generally shut-off valves. There

are several types-spool, poppet, plug, ball, and rotary. Fig. 2-59. Mechanically Operated, Nonadjustable
Unlike a check valve, the two-way valve can block flow Deceleration Valve
in both directions.
Three-way and four-way valves are available with [From: Fluid Power Issue; Machine Design. Used by
either two or three positions and with open or closed permission of Penton Publishing Co.]
centers. There are six basic types-spool, poppet, packed
plunger, plug, plate, and rotary. A three-way valve can
be used, for example, to control a single-acting linear Shuttle valves are used when control is required from
actuator. One of the many applications of a four-way more than one source. Fig. 2-60 shows a three-port
valve is control of double-acting actuators. Special shuttle valve which provides a liquid path for two alter-
valves are available in five- and six-way versions. nate sources. As long as pressure in the right inlet port
Several spool-valve configurations are shown in Fig. is greater than in the left, the shuttle piston closes the
2-43. The function and application of a specific valve left port. When pressure at the left port becomes
are determined by the spool configuration and the greater than at the right, the piston moves to the right
method of actuation. For example, a three-position against a stop, closing the right port and opening
valve can be used to isolate an actuator from the circuit, the left.
2-29
AMCP 706-123
OUT
SHUTTLE
PISTON FLUID
PRESSURE
IN PORT 1 IN PORT 2
^DISK
Fig. 2-60. Three-port Shuttle Valve Fig. 2-62. Disk-type Globe Valve
2
[From: Pippenger and Hicks, Industrial Hydraulics. [From: Pippenger and Hicks, Industrial Hydraulics.
Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.] Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
A time-delay valve is shown in Fig. 2-61. The valve

HANDWHEEL
permits the liquid to flow freely in one direction. If the STEM
flow is reversed, liquid is trapped behind the spool and
allowed to escape to the reservoir through an orifice. NEEDLE
The valve does not open until the blocking liquid es-
capes, thus providing a time delay in the flow reversal.
i Fig. 2-63. Needle Valve

Fig. 2-61. Time-delay Valve (2) Pressure-compensated flow-control valves: A

[From: E. C. Fitch, Fluid Power and Control Systems. constant pressure drop across the valve orifice is re-
Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.] quired to assure accurate flow control. This is accom-
plished with the pressure-compensated flow-control
valve. In such valves the pressure drop across the me-
2-8.2.3 Volume-control Valves tering orifice is used to assist a spring in moving a
balanced spool (Fig. 2-64). A change in pressure drop
Volume-control valves are used to regulate the rate produces a rapid compensation in the form of spool
of liquid flow to different parts of a hydraulic system. motion. This spool adjustment causes the pressure drop
Control of flow rate is a means by which the spe.ed of to return quickly to its original value, thus maintaining
hydraulic machine elements is governed. The rate of constant flow. The orifice pressure drop, determined by
flow to a particular system component is varied by spring force and spool area, is relatively low.
throttling or by diverting the flow.
(1) Globe and needle valves: Flow rate is changed in
a globe valve by means of a disk, plug, or ball which
nests against a seat (Fig. 2-62). The needle valve uses
a tapered stem which nests against a seat and, in so
doing, gradually reduces the flow area (Fig. 2-63). Nee-
dle valves have a smaller flow area and higher pressure
drop than the globe valve, but are more suitable in
throttling the flow. The globe valve is used to throttle
only in lines where the liquid velocity is relatively low.
Changes in the pressure drop across globe or needle
valves produce variations in the flow rate, i.e., they are Fig. 2-64. Pressure-compensated Flow-control Valve
not pressure-compensated. This shortcoming limits
their utility in applications where precise flow-rate con- [From: E. C. Fitch, Fluid Power and Control Systems.
trol is required. Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
2-30
AMCP 706-123
(3) Positive-displacement metering valves: An inter- 2-8.3.1 Manual Actuation

mittent flow of a specific volume of liquid can be ob-
tained by using a positive-displacement metering valve. Manual actuation requires action by an operator
The valve consists of a free-floating piston whose stroke who must make a control judgment based upon some
can be changed by an adjustment screw (Fig. 2-65). system requirement. Manual valve response is limited
Such valves can be applied, for example, to control flow by the action of the operator; hence, flow reactions,
to a linear actuator used to obtain accurate, intermit- such as forces generated in the system, are more critical
tent motion. than in pilot- or electrically-actuated valves. Manual
control is frequently used when response time is not
critical and when some system change must be initiated
by the operator. It is widely used in machine tools and
mobile equipment.
Fig. 2-65. Positive-displacement Metering Valve 2-8.3.2 Spring Actuation

From the discussion of valves in this chapter, it is
evident that springs are widely used to provide force for
a variety of valve operations. However, they seldom
supply the entire force required; they are usually as-
(4) Flow-divider valves: Flow-divider valves utilize sisted by a force from another source which actually
sliding elements to change the orifice area (Fig. 2-66). determines the manner in which the valve mechanism
They distribute the flow to multiple lines, each of which will react. Often the primary valve actuator acts against
then has the same flow rate downstream of the valve. a spring which tends to hold the valve in the neu-
They are generally pressure-compensating valves and tral position.
are frequently used to synchronize the motion of sev-
eral linear actuators.
Valve port^ 2-8.3.3 Cam Actuation
In a cam-actuated valve, the operating linkage is

actuated by a cam which is mounted on a moving
machine element. The deceleration valve illustrated in
Fig. 2-59 is equipped to be operated by a cam.
Cylinder ports'
Fig. 2-66. Pressure-compensated Flow-divider 2-8.3.4 Solenoid Actuation
[From: E. C. Fitch, Fluid Power and Control Systems. Solenoid-operated valves are generally small, single-
Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.] stage devices. They can, however, be used to control
large, pilot-operated valves as part of a two-stage sys-
2-8.3 VALVE ACTUATION tem. In such systems, current requirements are low,
thus reducing the size of the solenoids. Most applica-
In order to respond to the system requirements or to tions use 115 V, 60 cps solenoids; however, they are
the commands of the operator, hydraulic control valves available in a wide range of AC or DC voltages. DC
must be provided with a means of actuation. Some form solenoids are quiet in operation, whereas AC solenoids
of actuation is required, for example, to move the spool may hum or chatter. The solenoids are energized by
in a position valve, to adjust flow-control valves, or to signals from pressure switches, limit switches, or timers
change the setting of a pressure-control valve. The ac- which usually operate through power or signal relays
tuation methods normally used are manual, mechani- to accommodate the current required to actuate the
cal, electrical, or fluid. Mechanical actuators include solenoid.
springs, cams, and mechanical linkages. Electric con- Solenoid actuation affords considerable flexibility in
trol utilizes solenoids. Fluid actuation requires either a hydraulic system design. System commands can be ob-
liquid or gas pilot fluid. tained from signals in any part of the circuit. For exam pie,
2-31
AMCP 706-123
flow conditions can be controlled by pressure levels The pilot stage of a two-stage servovalve consists of
through the use of pressure switches, or machine mo- an electromechanical transducer and a hydraulic am-
tion can be controlled by limit switches. Time delays plifier. The transducer converts the electrical signal
can be obtained by using a pressure or limit switch to into mechanical motion which is then converted into
activate a timer. System operational sequences can be hydraulic output by the amplifier. The transducers
programmed on cards or tape to provide auto- most frequently used are the torque motor and the
matic control. moving coil (Fig. 2-68). A polarized torque motor con-
sists of an armature of a magnetic material which turns
? S.3.5 Pilot Fluid Actuation in a permanent magnetic field. The armature motion
depends on the strength and polarity of the current.
Air or oil can be used to provide fluid power for the The moving coil consists of a coil suspended in the
actuation of valves. Air can be used to activate single- gap of a magnet. Displacement is proportional to the
stage valves, or pilot valves on multi-stage units. Large current.
flow rates can be controlled with air-actuated, pilot- Moving member-
operated, two-stage valves which require relatively
low-pressure signals. 9 9 9 9
One advantage of pilot-fluid actuation is the long life
of fluid components compared to that of electric com- N N
ponents. This factor is particularly important in ma-
chines which must operate through many cycles in a
U
relatively short period, as is the case with many produc- ÜUÖ
tion manufacturing machines.
Torque Motor
2-8.3.6 Servomechanism Actuation
Moving
Valves actuated by servomechanisms, called ser-
vovalves, use an electric signal to control the hydraulic
o—
t member
7
,
output. The electric signal actuates a servomechanism-
r
for example, a torque motor-which actuates the valve.
Most servovalves are two-stage with the servo driving N
the pilot stage. Fig. 2-67 shows a two-stage, spool-type
servovalve in which the torque motor actuates the pilot S
spool which, in turn, directs liquid to the main stage.
Single stage valves are practical only for limited flows.
Moving Coil
Pilot-stage .Torque motor
sleeve •
-Pilot spool Torque-motor Fig. 2-68. Servovalve Transducers
Drains armature
Coils
Servovalves commonly employ feedback systems

whereby the position of the main spool is signaled to
Linkage fulcrum the pilot stage which then makes any necessary correc-
(variable) tion. Typical systems for feedback from the main stage
Feedback linkage to the pilot stage are illustrated in Fig. 2-69.
-Supply Main spool
pressure Control pressure
2SA
Fig. 2-67. Two-stage Spool-type Servovalve PRINCIPLES OF VALVE ANALYSIS
[From: Fluid Power Issue; Machine Design. Used by Knowledge of the performance capabilities of hy-
permission of Penton Publishing Co.] draulic valves is essential in the design and fabrication
2-32
AMCP 706-123
- Sliding sleeve
:
Pilot pressure
r-ir—1J—irn / — Fulcrum
□ n U D D- ' (usually adjustable)
Second stage
Hydraulic-Follower
Mechanical - Positional
Pilot pressure
-Second stage
Mechanical-Force Balance Hydraulic-Load Pressure
Pilot pressure -
Electrical signal
Amplifier related to position
^LVDT
V^-^/LVDT / Nonsliding sleeve
\ £ I im ■__■ ■_, ■_
Linear-Variable Differential Transformer Proportional Position (no feedback)
Fig. 2-69. Servovalve Internal Feedback Systems
of a hydraulic system. Prediction of valve performance (2) Valve Coefficients: Valve coefficients are an ex-
requires curves of pressure vs flow and evaluation of pression of the sensitivity of the flow of hydraulic fluid
several valve coefficients. Pressure-flow curves can be at the load to changes in the valve opening or the
generated from experimental data, and valve coeffi- liquid pressure.
cients can be derived from these curves. However, an (3) Leakage Flows: In practice, all valves have
analytical approach to determine valve coefficients is clearances between moving parts and these clearances
possible. The difficulty of the analysis depends on the result in leaks. Leakage flow equations relate the mag-
complexity of the valve. In addition to pressure-flow nitude of the leakage to valve and system parameters.
curves and valve coefficients, valve analysis can yield (4) Stroking Forces: Stroking forces are the forces
general flow equations, leakage flow information, and that oppose the motion of the valve spool or stem. They
expressions for the forces that occur in valves. affect the ease of operation of a valve.
A complete analytical method for the analysis of (5) Flow Forces: Flow forces are forces on, or in, the
valves is presented in the text by Merrit (Ref. 4). The valve due to hydraulic reactions.
method given by Merrit (Ref. 4) is for four-way spool
valves with examples of the applications of the method
to other types of valves.
2-8.5 VALVE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
A complete analysis of a valve will yield the follow-
ing information: The first consideration in valve design for a specific
(1) General Flow Relationships: General flow equa- application is the type of valve to be used. The three
tions express the flow of hydraulic fluid at the load or major types-sliding, seating, and flow-dividing valves-
at the pump as a function of the hydraulic system and are illustrated by the spool valve (Fig. 2-43), the flapper
valve parameters. valve (Fig. 2-44), and the jet-pipe valve (Fig. 2-46),
2-33
AMCP 706-123
respectively. Jet-pipe and flapper valves are not as Load flow Q, Open center -
widely used as spool valves; so descriptions of their Critical
design considerations will be limited to their general center
characteristics.
Underlap region-
The jet-pipe valve is the least used of the three valves
mentioned. It is characterized by a large null flow and
slow response. Its performance parameters are not
easily predicted. Its chief advantage is its insensitivity
to dirty fluids. The jet-pipe valve is a common form of
preamplifier but is usually limited to low-pressure ap-
plication because of possible atomization of the fluid at Flow gain doubles near null
high pressures. It was developed by Askania in Sweden because all four (rather than
two) orifices are active
and is often referred to as the Askania nozzle.
Flapper valves, unlike jet-pipe valves, offer linear
pressure-flow curves and predictable performance
characteristics. Other advantages of flapper-type valves
Fig. 2-70. Flow Gain of a Spool Valve
are their insensitivity to dirt and relative low cost due
to loose tolerances in their manufacture. Flapper-type
valves are often used as preamplifiers but are seldom
two-land spool are that it is statically unbalanced and
used alone for high power applications; they are suita-
that the valve lands may lodge in the sleeve openings
ble for low-power applications where leakage due to
if the ports constitute a major portion of the periphery
their relatively loose tolerances is not a major concern.
of the spool. Three- and four-land spools avoid both
In applications where leakage must be kept to a mini-
of these disadvantages and therefore are more com-
mum, however, spool valves are recommended.
monly used.
Important spool valve design considerations are tol-
The type of flow gain characteristics desired from a
erances, choice of three- or four-way valves, number of
valve determines the choice of port shape. Rounded
lands, shape of ports, type of valve center, valve area
ports produce nonlinear flow gain characteristics,
gradient, length of valve stroke, and maximum valve
whereas linear flow gain characteristics result from rec-
area.
tangular-shaped ports. In most high performance sys-
All dimensions of spool valves, especially radial di- tems, rectangular ports are essential. Furthermore, rec-
mensions between the spool and sleeve, should have tangular ports offer good servo performance over a
tolerances of ±0.0001 in. or less if high performance broad operating range.
is expected. In some cases, however, valve tolerances The choice among open center, closed center, and
may be as high as ± 0.0003 in. The importance of valve critical center valves is based on several design consid-
tolerances is reflected in their effect on flow gain and erations. Open center valves are generally used where
pressure sensitivity near the null condition. Flow gain constant system flow is desired; when the valve must be
and pressure sensitivity express the hydraulic fluid flow left in the null position for long periods of time; and
and pressure, respectively, at the load as a function of when continuous flow is required to maintain resonable
valve spool position. Since more than one orifice may
fluid temperatures. Open center valves have the disad-
be open as the spool approaches the null position, the
vantage of being unstable at null. To allow for this, the
flow gain and pressure sensitivity may become nonlin-
valve must be adjusted to a lower flow gain when it is
ear (see Fig. 2-70).
away from the null position. Open center valves also
In choosing between three- and four-way valves, the exhibit power loss at null due to center flow.
economic advantage favors three-way valves since they Closed center valves are generally considered the
require only one actuator line and have only three criti- least desirable of the three types because of their low
cal dimensions. Four-way valves, however, offer twice gain characteristics at null. The result is a lack of con-
the pressure sensitivity of three-way valves. trol of the valve in the null region and a tendency for
In choosing among two-, three-, and four-land spools the output device to wander in position.
for use in four-way valves, the many drawbacks of Critical center four-way spool valves are most fre-
two-land spools should be weighed against their easier quently used and their chief design parameters are the
and cheaper construction as compared to three- and valve area and the stroke. Maximum valve area or
four-land spools. The two major disadvantages of the maximum orifice area is desirable since it favorably
2-34
AMCP 706-123
affects null flow gain and adds system stability. Maxi- As a liquid flows through a flow control valve, the
mizing valve stroke is also desirable because with change in potential energy is dissipated as heat. This
longer strokes, there is more resolution near null and increase in thermal energy QAs given as (Ref. 1):
improved performance with dirty fluids. With a long
stroke, ports remain open longer and dirt particles are Q£= \ASG GAP, Btu/hr (2-4)
flushed from the orifice.
where A Pis the pressure drop in psi across the valve.

2-9 HEAT EXCHANGERS A similar expression holds for the heat dissipated as
liquid flows through a transfer line. The pressure drop
is then the pressure drop through the line. With this
Heat is generated in all hydraulic systems. The inher-
simplified approach, the total thermal energy absorbed
ent mechanical and thermodynamic inefficiencies of
by the fluid is the sum of the pump contribution and
pumps and motors result in heat generation. Much of
that of all pressure drops. The heat can be dissipated
this heat is transferred to the hydraulic fluid, causing
from the surfaces of the circuit components and, if
a rise in fluid temperature. Since all hydraulic fluids
necessary, removed by a heat exchanger.
exhibit a limited temperature range over which the
viscosity and lubricating characteristics are optimum,
the heat must be dissipated to assure satisfactory opera- 2-9.1 MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
tion. Some heat is removed by dissipation to the envi-
ronment. If this heat transfer is not sufficient to main- Heat can be removed from the system by all three of
tain the desired fluid temperature, it then becomes the basic modes of heat transfer-conduction, convec-
necessary to provide heat exchangers to supplement the tion, and radiation.
natural dissipation.
The analysis of temperature-control problems in a 2-9.1.1 Conduction
hydraulic system begins with an estimate of the total
heat rejection from the system. This can be done in Thermal conduction is the transfer of heat through
several ways. The heat rejection can be treated as the a gas, liquid, or solid by means of collisions or intimate
input power less the actual mechanical work, based on contact between the molecules. The amount of heat
a convenient time interval.' It can also be estimated on transferred by conduction is given by Fourier's Law.
the basis of pump output*. The increase in thermal en- For simple one-dimensional flow this law reduces to
ergy due to pump operation can be estimated by the
relation (Ref. 1) Q = kA (j), Btu/hr (2-5)
where
QP = 1-486GP(1 A, Btu/hr (2-2) Q = rate of heat flow, Btu/hr
k = thermal conductivity of
material, Btu/(hr)(ft2)(°F/ft)
where A = area normal to direction of
Qp = increase in thermal energy due flow, ft2
to pump, Btu/hr AT = temperature difference between
G = flow rate, gpm warmer and cooler surfaces of
P = operating pressure, psi the material, °F
V = decimal operating efficiency j? = thickness of material, ft
More general forms of the conduction equation must be
If the pump contributes to no external work, the power used if the heat flow is other than one-dimensional.
input goes entirely into increased thermal energy Qp.
Then (Ref. 1):
2-9.1.2 Convection
CP * Heat transfer by convection requires gross motion of
öp= 1.486 —, Btu/hr (2-3) liquid particles involving the transport of regions of the
2-35
AMCP 706-123
liquid at different temperatures. Free, or natural, con- 2-9.1.4 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
vection occurs when the liquid particles move because
of density gradients established by temperature gradi- The contributions of conduction, convection, and
ents. If the liquid is circulated by external means, the radiation to net heat transfer can be combined by mak-
process is called forced convection. Convection heat ing use of the concept of the overall heat transfer coeffi-
transfer rate Q is governed by a relation developed by cient which is defined by the relation
Newton (Ref. 1):
Q = UAAT,total (2-8)
Q = hAAT, Btu/hr (2-6) where
where Q rate of heat flow, Btu/hr
Q — rate of heat flow, Btu/hr U: overall heat transfer coefficient,
h = convective film coefficient, Btu/(hr)(ft2)(T) 2
Btu/(hr)(ft2)(°F) A = heat transfer area, ft

A = area of surface exposed to the A Ttotai = total temperature difference
fluid and normal to heat flow across which the heat is being
direction, ft transferred, °F
AT = temperature difference between
the fluid and the surface, °F The overall coefficient is a measure of the thermal con-
ductance of the system,
This relation actually defines the film coefficient h. 1

UA = (2-9)
Only in the most ideal situations can the film coefficient i?, +i?2 + ... + Rn
be computed. Empirical relations are often employed to
where 7?,is the thermal resistance of system component
estimate a value of h.
i and has units of hr-°F/Btu.
Consider, for example, the case of a counterflow
plane wall heat exchanger as shown in Fig. 2-71. Under
2-9.1.3 Radiation steady-state conditions the amount of heat transfer be-
tween the two fluids is given by
Thermal radiation involves the transport of thermal A(T2-T3)
Q = hi2A(T,-T2)= kv = hÂ(T3 -TA)
energy by means of electromagnetic radiation. The ft 23
amount of heat transferred by radiation depends on the
This can be expressed as three simultaneous equations
relative configuration of the areas which exchange
for the temperature differences and solved for the total
heat, their temperatures, and the nature of their sur-
temperature difference:
faces. The governing relation is
AT
Q = FAa(Tt-T^), Btu/hr (2-7) -'-T<-T'-UL*t+L) <2-10)
where or
A AT total
Q = rate of heat flow, Btu/hr Q (2-11)
\lh 12 :J3'lkHI
A
w + 1/A 34
F = a dimensionless factor which
Then from Eq. 2-8
accounts for the geometric
orientation of the surfaces and 1
U (2-12)
their emittances !/Ä12 +^23/*W+1/Ä34
A = area of radiating surface, ft Additional factors such as dirt and scale deposits can
<r = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = contribute to the thermal resistance in heat exchangers.
0.1714 x 10"8Btu/(hr) (ft2) In such cases, appropriate terms are added to the sys-
a?) tem resistances in Eq. 2-9.
T2 = temperature of radiating
surface, °R 2-9.2 TYPES OF COOLING SYSTEMS
Ty = temperature of sink or receiving In general, heat transfer in a hydraulic system will
surface, °R involve some combination of the three modes of heat
2-36
AMCP 706-123
Fig. 2-71. Counterflow Plane Wall Heat Exchanger
transfer. If it is found that the heat dissipated from the 2-9.2.2 Water-cooled Heat Exchangers
surfaces of the system is insufficient to maintain a satis-
factory fluid temperature, then a heat exchanger is re- The use of water as a coolant is common practice in
quired. Most heat exchangers for hydraulic fluids are stationary systems. The film coefficient on the water
either air-cooled or water-cooled. side is generally the same order of magnitude as on the
hydraulic-fluid side. Therefore, water-cooled heat ex-
changers are usually shell-and-tube type where the
2-9.2.1 Air-cooled Heat Exchangers heat-transfer area on the cold side is approximately the
same as on the hot side. Such an exchanger is shown
in Fig. 2-73. It consists of a tube bundle within a shell.
Air is often used as the coolant in heat exchangers The tubes are baffled (not shown) so that the coolant
for mobile hydraulic systems, or in stationary systems flow in the shell is perpendicular to the tube axis. Most
which generate moderate amounts of heat. A blower or shell-and-tube heat exchangers used in hydraulic sys-
fan is usually used to circulate the air across finned tems are either single- or double-pass units. In a single-
tubes through which the hydraulic fluid flows (Fig. pass unit, the two liquids generally flow in opposite
2-72). Air-cooled units are limited to applications directions. In a double-pass exchanger, the hydraulic
where the desired hydraulic fluid outlet temperature is fluid generally enters the same end at which the water
at least 10°F above the dry bulb air temperature. enters and leaves.
RELIEF FOR LOW VOLUME PUMP
RELIEF FOR HIGH VOLUME PUMP REDUCING VALVE
TO 4 WAY
, VALVE a
\ .WIPECYL.
SUCTION
STRAINER "SUCTION
STRAINER
FINNED CONDUCTORS
Fig. 2-72. Hydraulic Circuit With Air-cooled Heat Exchangers
2-37
AMCP 706-123
Oil in
Water in Oil out 2-10.1.1 Pressure Drop
■%A Y> w >>"">•>>>>>>>>">>>>>>>>>>>•>">>">"•>"">> "
The efficiency of a hydraulic line is determined by

the pressure loss which should be as small as possible.
The pressure required at the inlet is equal to the sum
•j j j > J jWrrri /^&2 ' " ' " " " " ' >>>> " ' " "'' " " "" "" " '" " **'»>»
of the required outlet pressure and the pressure drop in
the line. Hence, minimum pressure drop means mini-
Water out
mum pumping requirements.
Fig. 2-73. Shell and Tube Single-pass Heat Exchanger One convenient method for determining pressure
drop in the distribution system-including piping,
[From: E. C. Fitch, Fluid Power and Control Systems. valves, headers, etc.-is to convert all flow passages to
Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.] equivalent lengths of the same size liquid conductor.
The length of a line of one diameter can be converted
to the equivalent length of a given diameter line by the
Water-cooled, shell-and-tube heat exchangers are relation (Ref. 1)
compact and low in initial cost. They can be used to
obtain lower hydraulic-fluid temperatures than the air- (2-13)
cooled exchangers. Limitations include the possibility
{%'■ ft
of corrosion and the cost of a continuous water supply. where
Copper alloys are used in standard heat exchangers, Le= equivalent length of line, ft
and special corrosion-resistant alloys are available. L = length of line, ft
Removable tube bundles facilitate cleaning. De = inside diameter of equivalent
line, in.
D = inside diameter of line, in.
2-10 HYDRAULIC PIPING Flow passages such as valves, tees, elbows, etc., can be
converted to equivalent lengths with (Ref. 1)
The design of the liquid conductors is just as impor- KDe
tant as the design of other components of a hydraulic 12/ ,ft (2-14)
system. The hydraulic piping serves to contain and where
conduct the hydraulic fluid from one part of the system K = loss coefficient
to another. Inadequate attention to piping design can /= coefficient of friction of liquid
lead to poor system operating characteristics and in the fitting
low efficiency.
Hydraulic piping systems are usually constructed Values of the loss coefficient for several flow elements
from three types of fluid conductors-pipe, tubing, and are given in Table 2-1. For some components, such as
flexible hose. Hose is used to accommodate relative sequence valves, the loss coefficients change as the flow
movement between components. Most of the stationary conditions vary.
piping, however, is either tubing or pipe. The advan- When the components of the liquid distribution sys-
tages of tubing include better appearance, greater flexi- tem have been converted to equivalent lengths of a
bility, better reusability, fewer fittings, and less leak- common size, the pressure drop can be estimated from
age. The principal advantage of pipe is its relatively either of the two following expressions (Ref. 1)
low cost.
AP = 0.01345
Mil)' psi (2-15)
2-10.1 HYDRAULIC LINE SIZE AP = 0.0808fslf2 \Q), psi (2-16)

where
The sizing of liquid conductors for hydraulic piping AP = pressure drop, psi
depends on considerations of mechanical strength, L = line length, ft
volume flow rates, pressure drop, pressure surges, and D= inside line diameter, in.
compression time. U= liquid velocity, fps
2-38
AMCP 706-123
TABLE 2-1. and noise. The hydraulic lines and connectors must
LOSS COEFFICIENTS OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS 1 have sufficient strength to contain and suppress these
shock-induced pressure surges. This capability may be
a function of both pipe strength and line layout.
Flow Line Element Loss Coefficient, K
Globe valve, wide open 10.0
Angle valve, wide open 5.0 2-10.1.3 Pipe and Tubing Sizes
Gate valve, wide open 0.19
1/4 closed 1.15 Standard dimensions of pipe and tubing are given in
1/2 closed 5.6 Tables 2-2 and 2-3, respectively.
3/4 closed 24.0
Standard T 1.8
2-10.2 HOSE, TUBING, AND PIPE FITTINGS
Standard elbow 0.9
Medium-sweep elbow 0.75
Pipe and tubing fittings can be either threaded or
Long-sweep elbow 0.60
permanent. Permanent methods include various forms
45-degree elbow 0.42
of brazing, welding, swaging, and adhesive bonding.
Close return bend 2.2
Such assembly methods are applied where low initial
Borda entrance 0.83
cost, reliability, and weight are important factors.
Sudden enlargement :f
1.0 Threaded pipe-fitting techniques include tapered
To reservoir or to large cylinder
d/D= 1/4 0.92 pipe threads, flanges, SAE O-ring ports, and straight-
0.56 thread ports with metal seals. Nonthreaded tube fit-
d/D = 1/2
d/D =3/4 0.19 tings can be of three types-flare, self-flare, or flareless.
Flare fittings are illustrated in Fig. 2-74. Typical flare-
Sudden contraction:!
From reservoir or from large cylinder 0.5 less fittings are shown in Fig. 2-75. Self-flare fittings
d/D = 1/4 0.42 incorporate a wedge-shaped sleeve which enlarges the
d/D =1/2 0.33 tube ending when the nut is tightened.
Hose fittings are either permanent or reusable. High-
d/D =31A 0.19
pressure permanent fittings are factory-assembled on
the hose. Reusable fittings are available with pressure
f D = large diameter ratings up to 5,000 psi. Self-sealing couplings are some-
d = small diameter times used with hose in hydraulic piping systems. The
four basic self-sealing types-double poppet, sleeve and
poppet, slide-seal, and double rotating ball-are illus-
G = flow rate, gpm trated in Fig. 2-76.
s = specific gravity of liquid
/= friction factor 2-11 SHOCK ABSORBERS
The Crane Company has published a reference which Fluid power is often used to cushion or absorb the
discusses pressure loss calculations and presents valua- impact caused when a moving mass must be stopped.
ble related data (Ref. 6). If the energy of the moving mass is to be dissipated, a
shock absorber is used. The working fluid in a shock
absorber can be a liquid, a gas, or a combination of the
2-10.1.2 Pressure Surges two. Shock absorbers are available in a variety of differ-
ent designs and configurations.
The peak pressures in a hydraulic line occur when a Most shock absorbers, called nonregenerative shock
hydraulic shock is generated by a sudden change in absorbers, dissipate all of the energy of the moving
flow conditions such as the rapid closing of a valve. mass. They rely on springs or other mechanisms to
These pressure surges propagate through the distribu- return the shock absorber to an equilibrium position.
tion system at the local speed of sound. They are re- Common automobile shock absorbers are an example.
flected from various internal surfaces until the kinetic However, there is an important class of shock absorb-
energy of the- original shock is dissipated by friction. ers, called hydropneumatic mechanisms, that use
Pressure surges are usually accompanied by vibration pneumatic power to return the shock absorber to
2-39
AMCP 706-123
TABLE 2-2.
DIMENSIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF PIPE FOR HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
Schedule 40 Schedule 80 Double

Nominal No. of Standard Extra Heavy Schedule 160 Extra Heavy
Pipe Pipe
Pipe Size, Threads, Pipe Pipe Pipe
in. OD, in. per in. ID, in.
ID, in. ID, in. ID, in.
1/4 0.540 18 0.364 0.302
3/8 0.675 18 0.493 0.423
1/2 0.840 14 0.622 0.546 0.466 0.252
3/4 1.050 14 0.824 0.742 0.614 0.434
1 1.315 11-1/2 1.049 0.957 0.815 0.599
1-1/4 1.660 11-1/2 1.380 1.278 1.160 0.896
1-1/2 1.900 11-1/2 1.610 1.500 1.388 1.100
2 2.375 11-1/2 2.067 1.939 1.689 1.503
2-1/2 2.875 8 2.469 2.323 2.125 1.771
3 3.500 8 3.068 2.900 2.624
TABLE 2-3.
WALL THICKNESS EQUIVALENTS
Birmingham Equivalent Birmingham Equivalent
or Stubs' Iron Tube Wall or Stubs' Iron Tube Wall
Wire Gage Size Thickness t, in. Wire Gage Size Thickness t, in.
1 0.300 16 0.065
2 0.284 17 0.058
3 0.259 18 0.049
4 0.238 19 0.042
5 0.220 20 0.035
6 0.203 21 0.032
7 0.180 22 0.028
8 0.165 23 0.025
9 0.148 24 0.022
10 0.134 25 0.020
11 0.120 26 0.018
12 0.109 27 0.016
13 0.095 28 0.014
14 0.08-3 29 0.013
15 0.072 30 0.012
equilibrium. The operating principles of hydraulic A cross-sectional sketch of a typical shock absorber
shock absorbers and hydropneumatic mechanisms are is shown in Fig. 2-77. When a moving mass strikes the
discussed in the paragraphs which follow. bumper, the piston moves inward. The resisting pres-
sure behind the piston closes the check valve. The pis-
2-11.1 HYDRAULIC SHOCK ABSORBERS ton then pushes the liquid through the metering orifices
from the inner high-pressure chamber to the outer low-
A hydraulic shock absorber is normally used to com- pressure chamber.
pletely stop a moving mass in a uniform manner. The
shock absorber accomplishes the "smooth" decelera- The resistance to the liquid flow caused by the ori-
tion by metering hydraulic fluid through orifices, con- fices acts against the piston to slow its motion. As the
verting work and kinetic energy into heat which is piston moves inward, it progressively blocks the ori-
dissipated. The metering orifices may be fixed in size or fices, increasing the resistance and uniformly decelerat-
adjustable so that deceleration rate may be varied. ing the mass.
2-40
AMCP 706-123
absorber. Many designs have a separate cylinder or

container for the gas. Hydropneumatic configurations
similar to that shown in Fig. 2-78 are frequently used
in aircraft landing gear struts and are referred to as oleo
shock absorbers or oleo struts. Artillery recoil mech-
anisms, an important application of hydropneumatic
shock absorbers, frequently use separate cylinders for
the gas and the liquid. Several methods of driving the
piston into the gas cylinder are used. Fig. 2-79 shows
a simplified sketch of a recoil mechanism with separate
pistons for each cylinder being driven by the same mov-
ing mass.
Two-Piece Type
Regulor Ferrule
Three-Piece Type
Inverted-Flare Type Inverted Ferrule
Fig. 2-74. Typical Flare Fittings for Hydraulic Tubing ££SS£§§

permission of Penton Publishing Co.] «SSSS^s^ >.'.'.'/':i'*"""
Threaded Sleeve
2-11.2 HYDROPNEUMATIC SHOCK
ABSORBERS
iiyiji in> in 11
A hydropneumatic shock absorber works on essen-
tially the same principle as the hydraulic shock ab-
vi 111111-rrr*
sorber except that both a liquid and a gas are used as
the working fluids. A simplified sketch of a hydro-
pneumatic mechanism is shown in Fig. 2-78. As the mass Double Compression
to be stopped drives the piston inward, liquid metering
through the orifices and compression of the gas brings Fig. 2-75. Typical Flareless Fittings for Hydraulic
the mass to a stop. The compressed gas then expands Tubing
and returns the piston to the starting position. There [From: Fluid Power Issue; Machine Design. Used by
are numerous variations of the hydropneumatic shock permission of Penton Publishing Co.]
2-41
AMCP 706-123
CZrû S$E?
Connected Disconnected
(A) Double Poppet
U
4
Connected
n Disconnected
(B) Sleeve and Poppet
Disconnected
Connected
(C) Slide-seal
j \^y
Connected
(D) Double Rotating Ball
Fig. 2-76. Typical Self-sealing Couplings for Hydraulic Hose
2-42
AMCP 706-1 23
FILLER OR RETURN F|LLER 0R
ACCUMULATOR ORIFICE ACCUMULATOR

PORT \ PORT
r—:
BUMPER
V/V/5EVX1KHL-.HL.
■'*'«&
f • • • • • • IK
I INNER CHAMBER _|IQL M
M1H ••II!
METERING CHECK
ORIFICES VALVE
Fig. 2-77. Cross-sectional Sketch of a Typical Shock Absorber
^SSSSSSSSS
*
METERING -COMPRESSED GAS
ORIFICES-
LIQUID -PISTON
Fig. 2-78.
tZJ BUMPER
Sketch of a Hydropneumatic Shock Mechanism
PNEUMATIC SHOCK ABSORBER

jr
O <- PISTON
BUMPER
HYDRAULIC SHOCK ABSORBER

Fig. 2-79. Sketch of a Hydropneumatic Recoil Mechanism
2-43
AMCP 706-123
2-11.3 HYDRAULIC FLUID PROPERTIES is compressed and exerts a strong return force on the
PERTINENT TO SHOCK ABSORBERS cylinder ram. Liquid springs provide high load-absorb-
ing capacities in small packages. A single liquid spring
can provide as much load-absorbing capacity as
Properties of a hydraulic fluid that are most perti- roughly 30 coil springs of the same length and diame-
nent to its use in shock absorbers are: ter. They can be designed to reciprocate by providing
(1) Bulk Modulus: If the shock absorber is to be little or no flow restriction or to act as a shock absorber
fully nonregenerative, the hydraulic fluid should have or damper by restricting the flow with orifices in the
a high bulk modulus so that a minimum of energy piston. Disadvantages include high cost and sealing of
would be stored in the fluid, producing springback of resulting high pressures. Loads must be high before a
the shock absorber. A liquid spring (par. 2-12) stores liquid spring becomes practical.
all of its energy in the working liquid and would there-
fore require a low bulk modulus.
(2) Density: Use of a higher density working fluid
would produce a shorter stroke but higher working
pressures. REFERENCES
(3) Viscosity: The working liquid viscosity is a fac-
tor in the rate at which the fluid will pass through
metering orifices-lower viscosity would mean faster 1. E.C. Fitch, Fluid Power and Control Systems,
rates and faster strokes. Also, the viscosity should be McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1966.
shear stable and not exhibit excessive changes with 2. H.H. Pippenger and T.G. Hicks, Industrial
large temperature changes. Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York,
1962.
3. H.L. Stewart and H.M. Storer, ABC's of Fluid
Power, Bobbs-Merrill, Inc., New York, 1966.
2-12 LIQUID SPRINGS 4. H.E. Merrit, Hydraulic Control Systems, John
Wiley and Sons, New York, 1967.
A liquid spring is a regenerative shock absorber that 5. F.D. Yeaple, Ed., Hydraulic and Pneumatic
stops a moving mass and stores the energy of the mass Power and Control, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New
in the spring. A liquid spring depends on the compress- York, 1966.
ibility, or bulk modulus, of the liquid for its action. A 6. Flow of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings, and
liquid with a high compressibility is confined in a cylin- Pipes, Engineering Research Divison, Crane
der. When a ram is pushed into the cylinder, the liquid Co., Chicago, 1958.
2-44
AMCP 706-123
CHAPTER 3
FLUID PROPERTIES, SIGNIFICANCE, AND TEST METHODS
3-0 LIST OF SYMBOLS Viscosity Index is to be

calculated
AA = area, in. 2 or cm2 N= relative surface speed
B0 = isothermal secant bulk modulus p= pressure, psi, psia, or psig
at 0 psig and temperature t, psi R = rate of shear, sec"1
Bs = adiabatic (isentropic) secant Rn = Reynolds number,
bulk modulus, psi dimensionless
Bs = adiabatic (isentropic) tangent s= specific gravity
bulk modulus, psi 5= shearing stress, psi or dyne/cm2
Bso = sonic bulk modulus, psi t= temperature
Bt= isothermal secant bulk modulus T= time, sec
at pressure p and temperature U= viscosity at 100°F of the fluid
t, psi whose Viscosity Index is to be
Bt= isothermal tangent bulk calculated
modulus at pressure p and V= velocity, cm/sec or ft/sec
temperature t, psi V0 = initial volume
C = speed of sound, cm/sec V.l. = Viscosity Index, dimensionless
Cs = isentropic compressibility VTC = viscosity temperature coefficient
Ct = isothermal compressibility Z= fluid viscosity
Cp = specific heat at constant ß= conversion factor
pressure, cal/g-°C P= ratio of bulk moduli or specific
c v = specific heat at constant heats, dimensionless
volume, cal/g-°C rj = absolute viscosity, poise or
D = diameter, in. centipoise (cp), dyne-sec/cm2
d = length, cm or in. V = kinematic viscosity, stoke or
e = 2.71828, the base of natural centistoke (cSt), cm2/sec
logarithms p= fluid density, g/cm3
E° = viscosity, Engler degrees p = density at atmospheric
F = force, lb or dyne temperature and pressure,
H = viscosity at 100°F of a standard g/cm3
fluid of 100 Viscosity Index
having the same viscosity at 3-1 GENERAL
210T as the fluid whose
Viscosity Index is to be The specific requirements of a hydraulic fluid are
calculated determined by the design of the hydraulic system and
k = constant for a given oil and by the functions the system must perform. A liquid that
temperature, (psi)"1 is satisfactory as a hydraulic fluid in one application or
L = viscosity at 100°F of a standard system may be completely unsuitable in a second ap-
fluid of 0 Viscosity Index plication or system. Therefore, in considering the prop-
having the same viscosity at erties required of a hydraulic fluid, it should be remem-
210°F as the fluid whose bered that the relative importance of any one property
3-1
AMCP 706-123
will depend upon the hydraulic system, its use, and Viscosity is defined by Newton's Law-at a given
its environment. point in a liquid, the shearing stress ■Sis directly propor-
The various properties which are important in the tional to the rate of shear R, i.e.,
selection and use of hydraulic fluids are presented in S=VR (3-1)
this chapter. Some properties may be important in all
liquids, while others have significance only in limited The proportionality constant 77 is known as the coeffi-
applications. Properties are discussed in relation to cient of viscosity or simply the viscosity. Since for the
their function in a hydraulic system. The importance of relative motion of two parallel layers of liquid the
these properties is assessed, and methods for measuring shearing stress is equal to F/A, where Fis the force and
them are given. A is the area, and since the rate of shear is equal to V/d
where V\% the velocity and d is the distance between
the layers (see Fig. 3-1), Eq. 3-1 may be written as
3-2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
3-2.1 VISCOSITY
F
A 4i) (3-2)
or
Viscosity is one of the most important properties of Fd
a liquid from the standpoint of its performance in hy- V = AV (3-3)
draulic systems. It is the resistance offered by a liquid
to relative motion of its molecules or the resistance a
liquid offers to flow. Temperature is the most impor- 3-2.1.1 Absolute Viscosity
tant variable affecting viscosity and must be stated in
all viscosity data. The viscosity TJ defined by Eq. 3-3 is the absolute or
STATIONARY PLATE
Fig. 3-1. Velocity Distribution in a Liquid Between Two Parallel Plates With the
Top Plate Moving With Respect to the Stationary Bottom Plate
3-2
AMCP 706-123
dynamic viscosity. If the metric system of units (centi- The Saybolt Universal and Saybolt Furol viscosity
meter, gram, second) is used, the unit of absolute vis- scales, used extensively in the United States, give vis-
cosity is the dyne-second per square centimeter or the cosity in terms of seconds-Saybolt Universal Seconds
poise. Because the poise is a rather large unit, the cen- (SUS) or Saybolt Furol Seconds (SFS). A Furol vis-
tipoise (one hundredth of a poise) is customarily used. cosity is approximately one-tenth of the Universal vis-
Pure water at a temperature of 20.2°C (68.4°F) has an cosity for the same liquid at the same temperature. The
absolute viscosity of one centipoise. If the English sys- Furol scale is used chiefly for petroleum products hav-
tem of units (foot, pound, second) is used, the unit of ing viscosities greater than 1,000 SUS, such as heavy
absolute viscosity is the pound-second per square inch fuel and road oils.
or the reyn. Since the reyn is an extremely large unit,
the newton (one millionth of a reyn) is more conven-
ient. Conversion between metric and English system 3-2.1.4 Viscosity Unit Conversions
units of absolute viscosity can be made on the basis that
one reyn (or one million newtons) is equal to 68,950 A viscosity determined in a particular instrument at
poises (or 6,895,000 centipoises). a specific temperature can be converted to the equiva-
lent viscosity in some other instrument at the same
temperature. A wide variety of equations, tables,
3-2.1.2 Kinematic Viscosity charts, and nomographs have been developed to facili-
tate such conversions. Currently, the trend is toward
The ratio of the absolute viscosity of a liquid to its expressing viscosity in the metric units of centipoises
density frequently occurs in the study of viscosity and (cp) and centistokes (cSt). Data in convenient tabular
hydraulics and the term "kinematic viscosity" with the form for the conversion of kinematic viscosity to Say-
symbol V has been assigned to it bolt Universal and Saybolt Furol viscosity are provided
in American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM)
(3-4) Method D-2161-66 (Ref. 2). Procedures for converting
P the five more common viscosity scales to the metric
where p is the density. In the metric system, the unit scale in centistokes are described.
of kinematic viscosity is the square centimeter per sec- (1) Saybolt Universal seconds to centistokes:
ond or the stoke. The centistoke (one hundredth of a
stoke) is more generally used. The kinematic viscosity
of a liquid can be looked upon as the liquid's resistance V = 0.226 T - y, 32 < T< 100 sec (3-5)
to flow under its own gravity head.
(T = efflux time in seconds)
3-2.1.3 Other Viscosity Scales IM

V = 0.220 7 - -jF.T > 100 sec (3-6)
Numerous other scales of viscosity have been estab-
lished which express viscosity in terms of arbitrary (2) Saybolt Furol seconds to centistokes:
units based on the instruments used to make the meas-
urement. The five most common scales used in the
petroleum industry are the Saybolt Universal and Say- V = 2.24 T - y, 25 < T < 40 sec (3-7)
bolt Furol used mainly in the United States, the Red-
wood No. 1 (Standard) and Redwood No. 2 (Admi-
ralty) used in Great Britain, and the Engler used chiefly V = 2.16 7 - y-,T> 40 sec (3-8)
in Germany and other countries in Europe. All five are
empirical instruments in that the time of outflow of an
arbitrary constant amount of liquid through a fixed (3) Redwood No. 1 (Standard) seconds to centi-
orifice is quoted as a measurement of the viscosity of stokes:
the liquid. The instruments are similar, but various
179
dimensions and amounts of liquid used assign different V = 0.260 T - -yr, 34 < T < 100 sec (3-9)
viscosity numbers to the same fluid; therefore, the vis-
cosity is meaningful only when the instrument and tem- 50
v = 0.247 T - ~, T > 100sec (3-10)
perature are also named (Ref. 1).
3-3
AMCP 706-123
(4) Redwood No. 2 (Admiralty) seconds to centi- NEWTONIAN.' V ID

stokes:
V = 2.46 T - y^, 32 < r < 90 sec (3-11)
V = 2.45 T, T > 90 sec (3-12)
(5) Engler Degrees (£") to centistokes:
V = Q.0E° - ^-, 1.35 < E° < 3.2 (3-13) Rate of Shear Rate of Shear
Fig. 3-2. Viscosity and Shear Stress Curves for a
-, „ ™ 4.0
v = 7.6 E° - — £"> > 3.2 (3-14) Newtonian Fluid
Non-Newtonian materials may be classified into

3-2.1.5 Newtonian Fluids five types-plastic, pseudoplastic, dilatant, thixotropic,
and rheopectic.
When a liquid flows in such a manner that the shear- (1) Plastic. A definite minimum stress or force must
ing stress S is directly proportional to the rate of shear be applied to this type of material before any flow
(see par. 3-2.1), the liquid is said to flow in accordance occurs, and viscosity decreases as shear rate increases
with Newton's Law and is called a Newtonian fluid. (see Fig. 3-3). Examples of such materials are putty,
Flow of this type is know as "viscous" or "streamline" molding clay, and many types of greases.
flow. Viscous flow consists of an orderly motion in
which layers of liquid slide past one another in a direc- PLASTIC
tion parallel to the direction of flow. The viscosity 77 is
constant with respect to the rate of shear R (see Fig.
3-2). Most hydraulic fluids behave in a Newtonian, or
nearly Newtonian, manner at the temperatures, pres-
sures, and flow rates normally encountered in hydrau- >>
■r-i
lic systems. However, there are some types of materials CO
that are never Newtonian, and most Newtonian fluids o
o
can be made to behave in a non-Newtonian manner by en
changing the pressure, temperature, and/or flow rate
sufficiently (Ref. 3). Non-Newtonian materials are dis-
cussed in the paragraphs which follow.
Rate of Shear Shear Stress
3-2.1.6 Non-Newtonian Materials
Plastic Material
The viscosities of some materials are altered by
shearing effects and these materials are termed "non-
Newtonian". The viscosity depends on the rate of shear (2) Pseudoplastic. This type of material has no fixed
at which it is measured. Since c non-Newtonian fluid yield point; however, the viscosity does decrease with
can have an unlimited number of viscosities (as the increasing shear rates (see Fig. 3-4). Examples of such
shear rate is varied), the term "apparent viscosity" is materials are water base liquids and resinous materials.
used instead of viscosity. Apparent viscosity is ex- (3) Dilatant. The apparent viscosity of this type of
pressed in units of absolute viscosity, and the rate of material increases as the rate of shear increases, and the
shear used in the measurement is given. material will often solidify at high rates of shear (see
3-4
AMCP 706-123
Fig. 3-5). However, when the applied force is removed, THIXO TROPIC
the material reverts to its original state, i.e., liquid.
Examples of dilatant materials are pigment-vehicle
suspensions—such as paints and printing ink—and some
starches.
PSEUDOPLASTIC
Shear Stress
o
Ü
Viscosity and Shear Stress Curves for a
>
Thixotropic Material
Rate of Shear Shear Stress (5) Rheopectic. This type of material is similar to
the thixotropic materials except that the apparent vis-
Fig. 3-4. Viscosity and Shear Stress Curves for a cosity increases with shearing time up to some max-
Pseudoplastic Material imum value (see Fig. 3-7). Some bearing greases are
manufactured with this property to facilitate pumping
into containers in a less viscous state, but to .increase in
DILATANT viscosity when in use in a bearing. However, many such
greases are not true rheopectic materials as they do not
revert to their original state after the applied force is
removed but retain a somewhat higher viscosity.
RHEOPECTIC
to
O
o
CO
CO
o
Rate of Shear Shear Stress w
■H

Dilatant Material
Rate of Shear
Fig. 3-7. Viscosity and Shear Stress Curves for
(4) Thixotropic. The viscosity of this type of Rheopectic Material
material is time-dependent-if it is subjected to a con-
stant rate of shear, its structure breaks down, and its
apparent viscosity decreases to some minimum value 3-2.1.7 Determination of Viscosity of
(see Fig. 3-6). However, when the applied force is Non-Newtonian Materials
removed, the. material reverts to its original state, i.e.,
gelled. Paints are probably the most notable example of As shown in Fig. 3-8, the determination of the vis-
thixotropic materials. Quicksand is also thixotropic. cosity of a non-Newtonian fluid at only one shear rate
3-5
AMCP 706-123
is not usually sufficient. The viscosity of the Newtonian

and non-Newtonian fluids shown have the same value
at a shear rate R0. Incorrect comparisons and applica-
tion difficulties would be invited if the viscosities at
only this point were specified.
TURBULENT FLOW
Newtonian Fluid
w
o
G
> Non-Newtonian
Fluid
STREAMLINE FLOW
Fig. 3-9. Streamline Flow and Turbulent Flow in a Pipe
Rate of Shear
Fig. 3-8. Viscosity Curves for a Newtonian Fluid and 3-2.1.9 Measurement of Viscosity
a Non-Newtonian Fluid
Liquid viscosity is measured by an instrument called
a viscometer. A large number of viscometers have been
3-2.1.8 Turbulent Flow and Reynolds Number developed. Eight of the most common measurements
upon which viscometers are based are (Ref. 4)
If the flow velocity of a Newtonian fluid is increased (1) The time of flow of a quantity of liquid through
beyond some critical value, the flow characteristics be- a capillary or a short tube, using gravity as the moving
gin to change. The critical velocity marks the transition force.
between viscous flow, where the liquid follows New- (2) The torque required to rotate a cylinder, disk, or
ton's Law, and turbulent flow, where the liquid does paddle in a liquid at constant speed
not behave in a Newtonian fashion. Viscous flow is an (3) The torque exerted on a disk suspended in a
orderly motion of the liquid in the direction of flow. rotating cup of the liquid
Turbulent flow, however, is an erratic flow with eddy (4) The rotational speed of a cylinder or disk driven
currents (see Fig. 3-9). Reynolds has shown that the in the liquid by a constant torque
critical velocity depends upon the dimensionless (5) The time of fall through the liquid of a ball or
parameter known as the Reynolds number (Ref. 3). For cylindrical object
flow in pipes, Reynolds number Rn is given by: (6) The time of rise of an air bubble through the
liquid
(7) The rate of damping of ultrasonic waves in-
R -DVP (3-15) duced in the liquid
(8) The pressure drop through a capillary.
The most widely used viscometers in the petroleum
where industry are the capillary and the short tube viscome-
D= pipe diameter ters. ASTM D-445-65 (Ref. 5) prescribes the standard
V= fluid velocity procedure for measuring kinematic viscosity and de-
p = fluid density scribes the capillary viscometers that are to be used.
V = kinematic viscosity Briefly, the method calls for measuring the time of flow
of a known quantity of liquid at a constant temperature
When the Reynolds number is sufficiently low, the flow through a capillary with gravity as the only moving
is viscous and the liquid behaves in a Newtonian man- force, and multiplying the time by a calibration con-
ner. The transition to turbulent flows usually occurs stant. The calibration constant is determined by using
between Reynolds number values of 2,100-4,000- a master viscometer (Bureau of Standards) and stand-
depending upon the geometry of the conduit and the ard oils. Absolute viscosity is given by the equation
liquid properties. r?= Vß (3-16)
3-6
AMCP 706-123
A separate determination of the density p must be 3-2.1.10 Significance of Viscosity

made before calculating the absolute viscosity. ASTM
D-445-65 (Ref. 5) lists several approved test procedures The single most important property of a hydraulic
for determining density. fluid is its viscosity. Various components within a hy-
The Cannon-Fenske capillary viscometer (see Fig. draulic system have competing requirements as to high
3-10) is the most common one used in hydraulic fluid or low viscosity. High viscosity provides thick lubricat-
work. A cross section of the Saybolt viscometer, widely ing films and reduces internal leakage. Low viscosity
used in the petroleum industry, is shown in Fig. 3-11. results in less internal friction, smaller pressure losses
in pipes and valves, and an increase in control action
and component response. Thus, a compromise in vis-
cosity requirements must be made. The viscosity of the
hydraulic fluid affects the response of system compo-
nents, and because its sensitivity to temperature usually
imposes limitations on the upper or lower operating
temperature of any hydraulic system, viscosity must
always be considered in design calculations.
250.Ü
3-2.1.11 Test Methods for Viscosity
(1) Kinematic Viscosity

Test Methods: Federal Test Method 305.4 (Ref. 6)
ASTM D-445-65 (Ref. 5)
These methods describe the procedure for determin-
ing the kinematic viscosity of transparent or opaque
(dimensions in millimeters) fluids higher than 0.2 centistoke. Determinations may
be made at temperatures where the flow in the glass
Fig. 3-10 . Cannon-Fenske Capillary Tube Viscometer capillary type viscometers is Newtonian. The time is
measured for a fixed volume of a test fluid to flow
through the capillary under a gravity head and at a
OVERFLOW closely controlled temperature. The kinematic viscosity
RIM is then calculated from the efflux time and the viscome-
\ ter calibration factor.
Precision: For clean transparent oils tested at 100°
and 210°F, results should not be considered suspect
unless they differ by more than the following amounts:
Repeatability-0.35 percent of mean
Reproducibi!ity-0.7 percent of mean
4.92 (2) Saybolt Viscosity
ASTM D-88-56 (Ref. 8)
These methods describe the procedure for determin-
ing the Saybolt viscosity of petroleum products in the
temperature range of 70° to 210°F. The efflux time in
seconds of 60 ml of the sample flowing under gravity
head through a calibrated orifice is measured under
carefully controlled temperature conditions. A Univer-
sal orifice is used for Saybolt Universal viscosity and a
(dimensions Furol orifice is used for Saybolt Furol viscosity. The
CORK time is corrected by an orifice factor and reported as the
in inches)
STOPPER viscosity of the sample at the test temperature in Say-
Fig. 3-11. Cross-sectional View of a Saybolt Viscom- bolt Universal Seconds (SUS) or Saybolt Furol Seconds
eter (SFS). Viscosity values below 200 sec are reported to
3-7
AMCP 706-123
the nearest 0.1 sec. Values above 200 sec are reported
to the nearest whole second.
(3) Conversion of Kinematic Viscosity to Saybolt
Universal Viscosity or to Saybolt Furol Viscosity
ASTM D-2161-66 (Ref. 10)
These methods provide conversion tables and equa-
tions for converting viscosity in centistokes at any tem-
perature to Saybolt Universal Seconds at the same tem-
perature; and also for converting viscosity in
centistokes at 122° and 210°F to Saybolt Furol Seconds
at the same temperature. 620-640
(4) Calibration of Master Viscometers and Viscosity
Oil Standards
Test Method: ASTM D-2162-64 (Ref. 11)
This method covers procedures for calibrating mas-
ter viscometers and viscosity oil standards, both of 445-455
which may be used to calibrate routine viscometers
used in the determination of kinematic viscosity (Ref.
5). Master viscometers are calibrated with water at
68°F (20°C). They are then used to calibrate viscosity oil
standards, i.e., stable Newtonian liquids.
Specifications, dimensions, and operating instruc- (dimensions in
tions are given for the following types of viscometers: millimeters)
(a) Modified Ostwald Viscometers: Cannon-
Fenske routine, Cannon-Manning semi-micro,
Pinkevitch, Zeitfuchs, SIL, BS/U-tube, BS/U
miniature Fig. 3-12. Cannon-Master Viscometer
(b) Suspended-level Viscometers: Ubbelohde,
Fitzsimons, Atlantic, BS/IL/SL, BS/IP/SL(S),
BS/IP/MSL, Cannon-Ubbelohde, Cannon- magnitude of the temperature change. Most compo-
Ubbelohde semi-micro. nents of a hydraulic system are quite specific in their
(c) Reverse-flow Viscometers: Cannon-Fenske demands for a particular viscosity at their operating
opaque, Zeitfuchs Cross-arm, BS/IP/RF, temperature. This operating temperature rarely coin-
Lantz-Zeitfuchs. cides with the fixed temperatures that are standard in
(5) Glass Kinematic Viscometers the test methods for viscosity. To match the viscosity
Test Method: ASTM D-2515-66 (Ref. 12) of a liquid to the requirements of a component requires
This method provides specifications for glass capil- a knowledge of the viscosity-temperature characteris-
lary-type kinematic viscometers suitable for use in the tics of the liquid over its usable temperature range.
ASTM Test Method for kinematic viscosity (Ref. 5). A Petroleum liquids described by Military Specifica-
Cannon-Master viscometer is shown in Fig. 3-12. tions are available for use within various temperature
ranges. Some are usable to -80°F and others to
+ 550°F. Increases in the upper temperature limit of
3-2.2 VISCOSITY-TEMPERATURE petroleum liquids have been obtained by special proc-
PROPERTIES essing or with additives. The development of liquids
suitable for use in high-temperature environments is
one of the prime areas of current interest in the hydrau-
Temperature is the most important factor affecting lic fluid industry. Properties of available high-tempera-
viscosity. Viscosity decreases with increasing temperature liquids will be discussed in greater detail in "Chap-
ture, but the rate of decrease depends upon the struc- ter 4. Viscosity requirements at various temperatures of
ture and chemical composition of the liquid. The several typical Military Specification hydraulic fluids
amount of the decrease depends primarily upon the are given in Table 3-1.
3-8
AMCP 706-123
TABLE 3-1.
VISCOSITY REQUIREMENTS OF FIVE SPECIFICATION HYDRAULIC FLUIDS*
Temperature, MIL-H-5606B MIL-H-8446B MIL-H-13866B (MR) W-B-680a MIL-H-27601A
°F
-65 3000 (max) 2500 (max) To be reported
-40 500 (max) 1800(max) 4000 (max)
-30 4200(max)
100 To be reported 55 (min) 3.5 (min) 385 (max)
at 122°F at0°F
130 10.0 (min)
210 To be reported 15 (min) 1.3 (min) 3.2 (min)
at 212°F
400 2.5 (min) Report at
500°F
*AU viscosities ln centistokes.
References: MIL-H-5606B; Hydraulic Fluid, Petroleum Base, Aircraft, Missile, and Ordnance.
MIL-H-8446B; Hydraulic Fluids, Nonpetroleum Base, Aircraft.
MIL-H-13866B; Hydraulic Fluid, Petroleum Base, Artillery Recoil, Special
W-V-680a;Brake Fluid, Automotive.
MlL-H-2760\ A; Hydraulic Fluid, Petroleum, High Temperature, Flight Vehicle.
3-2.2.1 ASTM Viscosity-temperature Charts to predict viscosity. The actual viscosity-temperature

properties of the liquid must be determined and plotted.
Many systems have been developed for expressing The ASTM charts are based on a modified
the viscosity-temperature characteristics of liquids. Walther equation:
The most widely used procedure utilizes the viscosity-
log [log(i> + c)] = A log°R + B (3-17)
temperature charts published by ASTM (see Fig. 3-13).
These charts, available from ASTM, are described in an
where
ASTM Method (Ref. 13) and in a Federal Test Method
c = a constant
(Ref. 14). Five different viscosity-temperature charts
°R = temperature, °Rankine
similar to that shown in Fig. 3-13 are available with
V = viscosity, cSt
various temperature ranges and either kinematic or
A,B = constants for each fluid
Saybolt Universal viscosity scales. These charts are
constructed so that the plot of viscosity vs temperature The ASTM chart expresses c as a constant varying
is a straight line for most petroleum liquids. Thus, only from 0.75 at 0.4 cSt to 0.6 at 1.5 cSt and above (Ref.
two viscosity measurements, usually at 100° and 15). The use of this equation in chart form obviates the
210°F, need to be made to determine a line from which necessity of determining the constants A and B when
the approximate viscosity at any other temperature can two or more viscosities are determined experimentally
be read. and plotted.
The viscosity-temperature charts are useful for pre-
dicting viscosity only when the graph for a liquid is
3-2.2.2 ASTM Slope
linear. In most instances this will occur over the tem-
perature range that a given liquid is Newtonian. How- A simple method of expressing a change in viscosity
ever, many Newtonian petroleum liquids will deviate with temperature is by using the slope of the curve on
from linearity at low viscosities, i.e., high temperature. the ASTM charts. Since the curve accurately portrays
Many liquids deviate from linearity near their cloud the viscosity-temperature characteristics of a particular
points (par. 3-2.6.2) because of the formation of wax liquid, its slope is a measure of the liquid's sensitivity
particles. For non-Newtonian liquids, and for New- to a change in temperature. The slope may be deter-
tonian liquids that are in nonlinear conditions of behav- mined graphically from the chart as the tangent of the
ior, the plot of viscosity vs temperature cannot be used angle formed by the viscosity-temperature line and the
3-9
AMCP 706-123
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY, cSt

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3-10
AMCP 706-1 23
lines of constant viscosity (see Fig. 3-14). The slope Subsequently, however, solvent refining, the use of ad-
values are unitless and negative, but by convention the ditives, and synthetics have produced materials that are
minus sign is omitted. The greater the slope, the greater outside the V.l. scale in both directions.
the change in viscosity for a given change in tempera- The V.l. of a liquid with a given viscosity at 210T
ture. If the slope is determined at a temperature where is calculated by relating its viscosity at 100°F to the
the graph is not a straight line, the slope of the tangent viscosity at 100T for each of the standard fractions
to the curve at the temperature in question is used. having a viscosity at 210°F equal to that of the un-
The ASTM slope is easily determined and values known at 210°F. The V.l. is calculated by the follow-
accurate to within ±0.01 slope units can be obtained ing equation:
by use of the chart and a simple ruler. However, the
slope has little physical meaning and has not been
V.l. 100 (3-19)
adopted for general use. «
3-2.2.3 Viscosity-temperature Coefficient where

L = viscosity at 100°F of a
Another way of expressing the viscosity-temperature petroleum fraction.of 0 V.l.
relationship of a liquid is the viscosity-temperature co- having the same viscosity at
efficient (VTC) which is defined by 210°F as the fluid whose V.l. is
to be calculated
H= viscosity at 100°F of a
'100 "210 ^210
VTC (3-18) petroleum fraction of 100 V.l.
'100 ^100 having the same viscosity at
210°F as the fluid whose V.l. is
to be calculated
where y100 and l>2io are the kinematic viscosities in cen- U = viscosity at 100T of the fluid
tistokes of the liquid at 100° and 210°F, respectively. whose V.l. is to be calculated
The VTC has the advantage of expressing the viscosity-
temperature characteristics of a liquid as a number, but An ASTM Method (Ref. 16) and a Federal Test
by definition, is applicable only to the temperature Method (Ref. 17) provide tables of values for L, H, and
range of 100° to 210°F. It has not found wide use in the (L-H) for determining the V.l. of a liquid from either
hydraulic fluid industry. the centistoke or the Saybolt viscosities at 100° and
210°F. A schematic representation of V.l. is shown in
Fig. 3-15.
3-2.2.4 Viscosity index
The V.l. scale as described has been in general use in
The Viscosity Index (V.l.) of a liquid is a number the United States although it had a number of deficien-
indicating the effect of a change in temperature on cies. For many years the procedure used to calculate
viscosity. A low V.l. signifies a relatively large change the V.l. was given by ASTM D-567-53 (Ref. 18) which
of viscosity with temperature. A high V.l. signifies a has since been replaced because of the anomalies that
relatively small change of viscosity with temperature. resulted from use of the method. Some of the problems
The convenience afforded by the use of a single number experienced were
to express the viscosity-temperature characteristics of (1) It was based on arbitrary standards.
a liquid has resulted in the widespread adoption of the (2) The system broke down for light oils having
viscosity index system in the petroleum industry. viscosities below about 8 cSt at 210°F.
The V.l. is an empirical scale using two series of (3) In the range above V.l. of 125, the scale became
petroleum fractions as standards. One fraction which meaningless since two oils that have equal viscosity at
seemed to have minimum viscosity-temperature sen- 100T but widely different viscosities at 210°F may have
sitivity was arbitrarily assigned a V.l. of 100. The other the same V.l.
fraction with maximum viscosity-temperature sen- (4) V.l. is not an additive property. The V.l. of an
sitivity was assigned a V.l. of zero. At the time the oil blend cannot be determined by manipulation of the
index scale was developed, all other petroleum frac- V.l. of the individual components, particularly when
tions were expected to fall within the zero to 100 limits. widely different types of liquids are involved.
3-11
AMCP 706-123

o
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8 E c
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3-12
AMCP 706-123
c) L
—
__ o
Lt_
io
_1
<c — • «
™~ I—1 z
<_> •7
oo
Z^.pD U
• — I • i
1—1
~
>
1 1 1 1 H
100 1 ' 700 V. i.
U
H £CO
O
U
CO
i—i
1 ^ „ >
100°F 210°F
Fig. 3-15. Schematic Representation of Viscosity Index (V.l.)

[From: Lubrication, Vol. 47 (1961). Used by permission of Texaco, Inc.]
In spite of its shortcomings, the V.l. remains the (a) Chart A. Saybolt Universal Viscosity:-30° to
most popular system for expressing viscosity-tempera- + 450°F, 33 to 100,000,000 Saybolt Universal
ture characteristics of fluids. Numerous suggestions Seconds
have been proposed to eliminate the shortcomings of (b) Chart B. Saybolt Universal Viscosity,
the system or to find a more fundamental means of Abridged:-30° to + 350°F, 33 to 100,000 Say-
expressing viscosity-temperature characteristics. Most bolt Universal Seconds
of the suggested systems were too complex for general (c) Chart C. Kinematic Viscosity, High Range:
use or had faults of their own, so a method (Refs. 16, -30° to +450°F, 2 to 20,000,000 centistokes
17) was developed to correct the deficiencies in the (d) Chart D. Kinematic Viscosity, Low Range:
ASTM K/.'s above 100 without shifting the values -30° to +450°F, 0.40 to 100 centistokes
between 0 and 100. Values above 100 are designated (e) Chart E. Kinematic Viscosity, Low Tempera-
Viscosity Index Extended ( V.I.E) (Ref. 19) to dis- ture Range:-100° to +450°F, 2.0 to 20,000,000
tinguish them from values obtained by the previ- centistokes
ous method. (f) Chart F. Kinematic Viscosity, Extended
Range:-100° to +700°F, 0.40 to 20,000,000
centistokes
3-2.2.5 Test Methods for Viscosity-temperature (2) Calculation of Viscosity Index
Properties Test Methods: Federal Test Method 9111.2 (Ref. 17)
ASTM D-2270-64 (Ref. 16)
(1) Viscosity-temperature Charts These methods provide tables and equations for cal-
culating the V.l. of petroleum products from their vis-
Test Methods: ASTM D-341-43 (Ref. 13) cosities at 100° and 210°F. Tables are provided for liq-
FederalTestMethod9121.1(Ref. 14)
uids with viscosities at 210°F between the values of 210
t> These methods provide specifications for standard and 75.0 cSt.
viscosity-temperature charts (e.g., Fig. 3-13) for pe- Tedious calculation of V.l. can be eliminated by the
troleum fluids for both kinematic and Saybolt viscosi- use of data in ASTM Data Series 39a, ASTM Viscosity
ties and for a range of temperatures. Charts available Index Tables Calculatedfrom Kinematic Viscosity, Sep-
from ASTM Headquarters are: tember 1965. This reference gives V.l. in the following
3-13
AMCP 706-123
ranges: from 0 to 200 V.l. for all liquids from 2 to 75 per square inch, the increase in viscosity can cause
cSt at 210°F; up to 300 V.l. for liquids from 2.00 to 9.99 considerable differences in the results obtained by a
cSt at 210T; and up to 250 V.l. for liquids from 10.00 lubrication theory calculation (Ref. 4).
to 19.98 cSt at 210°F. A number of empirical equations have been sug-
gested for relating viscosity to pressure. The following
one, although valid only over a moderate pressure
3-2.3 VISCOSITY OF BLENDS OF TWO range, is the one most commonly used (Ref. 20):
LIQUIDS
T?p = 1? e'kp (3-20)
The ASTM viscosity-temperature charts can be used
to predict the composition of a new blend of two liquids
to give a required viscosity, or to estimate the composi-
tion of an existing blend when the viscosities of the two where
components are known. In this procedure, the vertical
77 p = absolute viscosity at pressure p,
scale of any ASTM chart is used without change. The cSt
horizontal scale between 0°-100°F is relabeled 0-100 V = absolute viscosity at
percent and used to represent the percent by volume of
atmospheric pressure, cSt
the higher viscosity component. The viscosity at a given
e= 2.71828 (base of natural
temperature of the lower viscosity component is
logarithms)
marked on the zero percent line and the viscosity at the
k = a constant for a given oil and
same temperature of the higher viscosity component on temperature, (psi)'1
the 100 percent line. The two points are connected by
p = pressure, psi
a straight line, and the required volumetric composi-
tion of any blend of intermediate viscosity may be read Several general statements about the viscosi-
on the abscissa (see Fig. 3-16). Conversely, the compo- ty-pressure properties of petroleum products can be
sition of a blend can be estimated when the viscosities made, namely:
of the two components are known and plotted in this (1) A pressure increase of about 500 psi has the
manner (Ref. 4). equivalent but opposite effect on viscosity as a tempera-
ture increase of 2°F.
(2) The same increase in pressure will show a
3-2.4 VISCOSITY-PRESSURE PROPERTIES greater effect on viscosity at high pressures than at
low pressures.
(3) Lower viscosity fluids are less affected by pres-
The viscosity of a liquid varies with pressure as well sure than higher viscosity fluids.
as temperature. For many years pressure effects in hy- (4) An increase in pressure will increase the V.l.
draulic systems were neglected since the pressures en- The study of the effects of pressure on viscosity is an
countered were moderate and the viscosity was not area of research that has received considerable interest
greatly affected. Viscosity increases with increases in in recent years. The viscosity of liquids at pressures up
pressure, and the rate of increase is greater at lower to 150,000 psi and temperatures up to 425°F has been
temperatures and pressures. The rate of increase is also reported by the ASME (Ref. 21) and, more recently, by
influenced by the structural and chemical composition Wilson (Ref. 22). Klaus et al. (Refs. 23-25) have con-
of the fluid. Graphs of viscosity vs pressure at several ducted viscosity-pressure studies on numerous liquids,
temperatures for a typical petroleum fluid are shown in at pressures up to 10,000 psi, which are likely to be
Fig. 3-17. Graphs of viscosity vs temperature at several encountered in typical hydraulic systems. As more data
pressures for a typical synthetic fluid are shown in are accumulated on viscosity-pressure effects, more in-
Fig. 3-18. telligent choices of lubricants and hydraulic fluids will
Most of the work on viscosity-pressure effects has be possible. The inclusion of viscosity-pressure data in
been done in studies concerned with lubrication theory. design studies could result in the use of liquids of lower
Lubricating fluids for ball bearings and gears are often viscosity than the classical lubrication equations would
subjected to extremely high pressures at contact sur- indicate. Using a liquid of lower viscosity has the ad-
faces under which their viscosities are increased appre- vantage of permitting lower operating temperatures,
ciably. At pressures as low as a few thousand pounds less liquid friction, and smaller power losses.
3-14
AMCP 706-123
% LOWER VISCOSITY COMPONENT-VOLUME

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
20,000,00011
tO.000,000
5,000,000
2,000,000
I.00Q000
500,000
200,000
100,000
50,000
20,000
10,000
5,000
3,000 EXAMPLE: MIXTURE OF A
2,000
COMPONENT OF 150 cSt
1.000 WITH A COMPONENT OF 1000
40 cSt
500 U
400 BE
300
z 200 0)
ÜJ
z 150
o
Q. 4->
S </) 100 o
o u
o .
75
> >
o 50
o
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V)
eb
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Ul
VISCOSITY OF BLEND o
o 20 •OF 18% HIGH VISCOSITY 20 jT
<
Z
15 COMPONENT AND 82% 15 £
"LOW VISCOSITY
COMPONENT IS 50.0 cSt
10 10
9.0 9.0
8.0 8.0
7.0 70
6.0 6.0
5.0 5.0
4.0 4.0
3.0 3.0
2.0 2.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% HIGHER VISCOSITY COMPONENT-VOLUME 3-15
AMCP 706-123
1,000,000 where speeds are high and clearances small. Some typi-
W IOO°F/ 210OF„^ cal shear rates are shown in Table 3-2 (Ref. 26). Circu-
w 100,000
i—i
lation of a hydraulic fluid through a system subjects the
O 32°F /
CM fluid to rapid shear rates and sudden pressure changes
I—i
h 10,000
as it passes through orifices and close tolerance areas
2 (Ref. 27). The resultant loss in viscosity may be either
Kl 1,000
U 425°F a permanent loss, or a temporary loss, or a combination
100 of the two.
i—i
10 3-2.5.1 Temporary Viscosity Loss Due to
O
U 1 Shear
l—i
> Temporary viscosity loss is due to orientation or

0.1 • i i i i i i i i ! i i i i .
"lining-up" of the long chain polymer molecules in the
0 50 100 150
direction of flow. The polymer molecules thicken a
PRESSURE, PSIG x 10'3 liquid more when they are oriented in a random man-
ner, than when they are oriented in the direction of
Fig. 3-17. Viscosity vs Pressure at Several Temperatures
flow. The orientation of the molecules can actually be
for a Typical Petroleum Fluid
seen when the flow in transparent tubes is observed
under polarized light (Ref. 28). When the shear-
21
[From: ASME Pressure-Viscosity Report, Vol. 2 . Used ing stress is removed, the liquids regain their origi-
nal viscosity.
by permission of ASME]
Temporary loss of viscosity has two important ef-
fects on the performance of hydraulic fluids-an in-
3-2.5 VISCOSITY-SHEAR CHARACTERISTICS crease in leakage and a reduction of fluid friction. Leak-
age around close fitting parts increases as the viscosity
Some aircraft and many industrial hydraulic fluids decreases and can result in reduced system efficiency if
currently in use contain polymeric thickeners called the rate becomes too great. However, the reduction in
Viscosity Index improvers, or " V.l. improvers", to fluid friction that accompanies reduced viscosity in-
reduce viscosity change due to temperature. When liq- creases system efficiency and performance. Several
uids containing these V.l. improvers are subjected to methods for measuring the temporary viscosity de-
high rates of shear, they often suffer a loss in viscosity crease have been developed. One method uses a bank
and VI. because of degradation of the polymers. The of capillary tubes; another uses a rotating tapered plug
unit of shear rate is the reciprocal second (sec" ). A viscometer. The concentric cylinder is another com-
shear rate of one reciprocal second occurs when paral- mon apparatus. Any one of these methods is sufficient
lel planes 1 cm apart move in opposite directions at a for determining the relationship between viscosity and
relative speed of 1 cm/sec. High shear rates will occur shear rate (Ref. 28).
TABLE 3-2.
ESTIMATED SHEAR RATES OF LUBRICANTS
Radial Clearance
Between Moving Relative
Application Velocity Shear Rate,
and Stationary sec"1
Parts, in. of Parts
Piston-cylinder clearance in automotive engine 0.001 200-400 200,000 to
in./sec 400,000
Plain journal bearing (2-in. diameter) 0.001 to 1800 rpm 188,000 to
0.0001 1,820,000
Ball-type hydraulic pump 0.0003 3500 rpm 3,000,000
Bosch piston-type Diesel fuel pump 0.00004 36 in./sec 900,000
[From: Klaus and Fenske, "Some Viscosity shear Characteristics of Lubricants", Lubrication Engineering26.
Used by permission of ASLE.]
3-16
AMCP 706-123

0 q c c> c 0
O
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[TTTT
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3-17
AMCP 706-123
3-2.5.2 Permanent Viscosity Loss Due to molecules in extremely short periods of time as com-
Shear pared to the pump tests. The sonic energy is supplied
from magnetostrictive oscillators. One such device gen-
Permanent viscosity loss is the result of chemical erates 10 kilocycles per second at 200 watts (Ref. 27).
breakdown or mechanical rupturing of the large The sonic method has the advantages of using only a
polymer molecules into smaller molecules. Rupture of small sample (50 ml or less) of the liquid and requiring
the polymer molecules may occur in both laminar and one hour or less to perform. Fig. 3-21 (Ref. 31) shows
turbulent flow; however, polymer degradation is gener- the effect of sonic irradiation on the viscosity of a typi-
ally greater under turbulent conditions. Cavitation, cal MIL-H-5606B fluid.
where large shearing forces are developed by the rapid The correlation between sonic results and pump test
formation and collapse of cavities in the liquid, can results has been poor in many cases. Recent investiga-
cause extensive scission of the polymer chain. Polymer tions have shown that the poor correlation might be
degradation by chemical reactions (oxidation, hydrol- attributed to at least two factors (Ref. 32): (1) the sonic
ysis, radiation, etc.) does occur, but mechanical scission procedure is performed at atmospheric pressure
of the polymer chain resulting from the large shearing whereas the pump test uses a reservoir under pressure,
forces on the molecule is the principal cause of viscosity and (2) both methods vary in their effect on different
loss in hydraulic fluids. Viscosity losses due to reduc- polymers. The problem of dissolving gases in the liquid
tion in the chain length (molecular weight) of the from the pressurized reservoir can be reduced by using
polymer thickener are permanent and the liquids do an interface such as a diaphragm between the liquid
not regain their viscosity when the shearing forces and the pressurizing gas. When the effect of dissolved
are removed. gases and the selective nature of the sonic irradiations
are considered, there is closer correlation to data from
pump tests. Considerable effort has been expended in
3-2.5.3 Test Methods for Viscosity-shear
developing a set of conditions to be used in the sonic
Characteristics
method and much of the work has been summarized in
ASTM Special Technical Publication No.l82(Ref.29).
There are several methods of measuring permanent
shear viscosity loss. Most of them are summarized in (3) Diesel Injector Method: The diesel injector
ASTM Special Technical Publication No. 182 (Ref. method is similar to the pump-orifice method in that
29). The three most commonly used methods are the the liquid is pressurized and forced through a small
pump-orifice test, the sonic method, and the diesel in- orifice. In the injector method, the diesel injector serves
jector method. as both the pressurizing pump and the orifice. Excellent
(1) Pump-orifice Test: The liquid is pressurized agreement between pump tests and results obtained by
with a pump and the pressure is released by passing the multiple passes through the diesel injector have been
liquid through a small orifice to a low pressure area. obtained (Ref. 4).
After a given number of cycles the amount of perma-
nent shear viscosity loss is expressed as the percent
change in the viscosity at a given temperature. This test 3-2.6 LOW-TEMPERATURE PROPERTIES
simulates actual service conditions and employs hy-
draulic system components. As hydraulic fluids are cooled, they become more
Federal Test Method 3471.2 (Ref. 30) describes a viscous and flow becomes slower. If cooling is carried
procedure and apparatus (see Fig. 3-19) used to deter- to sufficiently low temperatures, the fluids approach
mine shear stability of hydraulic fluids with a pump plastic solids. Many liquids, if cooled under prescribed
test. The method consists of pumping one pint of liquid conditions, will begin to precipitate wax or separate
through a simulated hydraulic system and reporting components at a specific temperature. This tempera-
changes in visual appearance, viscosity, and neutraliza- ture is called the cloud point. If cooling under pre-
tion number. Graphs of viscosity loss of MIL-H-5606B scribed conditions is continued, a temperature will be
fluid during a pump loop test similar to that described reached at which the oil will not pour or flow. This
above are shown in Fig. 3-20 (Ref. 31). temperature is defined as the solid point. By definition,
the pour point is 5°F above the solid point. The pour
(2) Sonic Method: The sonic method consists of point approximates the lowest temperature at which a
subjecting the liquid to high-frequency vibrations that liquid will flow in a container of a given size. To be
produce permanent shear breakdown of the polymer useful, a hydraulic fluid must have a pour point below
3-18
AMCP 706-123
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3-79
AMCP 706-123
components removed. The latter are referred to as deep

dewaxed fluids.
3-2.6.2 Pour Point
The pour point may mark a temperature at which

crystallization of wax has proceeded to such an extent
that further lowering of temperature would cause flow
to cease (waxy pour point) or it may, with wax-free
fluids, represent the temperature at which the viscosity
is sufficiently high that further cooling would cause
flow to cease (viscous pour point). Liquids which are
20 30 40
50xl04 free of wax or other components that can precipitate on
cooling behave like Newtonian fluids even at low tem-
Pumping Cycles
peratures. The viscosity at the pour point is approxi-
Fig. 3-20. Effect of Shear Upon Viscosity of a MIL mately the same for all fluids of this type and has been
,30
H-5606B Hydraulic Fluid in a Pump Test" found to be in the range of 105 to 106cSt.
Most commercially available petroleum fluids have
a waxy pour point rather than a viscous pour point.
They are Newtonian fluids only when the temperature
is above the point at which wax begins to separate. The
formation of waxy crystals does not mean the fluid has
solidified. Flow has been prevented by the crystals but
if the liquid is agitated to rupture the crystal.structure,
Mlt
-H-5606ß the liquid will flow even though the temperature is
below the pour point. The waxy pour point is depend-
(SONIC TEST) ent upon such factors as the rate of cooling and degree
„ 30 h of agitation (Ref. 4). Table 3-3 lists the minimum pour
point required by four common Military Specifications
for hydraulic fluids.
u 40 J_ I I J_
cu
O 0 60 120 180 240 300 360 3-2.6.3 Freezing Point
Sonic Exposure Time, min
Fig. 3-21. Effect of Sonic Irradiation on the Viscosity For pure, or essentially pure, hydrocarbons the tem-
of a MIL-H-5606B Hydraulic Fluid30 perature at which solidification occurs is called the
freezing point. This term is also frequently and loosely
used for other petroleum products where the proper
the minimum temperatures expected in operation. It is term would be either the cloud point, the pour point,
difficult to define either pour point or solid point pre- or the solid point. The freezing point is defined as the
cisely as the transition from liquid to solid is gradual. temperature at which a pure hydrocarbon passes from
a liquid to a solid state. Test methods for determining
freezing points usually apply to fuels, solvents, and
3-2.6.1 Cloud Point other types of relatively pure hydrocarbons.
The cloud point is of interest for use at low tempera-

tures. It is defined as the temperature at which wax or 3-2.6.4 Test Methods for Low Temperature
other dissolved solids begin to crystallize and become Properties
noticeable when liquids are chilled under specified con-
ditions. Dissolved moisture can also cause clouding of (1) Cloud and Pour Point
a liquid on cooling and lead to erroneous results. Many Test Methods: Federal Test Method 201.8 (Ref. 33)
liquids have no cloud point. Some base stocks have no ASTM D-97-66 (Ref. 34)
waxy components and other stocks can have the waxy ASTM D-2500-66 (Ref. 35)
3-20
AMCP 706-123
TABLE 3-3.
POUR POINT REQUIREMENTS OF FOUR MILITARY SPECIFICATION FLUIDS
Specification Fluid Type Use Pour Point, °F, max

MIL-H-5606B Petroleum Aircraft -75
MIL-H-8446B Nonpetroleum Aircraft -75
MIL-H-13866B Petroleum Artillery -50
MIL-H-27601A Nonpetroleum Aircraft -65
These methods describe the procedures for determin- A sample of the oil is placed in a glass jar in a bath
ing the cloud point for liquids which are transparent in and subjected to a schedule of temperature variations
layers 1-1/2 in. in thickness and for determining pour for a period of up to 6 days. The lowest temperature at
point for any petroleum fluid. which no surface movement will occur when the sam-
(a) Cloud point: (ASTM D-2500-66, Federal Test ple is turned horizontally for 3 sec (the solid point) is
Method 201.8) A sample of the fluid is placed then determined. The stable pour point is recorded as
in a test jar, heated at least 25°F above the the temperature 5°F above the solid point. This method
approximate cloud point, and then chilled in differs from the method of par. 3-2.6.4(1) in that the
successively cooler baths. At intervals of 2°F sample first undergoes a period of heating and cooling
the sample is inspected for clouding. When a over a period of several days.
distinct cloudiness or haze appears at the bot- Precision:
tom of the test jar, the temperature reading is (a) Repeatability. Results may vary in one labora-
recorded as the cloud point. tory by 5°F for oils with pour stability charac-
teristics. For blends with solid points below
Precision: Duplicate results from one laboratory 0°F results may vary 10°F.
may differ by 4°F and the results of two different labs (b) Reproducibility. Results may vary in different
may differ by 8°F for gas oils. For all other oils, re - laboratories by 10°F. The averages of three or
suits of duplicate tests should not differ by more more results per laboratory in different
than 10°F. laboratories should not differ more than 5°F.
(b) Pour point: (ASTM D-97-66, Federal Test (3) Diluted Pour Point
Method 201.8) A sample of the fluid is placed Test Method: Federal Test Method 204 (Ref. 37)
in a test jar of 1-1/4 in. diameter and heated to This method is used for indicating the flow charac-
15°F above the expected pour point, but not teristics of engine oils that have been diluted with avia-
hotter than 115°F. The sample is then chilled tion gasoline.
in successively cooler baths. At intervals of A sample of the oil is diluted to a mixture of 70
5°F, the jar is tilted and the fluid surface is percent oil and 30 percent diluent. The diluent is a
inspected for movement. When the fluid re- mixture of 80 percent naphtha and 20 percent xylene.
aches a temperature where the jar can be tilted The pour point is determined as outlined in ASTM
horizontally for 5 sec with no movement, the D-97-66 (Ref. 34) or Federal Test Method 201.8 (Ref.
temperature is recorded as the solid point. The 33) for cloud and pour point (par. 3-2.6.4(1)).
pour point is taken as the temperature 5°F Precision: The same limits as set forth in ASTM or
above the solid point temperature. Federal Test Method for cloud and pour point (par.
3-2.6.4(1)) apply to this method.
Precision: Results of the pour point from one labora- (4) Cloud Intensity at Low Temperature
tory may vary by 5°F and from different laboratories Test Method: Federal Test Method 202 (Ref. 38)
by 10T. This method describes the procedure for determining
(2) Pour Stability Characteristics the ability of hydraulic fluids or highly refined
Test Method: Federal Test Method 203 (Ref. 36) light lubricating oils to remain free of turbidity at
This method is used for determining the stable pour low temperatures.
point of blends of winter grade motor oil and of certain A sample of the fluid and a standard are stored at
types of hydraulic fluids. -65°F (or lower as specified by the purchaser) for a
3-21
AMCP 706-123
specified period. It is then agitated and its turbidity is an instantaneous flash. The fire point, however, is the
compared to the standard. The standard is a mixture of minimum temperature at which sufficient vapor is
barium chloride, sulfuric acid, and sodium hydroxide. continuously generated to sustain combustion. Since
The turbidity of the sample is reported as less than, differences between flash and fire points are not great,
more than, or equal to the standard. and since fire point data cannot be obtained in a closed
tester, the fire point is often omitted in commercial data
on hydraulic fluids. Table 3-4 lists the flash point
3-2.6.5 Significance of Cloud and Pour Points requirements of five common Military Specifications for
hydraulic fluids.
Many hydraulic systems are required to operate in

3-2.7.1.1 Test Methods for Flash and Fire Points
extremely cold weather. Under these conditions the oil
must flow to the suction side of the hydraulic pump on (1) Cleveland Open Cup Method
start-up of the system. The pour point, being the lowest Test Methods: Federal Test Method 1103.6 (Ref. 39)
temperature at which a liquid will flow under normal ASTM D-92-66 (Ref. 40)
gravity head, must be considered in selecting a hydrau- These methods describe a procedure for determining
lic fluid for cold weather applications. The oil chosen the flash and fire points of petroleum products except
for the system should have a pour point below the fuel oils and those products having an open cup flash
lowest anticipated start-up temperature. point below 175°F.
The cloud point, on the other hand, is of little signifi- The test cup is filled with the sample and the temper-
cance. A formation of the waxy crystals may tend to ature of the sample is increased, first rapidly and then
plug up small orifices, but this fact is taken into account at a slower constant rate as the flash point is ap-
in the design of hydraulic systems for low temperature proached. At 5°F intervals, a small flame is passed
operation. The clouding of liquids, however, will some- across the cup in a prescribed manner. The lowest tem-
times cause the clogging of filters if no preheating facili- perature at which application of the test flame causes
ties are available. vapors above the surface of the sample to ignite is taken
as the flash point. The test is continued until the ap-
plication of the test flame causes the fluid to ignite and
3-2.7 FLAMMABILITY CHARACTERISTICS burn for at least 5 sec. That temperature is the fire
point. A sketch of the Cleveland Open Cup apparatus
The measurement of the flammability characteristics is shown in Fig. 3-22.
of a hydraulic fluid is complex. The degree of flamma-
bility is influenced by the characteristics of the liquid, Precision: Results should not be considered suspect
the source of the ignition, whether the liquid has vapo- unless they differ by more than the following amounts:
rized, and many other factors. The potential danger (a) Repeatability.
from hydraulic fluids is frequently great because of the Flash point 15°F, 8.3°C
high pressures involved in many systems. Fracture of Fire point 10°F, 5.5°C
hydraulic lines or leakage from faulty connections can (b) Reproducibility.
form a fine spray of liquid which is readily ignitable. Flash point 30°F, 16.7°C
Numerous tests have been developed to determine the Fire point 20°F, 11.1°C
flammability characteristics of liquids both under (2) Tag Closed Cup Tester Method
laboratory conditions and also under simulated operat- Test Methods: Federal Test Method 1101.6 (Ref. 41)
ing conditions. ASTM D-56-64 (Ref. 42)
These methods describe procedures for determining
the flash and fire points of fluids that flash below
3-2.7.1 Flash and Fire Points 175°F, with the exception of products classified as
fuel oils.
The flash and fire points are the most common The sample is placed in the cup of the tester; the lid
laboratory measurements of the flammability of a liq- is closed; and the temperature is increased at a slow
uid. The flash point is the minimum temperature at constant rate. A small flame is directed into the cup at
which sufficient liquid is vaporized under specified con- 1°F intervals. The lowest temperature at which the ap-
ditions to create a mixture that will burn if ignited. As plication of the test flame causes a vapor above the
the name "flash" indicates, burning at this point is only sample to ignite is the flash point.
3-22
AMCP 706-123
TABLE 3-4.
FLASH POINT REQUIREMENT OF FIVE MILITARY SPECIFICATION FLUIDS
Specification Fluid Type Use Flash Point, °F, min
MIL-H-5606B Petroleum Aircraft 200
MIL-H-8446B Nonpetroleum Aircraft 395
MIL-H-13866B Petroleum Artillery 210
W-B-680a Nonpetroleum Automotive 179.6
MIL-H-27601A Petroleum Aircraft 360
-THERMOMETER
TEST FLAME
APPLICATOR
-TEST CUP
HEATER (FLAME-TYPE
l
OR ELECTRIC
RESISTANCE-TYPE)
Fig. 3-22. Cleveland Open Cup Flash and Fire Point Test Apparatus
Precision: Results should not be considered suspect mechanism on the cover that opens a shutter, lowers
unless they differ by more than the following amounts: the test flame through the opening into the vapor space
(a) Repeatability. 2°F of the cup in 0.5 sec, leaves the flame in place for 1 sec,
(b) Reproducibility. Below 55°F-6°F and quickly retracts the flame and closes the shutter.
55°F or above-4°F The flash point is recorded as the temperature of the
(3) Pensky-Martens Closed Cup Tester Method sample at the time the test flame application causes a
Test Methods: Federal Test Method 1102 (Ref. 43) distinct flash in the interior of the cup.
ASTM D-93-66 (Ref. 44) Precision: Results should not be considered suspect
These methods describe procedures for the determi- unless they differ by more than the following amounts:
nation of the flash point of fuel oils, lubricating oils,
suspensions of solids, liquids that tend to form a surface Material Flash Point Repeatability Reproducibility
film under test conditions, and other liquids, with the Range
Pensky-Martens Closed Cup Tester. Suspen-
The sample is placed in the cup of the tester; the lid sion of 95° to 110°F 4°F 6°F
closed; and the sample heated at a slow, constant rate Solids
with continual stirring. A small flame is directed into
the cup at 5°F intervals with simultaneous interruption All Below 220°F 4°F 6°F
of stirring. The test flame is applied by operating the Others Above 220°F 10T 15°F
3-23
AMCP 706-123
3-2.7.1.2 Significance of Flash and Fire Points the general types of tests and procedures and the efforts
towards standardization is given in Ref. 46.
Petroleum liquids do not burn as such, but in gen- (1) Spray Ignition Tests
eral, must first be vaporized. The flash and fire points There are two versions of this test-the high-pressure
are measures of the minimum temperature at which spray ignition test and the low-pressure spray igni-
sufficient vapor will be given off from the liquid so that tion test.
a combustible mixture of air and vapor is obtained. In (a) High-pressure Spray Test (MIL-F-7100(Ref.
this manner, the relative fire and explosion hazard can 45)): The liquid is pressurized to 1,000 psi with
be estimated from the flash and fire points. nitrogen and forced through an orifice 0.0145
Flash and fire points are also useful for evaluation of in. in diameter. Attempts are made to obtain
used liquids. If a liquid undergoes a rise in flash or fire ignition by application of an oxy-acetylene
point while in service, loss of the lighter fractions by torch flame at various standard distances from
evaporation is indicated. A lower flash or fire point is the nozzle. At each position, a report is made
an indication that the liquid has become contaminated as to whether or not the fluid will ignite, will
with a more volatile product (such as a fuel) or that flash with difficulty, or flashes readily. If flash-
some of the heavier fractions have broken down. The ing occurs, the distance from the orifice at
flash and fire points are also aids in establishing the which the ignition or flashing is carried down-
identity of unknown petroleum products. stream from the test flame area, and whether
the flashing is self-extinguishing or results in a
3-2.7.2 Flammability Tests Under Simulated sustained fire, are also reported. A pictorial
Service Conditions sketch of the high-pressure spray ignition test
apparatus is shown in Fig. 3-23.
There are many complex factors involved in assess- (b) Low-pressure Spray Test (Ref. 4): A fire is
ing the flammability of hydraulic fluids, and no one started in a metal pan filled with oil-soaked
single test can be used to evaluate all of the types of rags and is allowed to burn. The liquid to be
liquids under all of the expected conditions of use. The tested is sprayed towards the fire from the
flash and fire points are laboratory tests that bear little reservoir of an ordinary paint spray machine
resemblance to actual operating conditions. As a result, several feet from the fire. The increased inten-
several different methods for testing the flammability sity of the fire is then used as a measure of the
of liquids were developed. Most of these tests were flammability of the liquid. A pictorial sketch
designed to simulate conditions in aircraft resulting of the low-pressure spray ignition test ap-
from a broken hydraulic line spraying liquid onto vari- paratus is shown in Fig. 3-24.
ous sources of ignition. Although the tests were deve- An alternative low-pressure spray ignition test has
loped primarily for the aircraft industry, they are useful been developed by Rowand and Sargent (Ref. 46). This
in any industry where hydraulic liquids are exposed to method uses an airless paint spray gun. The gun gener-
ignition sources. Three of the more common of these ates a flat, well-defined atomized spray by pumping the
tests-the spray ignition, the hot manifold or hot surface liquid onto a high-speed rotating disk which propels
ignition, and the incendiary gun fire test-are described the liquid in the form of small droplets through a slot
in MIL-F-7100, Fluid, Hydraulic, Nonflammable, Air- in the side of the gun. A glass blower's torch 4 in. from
craft (Ref. 45), an early specification for a fire-resistant the nozzle is the ignition source. The amount of flame
hydraulic fluid. It was issued December 1950 and can- produced in the spray is used as a measure of the flam-
celled February 1958. No products were ever produced mability of the liquid. This method has the advantages
that conformed to the specification. The fire-resistance of requiring only electricity, a source of ignition, and
tests in the specification (described briefly here) are still can be performed in a laboratory hood.
used by many companies involved in hydraulic fluid
work, although they vary from company to company. (2) Hot Manifold Ignition Test (MIL-F-7100 (Ref.
Other tests are described in the literature, in various 45))
Military Specifications, and in ASTM special publica- The liquid is allowed to drop at a specified rate on
tions. Many of these tests are similar in nature but a simulated aircraft manifold heated to approximately
differ in their apparatus and procedures. A major prob- 1300°F. The ignition of the liquid and the carrying of
lem confronting industry today is the lack of test stand- the flame to the pan below the manifold are used as
ardization and interpretation of test results to ade- measures of the flammability of the liquid. Variations
quately measure fire resistance of fluids. A review of of the test involve raising or lowering the manifold
3-24
AMCP 706-1 23
-FLUID RESERVOIR
PRESSURE GAGE
OXY-ACETYLENE
TORCH
FLUID SPRAY
■ HYDRAULIC STRUT
PRESSURE SOURCE
Fig. 3-23. High-pressure Spray Ignition Test Apparatus
PAN OF BURNING RAGS
FLUID SPRAY
PAINT SPRAY GUN

■AIR SUPPLY
Fig. 3-24. Low-pressure Spray Ignition Test Apparatus

3-25
AMCP 706-123
temperature until ignition occurs or until the limits of and/or explosion, depending on the rate of pressure
the apparatus have been exceeded. This variation pro- release, volume of air, and quantity of organic material.
vides an indication of the spontaneous ignition temper- The phenomenon of compression ignition can be im-
ature of liquids contacting heated steel surfaces in the portant in generating fires in hydraulic systems. Ac-
presence of large amounts of air. A pictorial sketch of cumulators, pressure gage's, and other closed-end
the hot manifold spray ignition test apparatus is shown equipment are especially susceptible to this phenome-
in Fig. 3-25. non. Two basic tests have been developed to determine
(3) Incendiary Gun Fire Tests (MIL-F-7100 (Ref. the compression ignition characteristics of hydraulic
45)) fluids-the diesel engine test and the shock tube or pip-
The liquid is placed in a 3 ft long, 5/8 in. OD alumi- ing system test.
num alloy tube and pressurized to 1,000 psi with nitro- (a) Diesel Engine Compression Ignition: This test
gen. A cal .30 incendiary bullet is fired from a range of is described in MIL-H-19475 (Ref. 47), a Mili-
50 yd into the tube. Observations for burning or explo- tary Specification for hydraulic fluids for Na-
sion of the liquid are made and are reported as a meas- val aircraft catapult launching systems. The
ure of the flammability of the liquid. test is a modification of the ASTM CFR Ce-
(4) Compression Ignition tane rating engine test described in ASTM
It has been found that high-pressure air suddenly Manual of Engine Test Methods for Rating
expanding into a confined space containing organic Fuels. A sample of the liquid is injected into
matter such as a hydraulic fluid can cause ignition a variable compression diesel engine, and the
FLUID SUPPLY TUBE

DROPS OF FLUID
FIRE SHIELD
ONTO MANIFOLD
HEATER MANIFOLD TUBE

(INSIDE TUBE)
DRIP PAN
Fig. 3-25. Hot Manifold Ignition Test Apparatus

3-26
AMCP 706-1 23
engine is thenturnedover at various compression . H

4 RADIUS |
ratios. The lowest compression ratio for com- PIPE 120 DEG OSCILLATING
CLEAN ER < J, DEVICE
bustion of the liquid is reported as a measure /
of the fluid's flammability. The higher the
compression ratio, the more resistant the liq-
l'A TO 2
uid is to compression ignition,
(b) Shock Tube or Piping System Test: This test is
described in MIL-H-22072 (Ref. 48) for a fire-
BURNER
resistant hydraulic fluid. A small amount of
steel wool soaked with the liquid is placed at
the closed end of a pipe. By use of high-pres- <%*
sure air and a fast opening valve, a shock wave
is introduced and directed down the pipe.
Combustion of the liquid on the steel wool can DIMENSIONS IN INCHES
be determined by a rapid rise in temperature of
the steel wool or by examination at the end of Fig. 3-26. Test Apparatus for the Pipe Cleaner Evap-
the test. Several repeat tests are conducted, oration Test
and the results are reported as the ratio of the
number of times that fire occurred to the num-
ber of tests tried at a given temperature. The
ASTM D-2155-66 (Ref. 50). A small sample of the
fewer times the liquid burns, the more resistant
liquid to be tested is injected, with a hypodermic sy-
it is to compression ignition. Reproducible re-
ringe, into a heated glass flask containing air. The con-
sults have been difficult to obtain in this test.
tents of the flask are observed in a darkened room for
5 min following injection of the sample or until ignition
3-2.7.3 Effects of Evaporation on occurs. Ignition is evidenced by the sudden appearance
Flammability (Pipe Cleaner Test) of a flame inside the flask. The lowest temperature at
which autoignition occurs is taken as the autoignition
Test Method: Federal Test Method 352 (Ref. 49) temperature of the product in air at 1 atmosphere pres-
This method is used for determining the effect of sure. The time lag between injection and ignition is also
evaporation on the flammability of a liquid petroleum reported. A cross-sectional sketch of the AIT ap-
product. A pipe cleaner, soaked with the fluid, is passed paratus is shown in Fig 3-27.
repeatedly through a flame at a rate of 25 cycles per A new test procedure is expected to be included in
minute and the number of passes required for ignition the revised edition of Federal Test Method Standard
is noted. The fluid is then stored in an oven for the time 791a. The new procedure will be designated Method
and at the temperature required by the fluid specifica- 5050 and entitled "Autogenous Ignition at Reduced or
tion, and its flammability is rechecked. Four repeats of Elevated Pressure". The temperature determined with
the test are made before and after heating in the oven. this test procedure is sometimes referred to as the reac-
The results are reported as the average number of cy- tion threshold temperature.
cles necessary for a self-sustaining flame to be achieved The autoignition temperature is a laboratory meas-
on the pipe cleaner both before and after partial evapo- urement and is very sensitive to the procedure used in
ration in the oven. A sketch of the test apparatus is its determination. It has been shown that in practice
shown in Fig. 3-26. autoignition depends on many factors, such as the na-
ture of the surface contacting the liquids, the composi-
tion of the combustible air mixture, and the pressure at
3-2.7.4 Autoignition Temperature the area of contact. Researchers at the U. S. Bureau of
Mines (Ref. 51) have found that the AIT of a MIL-O-
The autoignition temperature (AIT)-often called the 5606 liquid increases appreciably with a decrease in
spontaneous ignition temperature (SIT)-is that tem- environmental pressure below one atmosphere but
perature at which a flame can be obtained without an changes little with increasing environmental pressures
external source of ignition. It should not be confused above one atmosphere (Fig. 3-28). Not all liquids will
with flash or fire points which rely upon ignition have the marked change in slope of the AIT/pressure
source. Autoignition temperature is determined by curve near atmospheric pressure shown on Fig. 3-28.
3-27
AMCP 706-1 23
ERLENMEYER FLASK
200CC
HEATERS
INSULATION
THERMOCOUPLE
Fig. 3-27. Autoignition Temperature Test Apparatus
Some liquids will have a gradual decrease in minimum and emulsion-type. A complete discussion of the vari-
spontaneous ignition temperature with pressure in- ous types is beyond the scope of this text and the discus-
crease and may or may not exhibit a slope change near sion here will be limited.
one atmosphere. For example, Fig. 3-29 shows that the (1) Synthetics: A wide variety of synthetic liquids
AIT of a chlorinated phenyl methyl silicone liquid is have been investigated as candidate hydraulic fluids,
essentially a linear function of pressure. Figs. 3-28 and and certain types have been adopted and specifications
3-29 also show that the nature and type of surface in written (see Chapter 4). Some of the typical classes of
contact with these liquids have little or no effect on the fluids under investigation are phosphate esters, haloge-
change in AIT with pressure. It has also been found nated hydrocarbons, silicones, and silicates. A detailed
(Ref. 52) that the AIT generally decreases with increas- discussion of synthetic fluids can be found in Refs. 53,
ing environmental oxygen content (see Fig. 3-30). 54, and 55.
3-2.7.5 Fire-resistant Liquids
(2) Water-glycol: Water-glycol base fire-resistant
The development of liquids that are inflammable or liquids are solutions of from 35 to 50 percent water in
highly fire-resistant is the area of hydraulic fluid re- ethylene or propylene glycol, which are thickened, if
search that is receiving the greatest attention. As late necessary, to a higher viscosity by adding a water-solu-
as 1950 fire-resistant hydraulic fluids were uncommon. ble polyglycol. The fire resistance of these liquids is due
For reasons of safety, insurance companies and Gov- entirely to the presence of water. They were originally
ernment and industrial safety agencies have en- developed for use in military equipment but have been
couraged the use of fire-resistant fluids in Government, used extensively in industrial equipment.
industrial, and agricultural equipment. Fire-resistant
liquids should not be confused with high-temperature (3) Emulsions: Emulsion-type hydraulic fluids are
liquids. A fire-resistant liquid will not burn easily. A multiphase systems containing two liquids, such as oil
high-temperature liquid will not significantly change and water, which are not usually mutually soluble.
its properties at "high temperatures". Water is a fire- Water-in-oil emulsions have found wide acceptance as
resistant liquid but it is not a high-temperature liquid. industrial hydraulic fluids. The emulsions contain up to
40 percent water which acts as a snuffer to render the
One of the fundamental properties of petroleum liq- liquid fire-resistant.
uids is their flammability. Although the flammability
characteristics of petroleum liquids can be modified by
the use of special refining procedures (Ref. 50) and/or 3-2.8 VOLATILITY
the use of additives, fluids of this type have shown
considerable improvement in fire resistance over MIL- All liquids tend to vaporize when they are heated.
H-5606B type hydraulic fluids (Ref. 55). Other catego- The volatility of a liquid describes the degree and rate
ries of fire-resistant liquids are synthetic, water base, at which it will vaporize under given conditions of
3-28
AMCP 706-123
MINIMUM SPONTANEOUS IGNITION TEMPERATURE, °F

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3-29
w
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LEGEND z
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500 X Aluminum
5 oo
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LU V Beryllium copper 900
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o
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z
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z o Stainless steel o
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z 200 j I I 1 I _L _L I J I I I I I 400
5 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 4 8 10 20
PRESSURE, ATMOSPHERES ABSOLUTE
Fig. 3-29 • Spontaneous Ignition Temperature of a Chlorinated Phenyl Methyl

Silicone in Air in Contact With Various Surfaces As a Function of
Test Chamber Pre" -re51
420
50 60 70 100
OXYGEN CONCENTRATION, VOLUME PERCENT
o•v
-si
Fig. 3-30. Spontaneous Ignition Temperature of Seven Hydraulic Fluids at o
en
Atmospheric Pressure in Contact With a Pyrex Glass Surface As
a Function of Oxygen Concentration52 i\>
co
AMCP 706-123
temperature and pressure. It is desirable that a hydrau- An apparatus has been developed for determining
lic fluid have low volatility. Vaporization of a liquid in the vapor pressure of low-volatility solids and liquids.
service can result in pump damage through cavitation The apparatus can determine absolute vapor pressures
and a reduction in efficiency. There are three character- at temperatures up to 1000°F, in a very short period of
istics generally used to indicate the volatility character- time, and with relatively simple equipment. The
istics of a liquid-vapor pressure, boiling point, and method is based on the kinetic theory of gases, which
evaporation loss. All three are different aspects of the states that the weight loss of a material per unit time
volatility of a liquid. is proportional to the vapor pressure of the material
(Ref. 4).
A tentative standard test method (Ref. 59) has been
3-2.8.1 Vapor Pressure adopted by ASTM for determining the vapor pressure
of petroleum products that are nonviscous. The
The pressure exerted by a vapor which is in equilib- method involves injecting a sample of the liquid into a
rium with the liquid is known as vapor pressure. For glass bulb that has been evacuated. The rise in pressure
a given liquid, this pressure is a function only of tem- in the bulb, resulting from the sample introduction, is
perature. The more volatile the liquid, the higher the the sum of the vapor pressure of the sample and the
vapor pressure at a specified temperature and the faster partial pressure of dissolved air, practically all of which
the vaporization. comes out of solution.
The vapor pressure for a pure liquid is a physical The vapor pressure of hydraulic fluids and other
property of the liquid for a given temperature. How- low-volatility liquids is usually expressed in millimeters
ever, most hydraulic fluids are mixtures of several com- of mercury. The vapor pressure of more volatile pro-
ponents. The vapor pressure of the mixture is a com- ducts such as gasoline and solvents is often expressed
posite value that reflects the combined effects of the as the Reid vapor pressure. The Reid vapor pressure is
individual components. Theoretically, the vapor pres- approximately the vapor pressure in pounds per square
sure of the mixture can be calculated from knowledge inch absolute. The method of measuring the Reid vapor
of the vapor pressures of the individual components pressure of a liquid is described by ASTM D-323-58
and their mole fractions. (Ref. 60) and Federal Test Method 1201.6 (Ref. 61). It
Numerous methods have been developed for deter- is determined by placing a sample of the fuel (chilled
mining the vapor pressure of pure fluids. Several of the to 32° to 40°F) in a sealed bomb with air at ambient
more common test methods are the isoteniscope, gas pressure and 100°F and measuring the change of pres-
saturation methods, and effusion methods. The use of sure in the bomb. The Reid vapor pressure is a standard
these methods to determine the vapor pressure of mix- measure of volatility in the fuels and solvents industry.
tures, such as hydraulic fluids, can introduce errors,
and it is difficult to obtain accurate vapor pressure
data. Of the above methods, the isoteniscope is proba-
bly the most commonly used. Descriptions of the 3-2.8.2 Boiling Point
isoteniscope technique and apparatus can be found in
Refs. 56 and 57. However, a standardized test proce- The boiling point becomes important only for rela-
dure has not been adopted, and the apparatus and test tively pure compounds and is not generally used to
procedure vary slightly in different laboratories. When describe liquids which are mixtures. It is determined by
the vapor pressure is presented, it is frequently the extrapolation of vapor pressure data or by simply heat-
vapor pressure of the base liquid. A graph of vapor ing a liquid until it refluxes or distills. For liquids that
pressure vs temperature for some of the more common are mixtures, a range of boiling points is obtained
types of hydraulic fluids is shown in Fig. 3-31 (Ref. 58). rather than a single boiling point. The boiling point
The vapor pressures of specific hydraulic fluids may temperature range of petroleum products is normally
differ from those of the examples shown in Fig. 3-31. determined by ASTM D-86-66, "Distillation of Pe-
In an homologous series of liquids, the vapor pressures troleum Products". A 100-ml sample of the product is
of the individual liquids vary inversely with their distilled in a prescribed manner, depending upon its
molecular weights. Fig. 3-32 is a graph of vapor pres- nature. Temperature readings taken are the initial boil-
sure vs temperature for several types of liquids and ing temperature of the sample, the maximum boiling
exemplifies the differences in the vapor pressures of two temperature, and other temperatures as prescribed per-
petroleum base hydraulic fluids (MIL-H-5606B and centages of the distilled product are recovered in a
MIL-H-27601A). condensing unit.
3-32
AMCP 706-123
1000
bo
X
£
£
w
D
to
W
Pi
O
$
0.01
0.001
120 150 20u 280
TEMPERATURE, °F
Fig. 3-31. Vapor Pressure vs Temperature of Typical Fluids (Approximate)
[From: F. D. Yeaple, Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power and Control58.Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
Boiling of a hydraulic fluid in a system can result in hydraulic fluids, lubricants, and greases. The actual
failure or component damage. Formation of vapor in evaporation rate is not an overly important factor in
control lines, actuators, servomotors, and other compo- closed-loop hydraulic systems which are not exposed to
nents will adversely affect the operation of those com- the atmosphere, but can be important in systems with
ponents. Boiling on the suction side of the pump will reservoirs vented to the atmosphere. Several tests for
reduce the pump delivery and cause cavitation in determining evaporation loss have been developed and
the pump. adopted as ASTM or Federal Test Methods. Most of
these tests are essentially the same in that they consist
3-2.8.3 Evaporation of heating a sample of the liquid in the presence of air
Evaporation loss is widely used in the United States and observing the results. They differ in their proce-
to describe the volatility of liquid products such as dure, apparatus, and method of reporting results.
3-33
AMCP 706-12?
iuuu
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200 300 400 500
TEMPERATURE, °F
Fig. 3-32. Vapor Pressure vs Temperature of Several Types of Hydraulic Fluids
(1) Evaporation (Tackiness Test): oven is heated to the temperature for the period of time
Test Method: Federal Test Method 353 (Ref. 62) called for in the fluid specification. The condition of the
This test method is intended for hydraulic fluids fluid on the slide is reported. A fluid is considered to
which contain viscosity improvers (such as acryloid have passed the test if it is still oily and not hardior
polymers). It serves as a means of determining the tacky.
tackiness of the viscosity improver after the base liquid
has been evaporated. (2) Evaporation Loss:
A glass slide is dipped in a sample of the fluid at Test Methods: Federal Test Method 351.2 (Ref. 63)
room temperature and then suspended in an oven. The ASTM D-972-56 (Ref. 64)
3-34
AMCP 706-123
These methods describe a test procedure for the that liquid. The density and the coefficient of cubical
determination of evaporation loss of lubricating greases expansion are closely related because the coefficient of
and oils at any temperature in the range of 210° cubical expansion defines the change in volume (and
to 30(fF. therefore the change in the density) with a change
A sample of the fluid is placed in a special container in temperature.
in a bath maintained at the test temperature (see Fig.
3-33). Heated air is passed over the surface of the fluid
for 22 hours. The evaporation loss is expressed in per- 3-2.9.1 Density
cent weight loss of the sample.
Precision: The density is defined as the mass of a unit volume
(a) Repeatability. 2.5 percent of the mean of material at any given temperature and pressure. In
(b) Reproducibility. 10 percent of the mean the metric system these units are grams per cubic centi-
meter. It is frequently more convenient to express the
(3) Evaporation Loss-High Temperature:
density at a given temperature and pressure as the rela-
Test Method: Federal Test Method 350 (Ref. 65)
tive density, which is defined by
This method is the same as the evaporation loss of
paragraph (2) above except for the temperatures for the
test and the apparatus. Evaporation loss data can be relative density = — (3-21)
obtained at any temperature in the range of 210° Po
where
to 1000T.
p = density at a given temperature
3-2.9 DENSITY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, AND and pressure
THERMAL EXPANSION p = density at a reference
temperature and pressure
Liquids expand in volume, with a corresponding de- (standard conditions of 25°C
crease in density, when heated. The amount of expan- (77°F) and 760 mm Hg are
sion varies with each liquid and is a basic property of frequently used)
AIR OUTLET
AIR INLET
BATH LEVEL
FLUID SAMPLE
Fig. 3-33. Cut-away Sketch of the Evaporation Loss Apparatus Used in ASTM
D-972 Test Method
3-35
AMCP 706-123
Density is of great importance when calculating flow Density also varies with pressure. An increase in
of hydraulic fluids through components such as valves, pressure produces an increase in density. However, the
pumps, and motors. The density enters into the flow- normal pressures encountered in most hydraulic sys-
energy equations and changes in density will affect the tems are not high enough to produce significant
results obtained from the equations. High-density liq- changes in density. A graph of relative density vs pres-
uids may generally be eliminated from consideration sure for a typical MIL-H-5606B hydraulic fluid is
because of weight limitations imposed on the hydraulic shown in Fig. 3-36 (Ref. 67). Pressures as high as 5000
system, especially in airborne systems. psi (which is higher than the pressures normally en-
countered in hydraulic systems) produce changes of
Density is a function of both temperature and pres- less than 2.5 percent in the density of the MIL-H-
sure. An increase in temperature produces a decrease 5606B fluid. As the pressures are increased to very high
in density. Changes in density due to expansion of levels, large and significant changes in density are pro-
fluids between the minimum and maximum system duced. The ASME Pressure-Viscosity Report (Ref. 21)
temperature can cause serious malfunctions unless con- gives density data on several liquids at pressures up to
sidered in the design of a system. For a high-tempera-
150,000 psi. Wilson (Ref. 22) reports density-pressure
ture aircraft or missile hydraulic system operating be-
tween the extreme temperatures of-65° and 500°F, the data (see Fig. 3-37) on MLO-60-50 fluid (an ester of
fluid volume can be expected to change up to 35 per- trimethylolpropane, the base fluid of MIL-L-9236 oil).
cent (Ref. 66). Graphs of density vs temperature for Both of these reports indicate that changes in density
several types of fluids are shown in Figs. 3-34 and 3-35. up to 35 percent are produced at these higher pressures.
1.5 T
^VRINATED
1.4 J££22^*BON
1.3
1.2 j^^TE ESTF

ER
u
b0
> 1.1
i->
i—i
WATER-GLYCOL
Z
a i.o
JXLICONE
0.9 " 8MULSIO?
0.7
100 120 140 loO 180 200
TEMPERATURE, °F
Fig. 3-34. Density vs Temperature of Typical Fluids (Approximate)
[From: F. D. Yeaple, Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power and Contro^.Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
3-36
AMCP 706-123
1.96 1—~T T r
1.88
1.80
1.72
1.64
1.56
1.48
1.40
o
u
bO
„ 1.32
to
2 1.24
W
Q
1.16
1.08 -
1.00
0.92 -
0.84
0.76
0.68
ICO 200 300 400 500
U
TEMPERATURE, F
Fig. 3-35. Density vs Temperature of Several Types of Hydraulic Fluids at Atmospheric Pressure
3-37
AMCP 706-123
OH
1.004 —
1.000
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
PRESSURE, PSIG
Fig. 3-36. Relative Density vs Pressure at Several Temperatures of a Typical Fluid

Conforming to MIL-H-5606B67
Researchers at Rock Island Arsenal have conducted dimensionless ratio, is sometimes erroneously used in-
extensive studies on the effect of hydraulic fluid density terchangeably with density. They are not the same and
on the performance of artillery recoil mechanisms should not be confused. They are numerically equal
(Refs. 68, 69). They determined that using a liquid of only when water, at 4°C (39.2°F) and 760 mm Hg is the
higher density resulted in shorter recoil lengths and reference liquid. At those conditions, 1 gram of water
higher pressures. Shorter recoil length may be of value occupies 1 millihter or 1.000027 cubic centimeters. The
in recoil systems operating in confined areas such as small difference is usually neglected and the terms mil-
combat vehicles, but consideration must be given to the liliters and cubic centimeters are considered inter-
higher pressures involved. changeable. Specific gravity is as pressure sensitive as
density and an increase in pressure will produce an
increase in specific gravity.
3-2.9.2 Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is very useful in the commercial as-
pect of the petroleum industry. Almost all liquid pe-
The specific gravity of a liquid is defined as the ratio
of the mass of a unit volume of the liquid at a given troleum products are packed by volume-barrels, gal-
temperature to that of an equal volume of pure water lons, etc. However, they are frequently shipped or sold
at a standard temperature. The two temperatures are on a weight basis and the specific gravity provides a
not necessarily the same and both must be indicated in convenient conversion factor. Specific gravity is also
specific gravity data. The common procedure is to have useful in determining fuel loads, determining combus-
both temperatures equal 60°F (15.6°C) and report the tion efficiencies, and in other processes that depend on
data as "specific gravity at 60/60°F" (the numerator is specific gravities of the materials used. The range of
the temperature of the fluid and the denominator is the specific gravities for petroleum products is about 0.700
reference temperature of the water). Specific gravity, a to 1.150.
3-38
AMCP 706-123
0.95
EXPERIMENTALLY DETERMINED
EXTRAPOLATED
0.90, 1 1 1 1
20 40 60 80 100 120
3
PRESSURE, PSIG x I0"
Fig. 3-37. Density vs Pressure at Several Temperatures for MLO-60-50 Fluid (an
22
ester of trimethylolpropane)
3-39
AMCP 706-123
3-2.9.3 API Gravity
Several methods have been developed to express the

0.00058 -
weight-volume relationship of a liquid as a whole num-
ber. One such method is the American Petroleum Insti-
tute (API) Gravity Scale. The scale is based on specific fe
gravity at 60°F (15.6°C) and reports specific gravity as
API degrees from 0 to 100. The API scale is an arbi-
trary scale with zero corresponding to a specific gravity Z
of 1.076 and 100 corresponding to a specific gravity of o 0.00054 -
0.6762. Therefore, the higher the API Gravity, the 2
lower the specific gravity of a liquid and the less dense
the liquid. API gravity is related to specific gravity by X-
the formula W
API Gravity (degrees)

3 0.00050 -
141.5 (3-22)
EQ
131.5 D
specific gravity 60/60°F u
O
H
For example, water with a specific gravity of 1.000, Z 0.00046 -
60/60T, has an API Gravity of 10.0. m
IH
U
1—I
3-2.9.4 Coefficient of Cubical Expansion w

O
The coefficient of cubical expansion (often called the U
0.00042
coefficient of thermal expansion) expresses the change 100 200 300 400 500
in volume per unit volume with temperature. It has the TEMPERATURE, °F
units of vol/(vol-temperature). Thermal expansion is Fig. 3-38. Coefficient of Cubical Expansion vs Temper
always accompanied by a change in density or specific
ature of Several Types of Hydraulic Fluids
gravity and the coefficient of expansion is usually cal-
culated from density (or specific gravity) data deter- A sample of the fluid is brought to the proper test
mined at various temperatures. It is an average value temperature and placed in a glass cylinder. An API
over the actual temperature range of determination and hydrometer is floated in the fluid and the API Gravity
is not necessarily a linear function. The temperature in degrees is read from the hydrometer. The tempera-
range where the measurements are made should be ture of the sample is noted. All readings are cor
stated in all data. Graphs of thermal expansion vs tem- rected to API Gravity at 60° F by means of
perature for three hydraulic fluids are shown in standard tables published by ASTM and the Institute
Fig. 3-38. of Petroleum (Ref. 72).
Precision: The criteria which should be followed for

3-2.9.5 Test Methods for Density and judging results obtained at temperatures of 60"±18°F
Specific Gravity are that results should not be considered suspect unless
they differ by more than the following amounts:
(1) API Gravity: (a) Repeatability. 0.2° API
Test Methods: Federal Test Method 401.5 (Ref. 70) (b) Reproducibility. 0.5° API
ASTM D-287-64 (Ref. 71)
These methods describe a procedure for determina-
tion, by means of a glass hydrometer, *the API Gravity A hydrometer is a floating instrument for determing the specific
of petroleum products normally handled as liquids and gravity of fluids from knowledge of the specific gravity of the
hydrometer and the amount of the floating hydrometer that ex-
having a Reid vapor pressure of 26 psi or less. tends above the surface of the fluid.
3-40
AMCP 706-123
(2) Density and Specific Gravity - Lipkin Bicapil- (3) Density and Specific Gravity-Bingham Pycnom-
lary Pycnometer eter
Test Methods: Federal Test Method 402.2 (Ref. 73) This method describes the procedure for determining
ASTM D-941-55 (Ref. 74) the density of pure hydrocarbons or petroleum distil-
These methods describe the procedure for the meas- lates boiling between 90° and 160°C (194° and 230°F)
urement of density of hydrocarbon materials that can that can be handled normally as liquids at 20°and25°C
be normally handled as liquids at the specified test (68° and 77°F). Also provided is a calculation proce-
temperatures of 20° and 25°C (68° and 77°F). Applica- dure for conversion of density to specific gravity.
tion is. restricted to liquids having vapor pressures less The fluid sample is introduced into the pycnometer
than 600 mm Hg (approximately 0.8 atmospheres) and (shown in Fig. 3-40), allowed to come to equilibrium at
viscosities less than 15-20 centistokes at 20°C. Two the test temperature, and weighed. The specific gravity
procedures are provided-Procedure A for pure com- or density is then calculated from this weight and the
pounds and mixtures not highly volatile, and Proce- previously determined weight of water that is required
dure B for highly volatile mixtures. These test methods to fill the pycnometer at the same temperature.
also provide a calculation procedure for converting Precision: Results with the 25-ml Bingham pycnom-
density to specific gravity. eter should not differ by more than the follow-
A sample of the liquid is drawn into the bicapillary ing amounts:
pycnometer (shown in Fig. 3-39) and weighed. It is (a) Repeatability. 0.00002 g/ml
then placed in a bath at the specified temperature and (b) Reproducibility. 0.00003 g/ml
allowed to come to equilibrium. The height of the fluid
in each arm is noted and the volume is determined from
the pycnometer calibration. The density and the spe-
cific gravity are then calculated from the weight and
volume of the fluid sample.
Precision: Results should not be considered suspect
unless they differ by more than the following amounts:
n
(a) Repeatability. 0.0001 g/ml
(b) Reproducibility. 0.0002 g/ml
•il
GRADUATIONS
SHORT LINES AT EACH 1 mm
LONGER LINES AT EACH 5 mm
NUMBERED AS SHOWN
Fig. 3-40. Bingham Pycnometer for Determining Den-
sity and Specific Gravity of Liquids
(4) Specific Gravity-Hydrometer Method

This method describes a procedure for the determi-
nation, by means of a glass hydrometer, of the specific
gravity of crude petroleum and petroleum products
normally handled as liquids and having a Reid vapor
Fig. 3-39* Lipkin Bicapillary Pycnometer for Determin- pressure of 26 psi or less. Results are determined at 60°F
ing Density and Specific Gravity of Liquids or converted to values at 60°F by means of standard
3-41
AMCP 706-123
tables published by ASTM and the Institute of Pe- For a given hydraulic system supplying a given
troleum (Ref. 72). amount of heat to the hydraulic fluid, a liquid with a
The sample is poured under prescribed conditions high specific heat will undergo a smaller temperature
into a clean hydrometer cylinder. The hydrometer is rise than will a liquid with a low specific heat. Thus a
lowered into the sample so that it is floating freely away high value aids in maintaining a lower operating tem-
from the walls of the cylinder. The observed gravity is perature in a system, and in some applications increases
read directly on the hydrometer scale at the point the amount of heat that may be removed from a system
where the surface of the sample intersects the scale. The hot spot without causing degradation of the liquid.
temperature of the sample is also measured. Most petroleum-base hydraulic fluids have a specific
Precision: Results should not be considered suspect heat between 0.4 and 0.5 Btu/(lb-°F).
when obtained at temperatures differing from 60°F by The specific heat increases with temperature for
less than 18°F unless the specific gravity values differ most hydraulic fluids and the temperature should al-
by more than the following amounts: ways be stated with the data. A graph of specific heat
(a) Repeatability. 0.0015 g/ml vs temperature for several hydraulic fluids is shown in
(b) Reproducibility. 0.0040 g/ml Fig. 3-41. Although specific heat varies with pressure,
the change is so small over the pressure ranges
normally encountered in hydraulic systems that it
3-2.10 HEAT TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS is neglected.
Numerous methods have been developed to measure
The heat transfer properties of a hydraulic fluid can the specific heat (Ref. 4). Almost all of these methods
be very important to the design engineer as most hy- utilize some type of calorimeter (essentially an in-
draulic systems are thermally inefficient. A large por- sulated flask). A known volume of the sample is placed
tion of the pressure energy supplied to the hydraulic into the flask and a known amount of heat is added to
fluid through the pump is dissipated by friction in the the sample. The change in temperature of the sample
valves, motors, actuators, seals, piping, and other com- and the amount of heat added are both recorded. The
ponents of the system. All of this dissipated energy specific heat is then calculated with corrections being
becomes heat energy and much of it raises the liquid made for heat losses from the calorimeter. An approxi-
temperature. A knowledge of the heat transfer charac- mation to the specific heat of petroleum liquids is given
teristics of the liquid then becomes essential to deter- by the following equation (Ref. 77)
mine how high the temperature will rise, and what type
and size of heat exchanger will be needed to maintain
the liquid at a desirable temperature.
(0.388 + 0.00045 D (3-23)
Jds
3-2.10.1 Specific Heat
The specific heat of a liquid is a measure of the
amount of heat a given quantity of liquid can absorb where
from the system. It is defined as the heat required to s = specific gravity at 60/60°F
raise a unit weight of liquid one degree of temperature. T = temperature, °F
The specific heat is usually denoted by the symbol
cp or c„ and its units in the metric system are
calorie/(g-°C) and' in the English system are
Btu/(lb-°F). The subscripts p and v indicate whether
3-2.10.2 Thermal Conductivity
the determination of specific heat is made at constant
pressure or at constant volume. This distinction
becomes important in gases which are highly compress- Thermal conductivity is one measure of the ability of
ible, but liquids are relatively incompressible by com- a material to transfer heat. Heat transfer in operating
parison and there is little difference between the two hydraulic systems is accomplished primarily by con-
values. In general, however, it is common practice to vection because of forced liquid mixing. However, ther-
determine the specific heat of liquids at constant pres- mal conductivity is of importance in the transfer of heat
sure and the symbol c„ is used. Specific heat in the to or from physical boundaries of hydraulic systems. A
metric system is numerically equal to specific heat in liquid having a high thermal conductivity will more
the English system of units. readily pick up heat in hot system components, such as
3-42
AMCP 706-123
0.64
0.32
ct&ptf Ä
VJlO^
f#>
0.28 o?vV°3 A3Ö *^£
CHV.O^ ?^
0.24
s-^S-
?q^
0.20 I I I L J. J L
0 100 200 300 400 500
TEMPERATURE, °F
Fig. 3-41. Specific Heat vs Temperature of Several Types of Hydraulic Fluids
valves and pumps, and transfer it to cooler system com- thermal conductivity of several hydraulic fluids is
ponents such as heat exchangers. Liquids commonly shown in Fig. 3-42.
used in hydraulic systems generally have thermal con-
ductivities at room temperature on the order of 0.06 to Several methods of measuring thermal conductivity
0.09 Btu/(hrXfl*)(T/ft). and these values normally de- have been developed (Ref. 4). Most of these methods
crease appreciably with temperature increases. Con- consist of placing the sample fluid between two surfaces
version of units from the English system in of known area and heating one surface to a known
Btu/(hr)(fl?)CF/ft) to the metric system in temperature. The temperature of the other surface and
cal/(sec)(cm2X°C/cm) can be made by multiplying the the rate of heat transfer are observed. The thermal
values in the English system by 0.00413. A graph of conductivity is then calculated.
3-43
AMCP 706-123
0.084
0.080
0.076
4-
? 0.072
0.068
s-
0.064
CQ
0.060
U 0.056
O
O Si^^LUOK,^
0.052
on
0.048
l0FLUOROCARBON
CHLOR
0.044
0.040 1
100 200 300 400 500
TEMPERATURE, °F
Fig. 3-42. Thermal Conductivity vs Temperature of Several Types of Hydraulic Fluids
3-2.11 COMPRESSIBILITY AND BULK to have the hydraulic fluid as stiff as possible, or stated
MODULUS in another manner, to have the compressibility as small
as possible.
3-2.11.1 Compressibility The coefficient of compressibility is the fractional
change in a unit volume of liquid per unit change of
Most liquids are thought of as being incompressible. pressure. If the compression process is carried out
In general, however, all liquids are compressible to slowly so that sufficient heat is removed to maintain a
some extent. Compressibility of a liquid causes the liq- constant temperature, the resultant value of compressi-
uid to act much like a stiff spring. The spring-like bility is the isothermal compressibility given by (Ref. 4)
action can produce delays in control signals, use energy
in compressing the fluid, and affect the gain or amplifi- (3-24)
cation of servo systems (Ref. 78). It is usually desirable Vo \dp)t
3-44
AMCP 706-123
where variations due to temperature and pressure, a system

Cf = isothermal compressibility can be driven beyond acceptable stability limits
V0 = initial volume (Ref. 66).
& V/dp) = rate of change of volume with
pressure at constant
temperature 3-2.11.2 Bulk Modulus
If the compression takes place so that adiabatic con-
ditions exist (no heat extracted), the result is the isen- Bulk modulus, the reciprocal of compressibility, is
tropic compressibility given by (Ref. 4) used in design calculations for hydraulic systems. The
units of bulk modulus are psi. The higher the bulk
modulus, the less elastic or the suffer the liquid. High
bulk modulus values are usually desirable since the
(3-25) result is a more stable and less elastic system.
ô lap) Like compressibility, bulk modulus can be either iso-
thermal or adiabiatic. The isothermal bulk modulus is
where sometimes referred to as the static bulk modulus be-
C,= isentropic compressibility cause it is determined at a constant temperature. The
isentropic or adiabatic bulk modulus is sometimes re-
ya = initial volume ferred to as the dynamic bulk modulus. In either case,
(d V/dp)s — rate of change of volume with
pressure (at constant entropy) static or dynamic, bulk modulus may be reported as the
secant or the tangent modulus. The names "secant" or
In the English system, compressibility has the units "tangent" refer to the relationship the values have to
of volume/(volume-psi). It is common practice to can- the pressure-volume curve of the liquid (see pars. 3-
cel out the volume terms and express compressibility as 2.11.2.1 and 3-2.11.2.2). There are then four bulk
(psi)~. A graph of percent volume compression vs pres- modulus values possible-isothermal secant, adiabatic
sure of several liquids is shown in Fig. 3-43 (Ref. 58). (isentropic) secant, isothermal tangent, and adiabatic
(isentropic) tangent-and care must be exercised to se-
lect the right value for a particular application. Table
3-5 presents the equations for the various bulk moduli.
A typical graph of isothermal secant bulk modulus vs
pressure is shown in Fig. 3-44.
3-2.11.2.1 Secant Bulk Modulus
The secant bulk modulus (frequently referred to in

the literature as mean or average modulus) is defined
as the total change in liquid pressure divided by the
total change in volume per unit volume of liquid. The
secant modulus then is the slope of the secant (drawn
0 5 10 15 20 25 between two pressures) of the pressure-volume curve
-3 (see Fig. 3-45). It is standard practice to set the initial
PRESSURE, PSIG x 10
pressure equal to atmospheric. The secant modulus of
Fig. 3-43. Fluid Percent Volume Compression vs a liquid can be thought of as the average pressure re-
Pressure of Typical Fluids quired to produce a given volume change per unit
volume over a given pressure range.
(1) Isothermal Secant Bulk Modulus: The isother-
Differences exist between the isothermal and the mal secant bulk modulus Bt is the bulk modulus deter-
isentropic compressibility. For normal situations en- mined when the liquid is held at constant temperature.
countered in hydraulic systems, they are not sufficient It is the modulus value that is applied to systems that
to warrant differentiation. However, at high tempera- change pressure and volume very slowly, allowing heat
tures or pressures, or for certain liquids, the differences to flow in or out to maintain a constant temperature.
can become significant and, when added to the wide This is the value of bulk modulus most often reported
3-45
AMCP 706-123
TABLE 3-5.
BULK MODULUS
Bulk Modulus Equation Comment
Isothermal Bt (1) Pressure-volume data obtained

Secant - -'.(&), at constant temperature
Adiabatic (Isentropic) Bs (2) Pressure-volume data

Secant - -'•(&). obtained at constant entropy
Isothermal
Tangent
Bt
- -Mm (3) No. 1 above
Adiabatic (Isentropic) Bs (4) No. 2 above

Tangent - -"•(*).
Sonic BSo = C2p (5) Sonic modulus is a method of

measuring adiabatic tangent
=
V0 initial volume
Ap = change in pressure
=
AV change in volume
dp/dV = derivative of pressure with respect to volume
p = density of liquid
C = speed of sound in the liquid
for hydraulic fluids. It can be easily determined with over a range of pressures like the secant but repre-
relatively simple equipment. Its defining equation is sents the bulk modulus at a specific temperature
given in Table 3-5. and pressure.
(2) Adiabatic (Isentropic) Secant Bulk Modulus: (1) Isothermal Tangen t Bulk Modulus: The isother-
The adiabatic or isentropic bulk modulus Bs is defined mal tangent bulk modulus 2?f is the tangent bulk modu-
by an equation similar to the isothermal modulus. As lus determined when the fluid is held at a constant
shown in Fig. 3-45, the isentropic and isothermal se- temperature. Its defining equation is given in Table 3-5.
cant bulk moduli are defined by the same secant line. (2) Adiabatic (Isentropic) Tangent Bulk Modulus:
The difference is that the data for the isentropic modu- The isentropic or adiabatic tangent bulk modulus Bs is
lus are acquired under adiabatic conditions. The equa- defined by an equation similar to the isothermal case
tion defining isentropic secant modulus is given in except that the total derivative is used. The difference
Table 3-5. between the isothermal and isentropic tangent bulk
moduli is that the data for the isentropic modulus must
3-2.11.2.2 Tangent Bulk Modulus be acquired under adiabatic conditions rather than un-
der constant temperature conditions.
The tangent bulk modulus is defined as the product
of the derivative of liquid pressure with respect to 3-2.11.3 Sonic Bulk Modulus
volume and the volume under compression. In Fig.
3-45 the tangent bulk modulus is the slope of the tan- Most bulk modulus data are determined by the use
gent drawn at a given point. It is not an average value of mechanical equipment, and the resultant data are the
3-46
AMCP 706-123
700
D
D 600 -
Q
O
500 -
400
Ü
w O 300
in
200
m
x 100
H
O
S3
20 40 60 80 100 120 140

-3
PRESSURE, PSIG x 10
Fig. 3-44. Bulk Modulus vs Pressure-A Generalized Relationship for a Variety of

Fluids Over the Range of 32° to 425°F23
isothermal secant bulk moduli. However, many hy- 3-2.11.4 Measurement of Bulk Modulus
draulic mechanisms operate at relatively high speeds
and the heat of compression does not dissipate. There-
fore, the process is isentropic, not isothermal. One 3-2.11.4.1 Secant and Tangent Bulk Moduli
procedure to obtain the isentropic bulk modulus has
been by differentiation of the isothermal data. This Secant and tangent bulk moduli are usually deter-
involves rather qomplex analytical procedures and is mined by obtaining a pressure-volume curve for
not a simple procedure. However, it was found that the the liquid. Several experimental methods have
isentropic tangent bulk modulus could be measured been developed.
directly with a sonic apparatus. By measuring the speed One method is to compress a known sample of the
of sound in the liquid, the isentropic tangent bulk liquid with a column of mercury. The change in posi-
modulus is determined by the equation given in Table tion of the mercury-liquid interface is a measure of the
3-5. The speed of sound in the liquid is determined by compression of the liquid. Use of capillary tubes of
measuring the time required for a pressure pulse or mercury allows easy attainment of high pressures on
sound wave to travel through the liquid. This method the order of 1,000 to 2,000 psi.
of determining bulk modulus approaches adiabatic Another method frequently used is to place a sealed
conditions with more accuracy than any other method container of the test liquid into a pressure chamber,
used, and the very nature of the experimental proce- subject the container to pressure from an external liq-
dure rules out the existence of an isothermal uid and measure the change in volume of the container.
sonic modulus. One of the most successful examples of this technique
3-47
AMCP 706-123
3000
Ü 20ÜG
i—i
OH
CO
W
a!
o-,
1G00 —
0.005 0.010 0.015

-(AV)
V
Fig. 3-45. Example Representation of Secant and Tangent Bulk Moduli
is the Bridgeman method. The liquid is placed in a one datum point per experiment, but it can be done
bellows and compression of the bellows causes move- with simple equipment and fairly rapidly.
ment of an electrical contact along a slide wire. This
method has the advantage of yielding a continuous plot
of pressure vs volume for the experiment. This method 3-2.11.4.2 Sonic Bulk Modulus
was used to determine fluid compressibility in the
ASME Pressure-Viscosity Report(Ref. 21) and was also Determinations of sonic bulk moduli are made utiliz-
used by Wilson (Ref. 22). ing ultrasonic speed measurements. Several methods
A method commonly used in the petroleum industry have been developed. These methods determine the
is to pressurize a known volume of liquid by forcing speed either by direct measurement of the speed of
additional liquid into the container and measuring the ultrasonic waves in the fluid or indirectly by determin-
volume of liquid expelled when the pressure is released. ing frequencies which result in interference of the gene-
This method has the disadvantage that it generates only rated wave and the reflected wave from the opposite
3-48
AMCP 706-123
side of the container. From the knowledge of path Use of their procedure for pressures in the range of 1
lengths and signal frequencies, the speed can to 10,000 psi and temperatures of 0° to 218°C (32° to
be calculated. 425°F) will yield bulk modulus data with an accuracy
The ultrasonic bulk modulus methods have some of ± 5 percent. A brief outline of their method is given.
advantages over the pressure-volume methods. They (1) Bulk Modulus-pressure Equation:
allow rapid measurement of bulk modulus and they are
frequently more accurate because the measured quanti-
ties themselves, rather than their derivatives, are used Bt = B0 + 5.30p (3-26)
in calculation of bulk modulus. The sonic methods
have a disadvantage in that rather complex equipment
is required to measure density and sonic speed in a
liquid under pressure. A schematic drawing of a typical where
apparatus for measurement of bulk moduli by sonic Bt = isothermal secant bulk modulus
speed is shown in Fig. 3-46 (Ref. 66). at gage pressure p and
temperature t, °F
Bo = isothermal secant bulk modulus
3-2.11.4.3 Estimation of Bulk Modulus (Penn State at 0 psig and temperature t, °F
Method) p = pressure, psig
(2) Bulk Modulus-temperature Equation:
Researchers at the Petroleum Refining Laboratory
of Pennsylvania State University have developed a
procedure for the measurement and prediction of bulk
modulus for fluids (Ref. 23). By studying the pressure-
[log(fifl /Bt2)=ß(t2-t
4 (3-27)
volume-temperature properties of a large number of

liquids they developed a series of empirical equations where
for determining liquid bulk modulus at any tempera-
ture or pressure once the bulk modulus is known (with V isothermal secant bulk modulus
at gage pressure p and
high accuracy) at any one condition of temperature and temperature tv °F
pressure. They have determined that the effect of pres-
sure on the bulk modulus is essentially independent of V isothermal secant bulk modulus
at gage pressure p and
the liquid molecular structure and the temperature. temperature t2, °F
Pressure-temperoture
cell
3^?-Heaters
Oscilloscope
500 KC quartz
transducer
(generator)
Fluid
Signal sample
trigger
delay ,500 K£_ 500 Hi quartz
Sine wave transducer
pulser (receiver)
Amplifier
Fig. 3-46. Apparatus for Measurement of Adiabatic Bulk Modulus by Sonic Speed
[From: E. Lewis and H. Stern, Design of Hydraulic Control Systems66. Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
3-49
AMCP 706-123
ß = a conversion factor, obtained (5) Examples:

from Fig. 3-47 Given:
(3) Isothermal Tangent-isothermal Secant Bulk Bt = 212,000 psi
Modulus Relationship: The isothermal tangent bulk t= 100°F
modulus at pressure p is equal to the isothermal secant p = 1000 psig
bulk modulus at 2p within 1 percent error.
(a) Find: B0 at 0 psig, 100°F (use Eq. 3-23)
(ßt)p - (ßthp (3-28) [Bt =5o + 5.30pJ10O°F

[212,000=5o + 5.30 (1000) too'F
where
(Bf)„= isothermal tangent bulk U}0 = 206,700 psi 100°F
modulus at pressure p (b) Find: Bt at 10,000 psig, 200°F

(BJ = isothermal secant bulk modulus
p 1. Eq.3-24:
at pressure 2p
(4) Isothermal Tangent-isentropic (Adiabatic) Tan- Bt = 206,700 + 5.30 (10,000)100°
gent Bulk Modulus Relationship:
Bt = 259,700 psi 100°F
(3-29) 2. From Fig. 3-47at 10,000 psig:
Bf cv
j3= 0.001
where 3. Eq. 3-24:
Bs = adiabatic tangent bulk modulus
5fl = 259,700 psi
Bt = isothermal tangent bulk
modulus Bt2=?-
T = ratio of bulk moduli or specific ?1=100°F
heats
t2 = 200°F
c„ = specific heat at constant
pressure log (259,700/5,2) = 0.001 (200-100)
cv = specific heat at constant volume 206,100 psi
^2 =
0.0015
QQ.
0.0010 -
0.0005
PRESSURE, PSIG x 10
23
Fig. 3-47.Graph of Constant Used in Eq. 3-27
3-50
AMCP 706-123
3-2.11.4.4 Estimation of Bulk Modulus (Other 3-2.12.1 Emulsion Characteristics

Methods)
An emulsion is unstable and will eventually result in
Other researchers have also developed relationships a separation of its components. However, the time re-
for predicting the bulk moduli of liquids. Wright (Ref. quired for this separation may vary from several sec-
79) has developed a method for determining both the onds to weeks or months. The separation time of an
secant and tangent bulk modulus of petroleum oils. The emulsion formed in a hydraulic fluid is determined by
method requires knowledge of only the density of the the properties of the fluid and any additives it may
oil at zero psig at a given temperature. By means of a contain (see Chapter 5), and by the contaminant. An
series of graphs, the bulk moduli at any pressure and emulsion of water and a hydraulic fluid is undesirable.
the given temperatures can be easily determined. Den- Ease of separation of the water from the hydraulic fluid
sity at an elevated pressure and the given temperature then becomes essential.
can then be determined by the relationship Water forms two types of emulsions with hydraulic
fluids-oil-in-water where the water is the continuous
phase and water-in-oil where the oil is the continuous
phase. The common type of emulsion forming in hy-
plpo = 1 - plBt (3-30) draulic fluids contaminated with water is an oil-in-
water emulsion. Since water is the continuous phase,
there is a drastic decrease in lubricating ability, in-
creased rusting, and a possibility of increased viscosity.
where Some fire-resistant hydraulic fluids are formulated as
p0 = density at 0 psig, g/cm water-in-oil emulsions. Emulsion stability of these
p= density at pressure p,g/cm fluids is, of course, required.
p= pressure, psig Water can enter a hydraulic system in various ways.
B* = isothermal secant bulk Leaks in heat exchangers, condensation of moisture in
modulus, psig containers or system reservoirs, and accidental con-
tamination are the usual methods. Once the water is in
Tichy and Winer (Ref. 80) have developed a method the system, it is subjected to agitation in the pump and
for the prediction of bulk moduli of silicone liquids other parts of the system where turbulent flow exists.
similar to that of Wright. Their method also uses a This mixing produces an emulsion of the hydraulic
series of graphs to convert density at reference condi- fluid and water. Water which is thus mixed with the
tions to bulk modulus at any temperature and pressure. hydraulic fluid can cause rusting, a loss of system effi-
ciency, defective lubrication, increased leakage, and in-
creased oxidation of the hydraulic fluid (Ref. 20). The
3-2.12 EMULSIONS AND FOAMING IN emulsion will also affect system performance by form-
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS ing sticky slimes which foul pumps; corrode cylinders
and other elements of the hydraulic system; and, in
general, produce unsatisfactory performance.
An emulsion is defined as an intimate dispersion of In order to reduce the adverse effects of an oil-and-
one liquid within another. It is a mixture of two liquids water emulsion, it is usually desirable to use a hydraulic
and not a solution with one liquid dissolved in the fluid which has good water-separation characteristics.
other. A foam is an emulsion in which the dispersed The hydraulic fluid and the water will then separate
phase is a gas rather than a liquid. The foaming and quickly in the system reservoir, with the water floating
emulsion characteristics of a hydraulic fluid are impor- to the top or to the bottom, depending on the density
tant to system performance because they are mech- of the hydraulic fluid.
anisms by which the fluid can pick up and contain Many materials can function as emulsifying agents
contaminants which can affect its properties and func- and increase the tendency of a hydraulic fluid to form
tional ability. The contaminants encountered in hy- an emulsion. Small concentrations of these materials
draulic systems are solid particles, gases, and liquids. are usually most effective. Materials which act as emul-
Contamination with gases can produce foams, and con- sifiers can be introduced into a hydraulic system in a
tamination with liquids can produce emulsions. The number of ways-as impurities in the base stock, as
discussion herein will be limited basically to contami- products formed from oxidation during use, and as
nation with air (gas) and water (liquid). additives which perform other functions but have
3-51
AMCP 706-123
emulsifying properties. Thus, a hydraulic fluid which tendency is a measure of the ability of a liquid to form
normally has good water separation characteristics can a foam under specified conditions that would promote
be changed while in use in the system to a hydraulic foaming. It is usually desirable to have as little tend-
fluid which will readily form emulsions. ency to foam as possible. Foam stability is a measure
It should be pointed out that hydraulic fluids which of the tendency of a liquid to maintain a foam once it
are emulsions of water-in-oil have been proposed and has been established. The lower the foam stability, the
used satisfactorily as fire-resistant hydraulic fluids. In faster the foam will collapse and release the entrap-
such types of hydraulic fluids it is essential that the oil ped air.
have good emulsifying properties so that the water will Much like emulsion characteristics, foaming charac-
not readily separate from the oil. Water-in-oil emulsion teristics can be influenced by a number of variables.
hydraulic fluids are being extensively used by the Bu- Small amounts of contaminants and oil oxidation pro-
reau of Mines in machines and devices that are ope- ducts of the liquid generally increase the foaming char-
rated in coal mines (Ref. 81). acteristics. Researchers at Rock Island Arsenal have
found that viscosity, temperature, grease contamina-
tion, and water contamination all affect the foaming
3-2.12.2 Foaming Characteristics characteristics of hydraulic fluids and liquids used in
recoil mechanisms (Ref. 82). Their data indicate a gen-
A foam is a dispersion of a gas in a liquid. In general, eral trend, with exceptions, that increased viscosity will
foaming is undesirable in hydraulic systems. The pres- be accompanied by greater foaming tendency and foam
ence of air in the hydraulic fluid can cause a loss of stability. The liquids tested showed a decrease in foam-
system efficiency, defective lubrication, and loss of ing tendency and in foaming stability with an increase
fluid by overflow of the foam. Air can be introduced in temperature. Contamination with grease in small
into a hydraulic system in several ways. It can come amounts (1 to 5 percent) produced significant increases
from open reservoirs, leakage on the suction side of in foaming tendency and foam stability. Contamination
the pump, seal leakage, or be introduced when filling with water produced erratic results. Very small concen-
the system. trations of water, 0.08 percent, did not have much ef-
Much of the air in a hydraulic system will often be fect. With higher concentrations of water (1 to 5 per-
dissolved in the high pressure liquid at the discharge cent), foaming tendency increased. Foam stability
side of the pump. The air that remains dissolved in the increased, at lower temperatures, with increased water
liquid does not create a foam. However, as the liquid concentration; but at the higher temperatures, the foam
enters low-pressure areas of the system, the excess air stability was decreased with the larger percentage
can come out of solution and form bubbles which can of water.
be carried with the liquid through the system. Foam
can also be formed in any part of the system where the
liquid experiences excessive agitation, such as in gears, 3-2.12.3 Tests for Emulsion and Foaming
bearings, valves, and other components. If the liquid Characteristics
has good foam-suppressing capability, the excess bub-
bles will be carried to the reservoir and released. (1) Emulsion Characteristics:
Undissolved air causes irregular action of cylinders (a) Emulsion Characteristics of Steam-Turbine Oils:
and valves because the liquid no longer has a high
degree of incompressibility. Air bubbles, when com- Test Method: ASTM D-1401-64 (Ref. 83)
pressed to a high pressure, will produce a localized high This method is intended for testing steam turbine oils
temperature. It can be shown that if air is adiabatically but may be used to test liquids of other types. The
compressed from atmospheric pressure to 100 psi, the method describes a procedure for measuring the ability
theoretical temperature of the air would be 485°F. At of oil and water to separate from each other.
a compression of 3,000 psi, the theoretical temperature
would be 2,020°F. These high temperatures may not be A 40 ml sample of the test liquid and 40 ml of dis-
noticeably reflected in raising the reservoir tempera- tilled water are stirred for 5 min in a graduated cylinder
ture, but will cause oxidation of the surrounding liquid with a flat paddle turning at 1,500 rpm. The time, in
film and the formation of contaminants (Ref. 20). multiples of 5 min, required for the emulsion to be
Foaming characteristics are usually discussed in reduced to 3 ml or less is reported. If the emulsion is
terms of foaming tendency and foam stability. Foaming more than 3 ml after 1 hr, the test is discontinued and
3-52
AMCP 706-123
the amounts in ml of oil, water, and emulsion remain- (2) Foaming Characteristics:
ing are recorded. The results are reported as a series of Test Methods: Federal Test Method 3211.3
four numbers-the number of ml of oil, the number of (Ref. 85)
ml of water, the number of ml of emulsion, and the test ASTM D-892-63 (Ref. 86)
time. Example: These methods are intended for the determination of
Results Comment the foaming characterisitcs of lubricating oils at spec-
40-40-0(20) Complete separation in 20 min ified temperatures. A means of empirically reading
40-37-3(20) Emulsion reduced to 3 ml in 30 min the foaming tendency and the stability of the foam
test was terminated are described.
39-35-6(60) More than 3 ml of emulsion remained A 190 ml sample of the liquid to be tested is placed
after 60 min-39 ml of oil, 35 ml in a 1,000 ml graduated cylinder (see Fig. 3-49). The
of water, 6 ml of emulsion sample is maintained at a temperature of 75T and
(b) Emulsifying Tendency: blown with air for 5 min. The volume of foam is meas-
Test Method: Federal Test Method 3201.5 (Ref. 84) ured. The sample is allowed to settle for 10 min and
This method is used for determining the emulsifying the volume of foam again measured. The test is next
tendency oT petroleum and petroleum-like products. carried out at 200°F on a second sample and then re-
A 40 ml sample of the oil or liquid to be tested is peated on the second sample at 75°F. Foaming tend-
mixed in a graduated cylinder with a 40 ml sample of ency is reported as the total volume of foam in millilit-
an emulsifying agent (distilled water, sodium chloride ers formed during the 5-min air blowing period. Foam
solution, or synthetic sea water as required by the fluid stability is reported as the milliliters of foam remaining
specification). The cylinder is immersed in a bath (see after the 10 min standing period. The foaming require-
Fig. 3-48). The mixture is stirred at 1,500 rpm for 5 min ments of 3 Military Specification liquids are shown
at the temperature specified by the liquid specification. in Table 3-6.
The resulting emulsion is allowed to remain undis-
turbed at the test temperature and for the time required
by the liquid specification. It is then examined for any
separation and reported whether the end product con-
AIR OUT
r AIR IN
firms to the liquid specification.
BATH
STIRRING-
MECHANISM
GRADUATED
GRADUATED
CYLINDER
CYLINDER
1000 ml
FLUID SAMPLE
BATH
^/. GAS DIFFUSER

STONE
Fig. 3-48. Emulsion Test Apparatus

ol
Fig. 3-49 . Foaming Test Apparatus
3-53
AMCP 706-123
TABLE 3-6.
FOAMING REQUIREMENT OF MILITARY SPECIFICATIONS
Foaming Tendency Foam Stability

Foam vol, ml, at Foam vol, ml, at
Fluid Temperature, °F end of 5-min end of 10-min
blowing period settling period
MIL-H-5606B 75 65 (max) Complete Collapse
MIL-H-8446B 75 600 (foam +fluid) Complete Collapse
MIL-H-27601A 75 15 (max) Complete Collapse
200 75 (max) Complete Collapse
75 75 (max) Complete Collapse
Precision: Results should not be considered suspect (Ref. 78) has reported that the solubility of gases in
unless they differ by more than the following amounts many lubricating oils increases with rising tempera-
at the end of the 5 min blowing period: ture. Increases in the solubility of nitrogen in two pe-
(a) Repeatability. 10 ml or 15 percent of average troleum oils at 350°F over that at room temperature are
(whichever is greater) shown in Fig. 3-50. This figure also shows that increas-
(b) Reproducibility. 10 ml or 38 percent of aver- ing pressure has a much greater effect on nitrogen sol-
age (whichever is greater) ubility in distillate white oil than does increasing tem-
perature. In general, pressure has a greater effect on gas
solubility than does temperature, but not for all liquids.
In Fig. 3-50, temperature is the more significant factor
3-2.13 GAS SOLUBILITY in the case of the naphthenic oils. Increases in the sol-
ubility of air with increasing pressure for some different
Hydraulic fluids, like other liquids, tend to dissolve type hydraulic fluids is given in Fig. 3-51. It should be
any gases that may be in contact with them. The noticed that air solubility in silicone and petroleum oils
amount of gas dissolved by a particular liquid depends increases more rapidly with increasing pressure than it
upon the composition of the gas, the composition of the does for the polar water base or phosphate ester
liquid, the temperature, and the pressure. At room tem- type oils.
perature and atmospheric pressure, between 5 and 15 Since solubility limits are affected both by tempera-
percent air, by volume, can be found in solution in ture and pressure in a given liquid, changes in tempera-
hydraulic fluids. A distinction should be made between ture and pressure occurring within the system can re-
dissolved gases and trapped or entrained gases. The sult in dissolved gases being expelled from solution.
dissolved gases have virtually no effect on the physical Once this happens, the evolved gas bubbles can consti-
properties of the liquid. They become important only tute up to 15 percent of the total liquid plus foam
when they are evolved from solution in the form of volume and have serious effects on the hydraulic sys-
bubbles creating a foam or a pocket of gas in the system performance (Ref. 66). Pump delivery will be re-
tem. Once the gas has evolved from solution, the physi- duced and the pump is subject to cavitation damage.
cal properties of the liquid-gas mixture are strongly The compressibility of the hydraulic fluid-foam mix-
influenced by the resulting foam (Ref. 66). ture will be increased, its bulk modulus decreased, and
The solubility of gases in liquids is generally consid- control stability and component life will suffer. Even
ered to be inversely proportional to the temperature when system design has provided for such eventuality,
(Ref. 4) and directly proportional to the pressure. Log- it will still take time for the entrapped gas to be tran-
log graphs of gas solubility vs temperature are linear sported back to the reservoir where it can be separated
over moderate ranges of temperature (Ref. 66). Leslie from the hydraulic fluid. Reports of hydraulic system
3-54
AMCP 706-123
z
o
1—1
H 0.50 -
i—<
Q DISTILLATE WHITE OIL

Z
>* o -J 0.40 -
1—1
u o
J • i—i
i—i Q
H a 0.30 -
D rn
-1 1/3
O <<
0.20 - NAPHTHENIC OIL
z i—1
w s
Ü
o 0.10 -
BJ
H
1—1
Z
10 20 30
PRESSURE, PSIA
Fig. 3-50. Nitrogen Solubility vs Pressure of Two Petroleum Products

[From: R. L. Leslie, The Relation of Fluid Properties and High Temperature
Hydraulic Performance1*. Used by permission of ASLE]
malfunctions have frequently been traced to air separa-

tion problems. Dead-ended or single line systems simi-
lar to simple hydraulic brake systems are particularly
S prone to air evolution and entrapment (Ref. 66). A
D
small amount of liquid circulation built into such sys-
O tems can help to relieve the problem.
>
3-2.14 LOW-TEMPERATURE STABILITY
E-
►—i
3-2.14.1 General
Hydraulic fluids are often stored for prolonged peri-
m ods of time at low temperature. During this storage, the
ID
liquid should not undergo any permanent changes in its
O properties or show evidence of gelling, crystallization,
w
or separation of any of its components. Gelling is the
formation of jelly-like materials due to coagulation of
a component or components of the liquid. Crystalliza-
tion is the formation of crystals or crystalline material
by a component or components of the liquid. Separa-
0 0.4 0.8 1.2
tion is the removal from suspension or solution of com-
PRESSURE, ATMOSPHERES ponents or additives in the liquid. Many specification
liquids, however, will be deemed to have satisfactory
Fig. 3-51. Air Solubility vs Pressure of Typical Fluids low-temperature stability if any separated components
will readily return into solution at the lowest an-
ticipated operating temperature.
[From: F. D. Yeaple, Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power Low-temperature properties of hydraulic fluids
and Control5*. Used by permission of McGraw- become important in storing fluids in cold environ-
Hill, Inc.] ments or when hydraulic systems are subject to periods
3-55
AMCP 706-123
of nonoperation in cold environments. Formation of 3-2.15 SEDIMENTATION

gels, crystals, or separation of components could cause
clogging of filters, plugging of small orifices and clear- Sediment is anything that settles out of a liquid. In
ances, or lack of lubrication to vital components. hydraulic fluids and lubricating liquids, the definition
of sediment is usually restricted to insoluble products
that are present in the liquid because of refining or
production processes, or because of chemical reactions
3-2.14.2 Test Methods for Low-temperature that occur in the hydraulic system during use. Sedi-
Stability mentation is usually distinguished from contamination
which is any undesirable matter, soluble or insoluble,
(1) Viscosity Stability at Low Temperature: that is introduced into the hydraulic fluid because of
Test Method: Federal Test Method 307 (Ref. 87) improper handling or storage, use of unclean hydraulic
Change in viscosity of fluids subjected to low temper- systems, leaks in systems, etc. Contamination is dis-
atures is often used as a criterion of low-temperature cussed in Chapter 6. Sedimentation is present-as dust,
stability. This method describes a procedure for deter- dirt, metal, and rust particles picked up from piping
mining the viscosity stability of transparent fluids at and storage vessels-in most new commercial hydraulic
-65°F. In this method, a sample of the lubricant is fluids as a result of production and refining. Sedimenta-
placed in a glass capillary-type viscometer in a bath at tion in used hydraulic fluids would include these solids
-65°F. The kinematic viscosity of the sample is then as well as metal wear particles, corrosion products,
determined. The viscometer and the sample are kept in oil oxidation products, or other insoluble oil degrada-
the bath at -65°F for 72 hr and determinations of the tion products.
kinematic viscosity are made at intervals throughout Sedimentation can become quite critical in hydraulic
the 72-hr period. Changes in viscosity with time pro- systems that have close-tolerance moving parts or small
vide a measure of low temperature storage instability. orifices. The sediment can settle in these areas and
(2) Gelling, Crystallization and Separation: produce a tarnish or sludge which can seriously ham-
Test Method: Federal Test Method 3458 (Ref. 88) per the operation of the system. Furthermore, sediment
This method is used for determining the tendency of can clog filters and reduce their efficiency. Candidate
components of finished oil blends to be incompatible or hydraulic fluids have been known to be rejected, even
to form gels during low temperature exposure. though they satisfied all specification requirements, be-
A 100-ml sample of the liquid to be tested is placed cause they experienced sufficient chemical changes to
in a glass jar and stored for 72 hr at the temperature produce excessive amounts of sediment.
required by the liquid specification. At the end of the The procedure for testing for trace sediments in lu-
72-hr period the sample is removed from storage and bricating liquids is given by Federal Test Method
immediately examined visually for evidence of gelling, 3004.4 (Ref. 90) and ASTM D-2273-64T (Ref. 91).
separation, or crystallization. If there is any evidence of These methods describe the procedure for the determi-
gelling, separation, or crystallization, the liquid is re- nation of trace amounts less than 0.05 volume percent
ported as unstable at the specified temperature. of sediment in lubricating liquids. A 50-ml sample of
(3) Turbidity:
the test liquid is mixed with 50 ml of naphtha in a trace
Test Method: Federal Test Method 3459 (Ref. 89) sediment tube (Fig. 3-52) and centrifuged at a given
This method is used for determining the stability at speed for 10 min. The mixture is decanted and the
low temperature of finished liquid blends. sediment is left in the tube. Another mixture of 50 ml
An 8-oz sample of the liquid to be tested and a naphtha and 50 ml test liquid is mixed in the same tube
250-ml sample of a standard composed of barium chlo- and again centrifuged for 10 min. The final volume of
ride, sulfuric acid, sodium hydroxide, and distilled wa- the sediment is noted and the results are reported as the
ter are stored at the temperature and for the number of
volume of sediment/100 ml of sample liquid.
hours required by the liquid specification. At the end
of the storage period, the standard is shaken vigorously Precision: Results should not be considered suspect
for 10 sec. The liquid sample is also shaken vigorously unless they differ by more than the following amounts:
for 10 sec. The turbidity of the sample liquid is com-
pared to that of the standard and reported as less than, Sediment, % Repeatability Reproducibility
more than, or equal to the standard. Also reported is 0.000-0.002 0.001 0.001
any evidence of gelling, crystallization, or solidification 0.003-0.005 0.001 0.002
of the sample liquid. 0.006-0.01 0.002 0.003
3-56
AMCP 706-123
Varying degrees of lubrication and wear preventing

ability are needed for different systems. The pump de-
f îoo\ sign, the system operating temperatures and pressures,
component design, and environmental conditions
should all be considered when selecting a hydrau-
lic fluid.
Two fundamental and distinct modes of lubrication
are generally recognized-hydrodynamic and boundary
lubrication. When hydrodynamic conditions exist, a
liquid film entirely separates the moving parts. In the
50 boundary condition, contact exists between the mating
surfaces. The difference between hydrodynamic and
boundary lubrication is clear; however, there is no
185- 196 mm
sharp line of demarcation, but rather a gradual transi-
tion between the two.
3-3.2 HYDRODYNAMIC LUBRICATION

Hydrodynamic lubrication is "A system of lubrica-
tion in which the shape and relative motion of the
sliding surfaces cause the formation of a liquid film
having sufficient pressure to separate the surfaces"
(Ref. 92). Under ideal hydrodynamic conditions of lu-
.01
brication, there is essentially no wear since the moving
6-7 mm
parts do not touch each other. Under these conditions,
the parameters of importance are liquid, viscosity, sur-
^ face speed, and pressure.
Most of the theory of hydrodynamic lubrication is
based on the early work of Tower and Reynolds. Full
Fig. 3-52. Trace Sediment Test Tube hydrodynamic lubrication offers the significant advan-
tage of low wear rates and low friction. Hydraulic sys-
tems should be designed to take full advantage of hy-
3-3 LUBRICATION PROPERTIES drodynamic lubrication. The coefficient of friction in
hydrodynamic lubrication is of the order of 0.001 to
0.010 (Ref. 3).
3-3.1 GENERAL
A hydraulic fluid should be a good lubricant so that 3-3.3 TRANSITION FROM HYDRODYNAMIC
friction and wear in a hydraulic system are reduced to TO BOUNDARY LUBRICATION
a minimum. The components of a hydraulic system
contain many surfaces which are in close contact and A given liquid film between moving parts decreases
which move in such relation to each other that the in thickness as the pressure increases, and/or the liquid
hydraulic fluid must separate and lubricate. The hy- viscosity decreases. As the film becomes thinner, a
draulic fluid must also be a good wear preventing lubri- point is reached where the laws of hydrodynamics no
cant. Wear in hydraulic pumps, cylinders, motor con- longer fully apply since the effects of surface or bound-
trols, valves, and other components can result in ary forces are no longer negligible. As the film becomes
increased leakage, loss of pressure, less accurate con- still thinner, a state is ultimately reached where metal-
trol, or failure. Protection against wear is often a princi- to-metal contact occurs. These transitions influence the
pal reason for selection of a particular hydraulic fluid coefficient of friction as shown in Fig. 3-53. Here, the
since most components of hydraulic systems operate at coefficient of friction is plotted as a function of the
some time under conditions that can lead to extreme dimensionless parameter ZN/p where Z, N, and p are
wear, especially during starting and stopping of the fluid viscosity, relative surface speed, and pres-
the system. sure, respectively.
3-57
AMCP 706-123
r—BOUNDARY LUBRICATION
I—MIXED-FILM LUBRICATION
FULL FILM
2 HYDRODYNAMIC
m
i—i LUBRICATION
u
i—i
o
u
2
o
t—I
ZN/p
Fig. 3-53. Coefficient of Friction in the Transition from Hydrodynamic to Boundary Lubrication
3-3.4 BOUNDARY LUBRICATION

In the hydrodynamic region, the coefficient of fric-
tion is a linear function of ZN/p (see Fig. 3-53). As Boundary lubrication is "A condition of lubrication
ZN/p decreases, the film thickness is reduced and the in which the friction and wear between two surfaces in
curve begins to deviate from linearity. As ZN/p is de- relative motion is determined by the properties of the
creased further, a point is reached where both bound- surfaces, and by the properties of the lubricant other
ary and hydrodynamic effects prevail in combination. than viscosity" (Ref. 92). When boundary lubrication
A further decrease in ZN/p will ultimately rupture the exists, the coefficient of friction is independent of both
film and the curve will show a sharp break upwards. liquid viscosity and sliding velocity. There are different
The minimum point is then regarded as the start of the degrees of severity under which boundary lubrication
transition from hydrodynamic to boundary lubrication. will prevail. Some are only moderate and others are
There is no sharp line of demarcation, but an inter- extreme. Blök (Ref. 3) classifies degrees of boundary
mediate zone where hydrodynamic and boundary ef- lubrication on the basis of the mechanical conditions.
fects are both present. This zone is sometimes called the He lists the following degrees:
semi-fluid, mixed-film, or quasi-hydrodynamic lubrica- (1) Low pressure and low temperature, or mild
tion zone (Ref. 3). boundary lubrication as found in low speed sleeve bear-
The condition of full hydrodynamic lubrication is ings, leaf springs, and hinge joints.
the most desirable; however, all of the factors that (2) High temperature boundary lubrication as
make it possible are not always present. Sometimes found in cylinders of some steam and internal combus-
speeds are so slow or pressures so great that even a very tion engines, and in certain high speed sleeve bearings.
viscous liquid will not prevent metal-to-metal contact. (3) High pressure boundary lubrication as gener-
Other cases of stop-and-start operation, reversals of ally found in cases involving rolling contact at high
direction, or sharp pressure increases may cause the pressures but with little frictional or external heat.
collapse of any liquid film that had been established. (4) High pressure and high temperature, or extreme
These conditions are not conducive to hydrodynamic boundary lubrication, as found in highly loaded hypoid
lubrication and occur in almost all systems at one time or other gears having high loads and a high degree of
or another. sliding friction.
3-58
AMCP 706-123
The temperature and pressure at the region of con- separation of fluid and water. Some of the more effec-
tact are the factors that determine the severity of the tive EP additives also have a tendency to react with
boundary lubrication. All types of boundary lubrica- certain structural metals or with some of the synthetic
tion are characterized by the rupture of the liquid film hydraulic fluids.
and some degree of metal-to-metal contact. The condi-
tions of boundary lubrication should be avoided where 3-3.6 DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN
possible because of the resulting increase in power con- DESCRIBING LUBRICATING
sumption, and the high friction and wear that occur. CHARACTERISTICS
The more common terms used to define the lubricat-

3-3.5 EXTREME PRESSURE LUBRICATION ing ability of a liquid are film strength, oiliness, and
lubricity. These terms are not precise and a standard of
Extreme boundary lubrication (par. 3-3.4) in which definitions of lubrication, friction, and wear terms
both temperature and pressure are very high is often recommends that they no longer be used (Ref. 92).
referred to as Extreme Pressure, or EP, lubrication. EP However, the terms have been used for many years and
conditions are found in hydraulic systems in pumps, do appear in most of the literature pertaining to lu-
motors, and actuators. EP conditions are characterized bricating characteristics of liquids.
by welding of portions of mating surfaces, followed by
the tearing away of relatively large particles of the
metal. A variety of special lubricants with properties 3-3.6.1 Film Strength
tailored to meet the severity of the particular applica-
tion can frequently be used when EP conditions exist. Film strength is "The ability of a surface film to
These special properties are generally derived from the resist rupture by the penetration of asperities during
various additives contained in the fluid (see Chapter 5), sliding or rolling" (Ref. 92). In general, the higher the
and the net effect is to increase the load-carrying ability viscosity, the higher the film strength. A high film
of the fluid. strength is primarily inferred from a high load-carrying
capacity and is seldom directly measured. It is possible
Lubrication when EP conditions exist depends upon to increase the film strength of a liquid by use
a combination of mechanical and chemical effects. Part of additives.
of the lubrication may result from an absorbed film that
is present on the two surfaces, and part from additives
in the liquid that chemically attack these surfaces 3-3.6.2 Oiliness
where-as a result of high pressure and high sliding
velocity-exceedingly high temperatures result. The for- Oiliness is the property of a liquid which causes films
mation of reaction products then prevents seizure of of two liquids of identical viscosity to exhibit different
the moving parts and may reduce friction. The temper- coefficients of friction. Oiliness is associated with
ature involved may be on the order of 900°F, or higher, boundary lubrication and the intermediate zone be-
so these reactions are often very rapid. tween boundary and hydrodynamic lubrication. The
There are various degrees of EP conditions and vari- oiliness of a liquid can be increased by the use of addi-
ous types of EP additives to meet them. The type of tives. These additives are usually oils of animal or vege-
additive selected for any particular application will de- table origin and have certain polar characteristics. A
pend on the severity of the boundary conditions. Differ- polar molecule has a strong affinity for the metal sur-
ent types of additives are used for high temperature face with which it comes in contact and for like mole-
boundary conditions than for high pressure boundary cules. Such a molecule is not easily dislodged from its
conditions. A more complete discussion of boundary attachment to the surface. For moderate boundary con-
condition additives is in Chapter 5. Because of the ditions, damage of sliding parts can be effectively re-
range of conditions through which a system may oper- duced by the use of oiliness agents.
ate, it is frequently necessary to include more than a
single additive, one for the more severe conditions and
another for the less severe conditions. Certain disad- 3-3.6.3 Lubricity
vantages may result from the use ofEP additives. Some
additives may increase the emulsifiability of the fluid, Lubricity is the ability of a liquid to impart low
making it undesirable for applications requiring rapid. friction under boundary conditions. A fluid that forms
3-59
AMCP 706-123
a film of low shear strength is said to have good lu- of parts may occur during the initial run-in or break-
bricity. Lubricity is a complex function which depends in period.
upon liquid oiliness, the extreme pressure and antiwear Operating conditions of pressure, temperature, and
properties of the liquid, and the properties of the rub- rubbing speed also affect wear. Increased pressure gen-
bing surfaces. erally reduces film thickness and increases the extent of
metal-to-metal contact and wear. High temperature
may cause wear due to a decrease in viscosity. Exces-
3-3.7 PREVENTION OF WEAR sive high speeds may result in overheating at local
points. Moderate temperatures and pressures are,
The complete elimination of wear is practically im- therefore, preferred from a standpoint of wear. How-
possible. Minimum wear occurs under conditions of ever, optimum conditions for wear may not be the
hydrodynamic lubrication and maximum wear occurs optimum conditions to achieve high efficiency or max-
under conditions of boundary lubrication. However, imum power from a hydraulic system component.
there are several approaches by which the wear rate
under boundary lubrication conditions can be reduced
to a satisfactory or controllable level. The main factors 3-3.7.2 Lubrication Factors
which determine the rate of wear can be classified into
two basic types-mechanical and lubrication. Proper Decreases in viscosity of a system operating under
consideration of these two factors can produce a wear hydrodynamic lubrication will decrease the thickness
rate which is acceptable. of the liquid film. If the decrease is sufficient to allow
boundary conditions to be reached, metal-to-metal con-
tact occurs and wear increases. Viscosity, therefore,
3-3.7.1 Mechanical Factors would be expected to have an inverse effect on rate of
wear-the greater the viscosity the less would be the
The mechanical factors that affect the wear rate are expected wear.
the choice of materials, the surface finish, and the ope- Since wear is essentially a phenomenon resulting
rating conditions. from friction, it is expected that additives capable of
Wear can often be reduced by a proper choice of reducing friction under boundary conditions would
materials for the moving parts. In general, softer simultaneously reduce wear. However, there can be
materials wear more rapidly than harder materials. instances where there is little or no correlation between
There is, however, no direct relationship between hard- friction and wear under boundary lubrication condi-
ness and resistance to wear. Materials also differ in tions (Ref. 3). Some additives effective in reducing fric-
their ability to resist the various types of wear. For tion have little effect upon wear, while others reduce
example, materials selected for their ability to resist wear and have little effect upon friction. Lack of corre-
abrasion might be more sensitive to corrosion. It is thus lation is probably due to the fact that wear takes place
necessary to select materials which would resist the momentarily in isolated spots whereas friction is nor-
most serious type of wear anticipated. mally measured as an average for a larger area and a
The combination of metals used can greatly influence longer time interval (Ref. 3).
the wear. Some metals are very susceptible to wear Hydraulic components made from iron alloys other
when rubbed against themselves, while others are very than stainless steel are subject to corrosion unless
susceptible to wear when rubbed against different types proper precautions are taken. Most mineral-oil liquids
of metals. In practice, the composition chosen for a do not have good antirust properties. Although they do
given part is influenced by many factors other than offer protection, they must be fortified with appropriate
wear. Structural strength, weight, cost, and availability additives if any marked degree of rust prevention has
may force a compromise between minimum wear and to be achieved (Ref. 3).
optimum performance.
Surface finish of the mating parts becomes particu-
larly important during break-in or initial wear periods. 3-3.8 TEST METHODS FOR LUBRICATING
If one of the two mating surfaces has an initial rough PROPERTIES
finish, considerable wear may take place. While it is
generally desirable to have as smooth a surface as possi- Numerous test methods have been proposed and sev-
ble, there are instances where surfaces of controlled eral have been adopted for evaluating the lubricating
roughness are desired so that a "wearing-in" or mating and wear reducing properties of fluids. The majority of
3-60
AMCP 706-123
these tests have been developed for materials other than 3-3.8.1.1 Timken Tester
hydraulic fluids such as lubricants, greases, and, in
some cases, solid lubricants. However, the basic test Test Method: Federal Test Method 6505 (Ref. 93)
procedures are adaptable to the evaluation of hydraulic In the Timken test, a steel block is pressed against a
fluids, and several Military Specifications for hydraulic rotating, cylindrical steel ring (see Fig. 3-54(A)). The
fluids call for these tests or some modification of them. test is run for 10 min at a rubbing speed of 400 ft/sec.
The test methods fall into three general categories- The liquid is allowed to flow over the test pieces. In
bench-type tests using nonsimulating test elements, starting a test, the motor is brought up to speed and a
simulated hydraulic systems, and the more elaborate load is placed on the steel rub shoe block by means of
load-carrying and scuffing tests. Standard test proce- a weight and lever system. The test can be conducted
dures, either ASTM or Federal, have been written for as a wear test by running at a set load until failure or
some of the test methods. as an EP- or load-carrying test by increasing the load
None of the test methods described in the paragraphs until failure. Federal Test Method 6505 (Ref. 93) calls
which follow give any indications of the expected "life" for the test to be conducted as a load-carrying test.
of a lubricant or liquid. The engineer or designer is Failure is indicated by scoring on the test block or test
expected to establish proper lubrication procedures and ring. The results are reported as the load (determined
lubricant change intervals. The problems become even from the scar dimensions and. the load) applied just
more complicated in hydraulic systems because the liq- prior to scoring or pickup of metal.
uid is both a lubricant and a power transfer fluid. With
hydraulic systems operating with sophisticated hydrau-
lic fluids and/or extreme operating conditions, falling 3-3.8.1.2 Almen Tester
back on "accepted practice" can be expensive, either in
terms of wasted hydraulic fluids or damaged equipment. In the Almen test, a cylindrical rod is rotated in a
split bushing which is pressed against it (see Fig. 3-
54(B)). Frictional force is measured by a restraining
force on the split bushing. Two versions of the Almen
3-3.8.1 Bench-type Friction and Wear Testers
test are conducted-the Almen EP test and the Almen
Several bench tests have been developed to measure wear test.
the lubricating ability of liquids. Each test employs a In the Almen EP test, the machine is run without an
different type of apparatus that utilizes a unique combi- applied load for 30 sec as a break-in period. Weights are
nation of test elements. The testers are similar in that added every 10 sec in multiples of 2 lb until failure
two well-defined surfaces separated by a liquid film are occurs as indicated by seizure or sudden increase in
in motion with respect to each other. The coefficient of torque. Test results are expressed as the torque and
friction is usually determined by measuring the re- load which causes seizure.
straining force on one of the test elements. Wear is In the Almen wear test, the machine is run without
determined by the loss in weight of the parts or by the an applied load for 30 sec as a break-in period. Four
dimensions of the wear scar. Boundary lubrication 2-lb weights are added at 10-sec intervals. Operation is
characteristics are determined by increasing the load continued for 20 min. Total weight loss of the journal
on the surfaces until seizure occurs. and the bushings in mg is determined, and is reported
Because of their differences, the various bench testers as the wear.
do not necessarily rate a given series of liquids in the
same order, and results from a single test procedure can
be misleading. Also, the results obtained do not always 3-3.8.1.3 Falex Tester
correlate well with actual operation. In many instances,
the results of several different bench tests may be taken Test Methods: Federal Test Method 3807 (Ref. 94)
as a whole in determining the lubricating ability of a Federal Test Method 3812 (Ref. 95)
given hydraulic fluid. Experience has shown that ap- In the Falex test a cylindrical rod is rotated between
plication of most of these test procedures will separate two hard V-shaped bearing blocks which are pressed
those hydraulic fluids which are extremely poor lubri- against the rod (see Fig. 3-54(C)). Friction torque is
cants from those which are potentially good lubricants. continuously monitored. Both the journal and the V
Five of the more commonly used bench-type testers blocks are submerged in the liquid under test. The two
and their test methods are described in the paragraphs Federal Test Methods referenced above utilize the
which follow. Falex Tester in the evaluation of solid film lubricants.
3-61
AMCP 706-123
(A) Timken (C) Falex
<=3
(D) Four-Ball (E) SAE
Fig. 3-54. Five Bench-type Friction and Wear Testers
However, the basic procedures of the two tests are 3-3.8.1.4 Four-ball Tester
adaptable to the evaluation of liquids. The test can be
run in two ways-as a wear test and a load carrying test.
For wear testing, the machine is run at .a specified Test Methods: ASTM D-2596-67T (Ref. 96)
load for a specified time. The amount of wear is deter- Federal Test Method 6514 (Ref. 97)
mined as the amount of adjustment that must be made ASTM D-2266-64T (Ref. 98)
in the loading system to maintain the desired load. In the four-ball machine (often called the "Shell"
For the EP test, the load is increased continuously Four-ball Tester) a 1/2-in.-diameter steel ball is rotated
until seizure occurs. The test begins with a break-in in contact with three stationary similar balls which are
period for 3 min at 300 lb load. The load is then in- clamped in a fixed position (see Fig. 3-54(D)). The
creased to 500 lb and held for 1 min and then increased rubbing surfaces are submerged in the liquid to be
in 250-lb increments with a 1-min run until failure tested. The test can be operated as a wear test or an
occurs. Results are expressed in pounds load at seizure. £Ptest.
3-62
AMCP 706-123
For a wear test, the machine is operated at a specified 3-3.8.2 Evaluation of Lubricating Properties
temperature, load, and speed, with balls of given by Pump Tests
material. Federal Test Method 6514 (Ref. 97) and
ASTM D-2226-64T (Ref. 98) are used for determining None of the bench tests gives accurate or complete
the wear characteristics of lubricating greases with the correlation with the operation of hydraulic fluids in a
four-ball tester. The general procedures are adaptable hydraulic system. The final test of the lubricating char-
to hydraulic fluids as well as greases. They call for test acteristics of any hydraulic fluid is its actual perform-
conditions of 1,200 rpm, a load of 40 kg, a test tempera- ance in a hydraulic system. The hydraulic pump is
ture of 167°F (75°C), and a test time of 60 min. At the usually the most critical unit as far as lubricating char-
end of the test, the scar diameter on the lower three acteristics of the hydraulic system are concerned; there-
balls is measured under a microscope. The average fore, pump tests have been developed and widely ac-
diameter in millimeters is reported and is a measure of cepted for studying lubricating properties of hydrau-
wear under the specified conditions. lic fluids.
Pump tests normally involve the simplest hydraulic
For the EP test (ASTM D-2596-67T (Ref. 96)) there circuit possible: a pump; a means of maintaining system
is no provision for temperature control, and the test is pressure such as a relief valve; a reservoir; a heat ex-
started at room temperature. A test run of 10-sec dura- changer; and various instruments for measuring speed,
tion at a given load is usually made. Scar diameters are
pressure, temperature, and flow rate. The test is usually
measured and the Hertzian contact stresses are cal-
run for a specified period of time with a given pump.
culated. The load is increased in increments, and the
Critical parts of the pump are examined before and
process is repeated until welding occurs. This load is
after testing, and the amount of wear determined by
called the weld point or weld load.
changes in dimension or changes in weight.
Many variations on the four-ball wear and EP tests In addition to data on the lubricating properties of
are used. Many liquid specifications call for a four-ball hydraulic fluids, pump tests provide data on the overall
test as specified or with certain changes made in the test performance of the pump system, and the functional
time, load, speed, or temperature. ability of the hydraulic fluid. Other benefits gained
include: actual determination of wear in a simulated
system; information on liquid stability; effects of seals
3-3.8.1.5 SAE Tester and packings, corrosion, sludging; and the heat and
power transfer qualities of the liquid under controlled
Test Method: Federal Test Method 6501 (Ref. 99) conditions (Ref. 4).
In the SAE machine (see Fig. 3-54(E)), two cylinders Several pump tests have been described in the litera-
aligned axially and in contact with each other are ture. All types of pumps have been used, and test condi-
driven at different speeds. One of the cylinders may be tions have been widely varied. Some pump tests have
driven in either direction. The pieces revolve under a been developed specifically for shear stability evalua-
flooded lubrication condition from the test liquid held tion (see par. 3-2.5.3), but will still provide data on the
in a cup. The load pressing the cylinders together can lubricating properties of the liquid. A few of the pump
be increased until failure occurs. This machine differs tests have been written into formal test procedures and
from the four-ball tester in that a combination of rolling are discussed in the paragraphs which follow.
and sliding friction is involved. The ratio of sliding to
rolling can be changed by varying the relative speed of
3-3.8.2.1 Simulative Recirculating Pump Test
the two cylinders.
Federal Test Method 6501 (Ref. 99) is a test proce- Test Method: ASTM D-2428-66T (Ref. 100)
dure for determining the load-carrying capacity of gear This test method covers a procedure for system
lubricants using the SAE tester. The same test proce- evaluation of aerospace hydraulic fluids. The method
dures, however, are adaptable to any liquid lubricant or recommends a typical test system geometry, data to be
to hydraulic fluids. The machine is started and ope- obtained, and control of test variables and procedures
rated at a light load for a 30-sec break-in period. The to assure a uniform approach of liquid screening and
automatic loading device then increases the load evaluation. Recommendations concerning specific
steadily until scoring occurs. The results are expressed hardware and rigid techniques have been avoided
in terms of the average load needed to cause scoring where possible to allow the general method to be used
based on three repeat tests. as the state-of-the-art advances. Since the method was
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AMCP 706-123
purposely generalized, it is important that specified Ryder Gear-Erdco Universal Drive System. The test
data be taken in order that valid comparisons of test oil is heated to 400°F and the gears rotated at 10,000
results of various liquid can be made. The method con- rpm in cycles of 10 min with uniform increases in gear
sists of recirculative pumping of the test liquid through load for each cycle. The gears are examined for scuffing
a system that closely simulates the final system in at the end of each cycle. The cycles are continued until
which the liquid will be used. Wear and lubricating a set percentage of gear tooth face scuffing is observed.
properties of the liquid are determined from evaluation The load-carrying ability is that gear tooth load which
of critical parts of the system before and after the test. produces an average gear tooth scuffing of 22.5 percent.
This test procedure, however, is not primarily intended Results are reported as the percent of load-carrying
for wear and lubrication testing, but rather for liquid capacity of the test oil to a reference oil.
functional suitability.
3-3.8.3.2 Load-carrying Capacity of Steam Turbine

3-3.8.2.2 Pump Loop Wear Test Oils
Test Method: ASTM D-2271-66 (Ref. 101) Test Method: ASTM D-1947-66 (Ref. 103)
This test method describes a procedure for measur- This test method is almost the same as the one de-
ing the wear characteristics of hydraulic fluids for use scribed in par. 3-3.8.3.1. The exceptions are that it is
in industrial applications. A fixed volume of the hy- limited to steam-turbine oils and is conducted without
draulic fluid is circulated through a pump rig under heating the test liquid.
standard conditions of time, pressure, and temperature
for 1,000 hours. Differences in weight of the pump
3-3.8.3.3 Gear Fatigue Characteristics of Aircraft
parts at the start and finish of the test are reported
Gas Turbine Lubricants at 40(fF
along with the total percent loss.
Test Method: Federal Test Method 6509 (Ref. 104)
This method describes a procedure for determining
3-3.8.3 Other Lubricating Characteristics the fatigue characteristics of aircraft gas turbine engine
Tests lubricants at 400°F with respect to gears.
Two special test gears are mounted in a WADD
Numerous other tests for evaluating the lubricating High-temperature Gear Machine adapted to a modified
properties of lubricants have been developed. Several of Ryder Gear-Erdco Universal Drive System. The test
the procedures that concentrate on the load-carrying oil is heated to 400°F and the gears rotated at 10,000
ability of liquids have been written into formal test rpm in 10 min cycles with uniform increases in load at
procedures. These test standards are not primarily in- each cycle. At the end of each cycle the gears are exam-
tended for the evaluation of hydraulic fluids, but men- ined for scuffing. When a predetermined maximum
tion of them is made here since they have been used to load is reached, the cycle duration is increased to 2 hr
screen potential hydraulic fluids. They are now being at constant load. At the end of each cycle, the gears are
used more frequently, and the trend toward more then observed for development of fatigue pits which are
severe operating conditions in aircraft often leads to the large enough to be readily discernible to the eye.
use of the same liquid as lubricant and hydraulic fluid.
The lubricating properties of the liquid then become Results are reported as the percent of load-carrying
extremely important. ability, with respect to a reference oil, of the test oil and
the rating of each fatigue cycle in terms of the number
of fatigue pits.
3-3.8.3.1 Load-carrying Ability of Lubricating Oils
■ at 40CTF
3-3.8.3.4 Load-carrying Ability of Lubricating Oils
Test Method: Federal Test Method 6511 (Ref. 102) (Ryder Gear Machine)
the load-carrying ability of lubricating oils at 400°F Test Method: Federal Test Method 6508 (Ref. 105)
with respect to gears. This method describes a procedure for determining
Two special test gears are mounted in a WADD the load-carrying ability of lubricating oils with respect
High-temperature Gear Machine adapted to a modified to gears.
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AMCP 706-123
Two special test gears are mounted in a Ryder Gear- One of the most difficult aspects of determining sta-
Erdco Universal Tester. The test oil is heated to bility involves the selection of criteria of change. All
165T and the gears rotated at 10,000 rpm in cycles of hydraulic fluids can and will undergo changes in their
10 min each with uniform increases in gear load for properties during use. Some of these changes affect the
each cycle. The gears are examined for scuffing at the functional ability of the fluid; some affect the chemical
end of each cycle. The cycles are continued until a composition; some affect the thermal properties; etc.
preset percent of gear tooth scuffing is observed. The Some changes may be harmful while others may have
load-carrying ability is that gear tooth load which pro- no effect on the performance of the hydraulic fluid. For
duces an average gear tooth scuffing of 22.5 percent. example, changes in color indicate a change in the
Results are reported as the percent of load-carrying liquid; however, such a change will not normally affect
ability of the test oil to a reference oil. the functional ability of the liquid. On the other hand,
Precision: an increase in acid content might result in a hydraulic
(a) Repeatability. Relative readings should not fluid too corrosive for further use, or the viscosity may
differ from their mean by more than 10 per- change so that the hydraulic fluid no longer performs
cent. its function. Obviously then, some properties have
(b) Reproducibility. Relative readings should not much more meaning in terms of hydraulic fluid stabil-
differ from their mean by more than 5 percent. ity than others. Even then, the conditions to which the
hydraulic fluid will be subjected determine which prop-
erties are the critical ones and are most desirable to
3-4 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES maintain as stable as possible.
If a liquid encounters one or more of the stresses or
3-4.1 CHEMICAL STABILITY forces previously mentioned, the result is generally a
change in one or more of the following: viscosity, for-
Most hydraulic fluids are complex mixtures which mation of volatile components, formation of insoluble
are affected by temperature, pressure, atmospheric con- materials, or formation of corrosive products. Insolu-
ditions, moisture, metals in the hydraulic system, me- bles formed may range in nature from hard particles to
chanical shear, and other external influences. These sludges and gums. Corrosion products generally form
influences define the operating conditions of the hy- as the result of thermal or oxidative decomposition, or
draulic system, and a hydraulic fluid should be stable from hydrolysis. Volatile components can form as the
under the imposed conditions. Any or all of these influ- result of oxidative, thermal, or radiation effects. All of
ences can change the properties of the hydraulic fluid these changes are usually undesirable, and precautions
to such an extent that it may be unsuitable for use in should be taken to avoid them or reduce their effects.
the system for which it was intended. However, it is The stability of a hydraulic fluid is also affected by
mandatory that the system be operated with a hydrau- the metals used in the system. Depending on the chemi-
lic fluid that does not suffer degradation or that cal type of the liquid, certain metals can act as catalysts
changes only to such an extent that its operating ability in the deterioration process. The problem is essentially
is not significantly impaired within a defined range of a question of compatibility of the hydraulic fluid and
use conditions. the metals of construction (see par. 3-6.1).
The stability of many types of hydraulic fluids has
been extensively studied under a wide variety of condi-
tions in the laboratory. Oxidation, thermal stress, hy- 3-4.2 OXIDATION STABILITY
drolysis, radiation, and mechanical stress due to shear
and cavitation are the primary forces that tend to alter Oxidation stability refers to the ability of a liquid to
the chemical nature of hydraulic fluids. Stresses due to resist reaction with oxygen or oxygen-containing com-
shear are discussed in par. 3-2.5. Cavitation is discussed pounds, and is an important factor that affects storage
in par. 3-6.1.2. life of hydraulic fluids and performance life of hydrau-
Because of the wide variety of fluid stability data lic fluids used in open systems (noninerted). Oxidation
available in the literature, examples of specific hydrau- results in liquid deterioration and is manifested by
lic fluids will be avoided in this discussion. Instead, changes in certain physical and chemical characteris-
relative comparisons will be made of the various chemi- tics of the lubricant-such as viscosity, precipitation of
cal classes of hydraulic fluids currently available or insolubles, lacquer and varnish formation, acidity, and
under development. For additional details, the specific corrosiveness. When the concentration of oxidation
references should be consulted. products reaches a critical value, depending upon the
3-65
AMCP 706-123
application, the hydraulic fluid will no longer perform trolled amounts of oxidation are beneficial. For exam-
satisfactorily. Many of the newer hydraulic systems ple, on certain metals, the presence of oxide films
reduce the damage from oxidation by using systems determines the ability of the metal to be lubricated and
that are inerted. prevent surface welding and galling. Complete removal
of oxygen from systems containing such metals may
Oxidation rates of most types of liquids are tempera- cause problems when the oxide surface films revert to
ture sensitive. Degradation products increase with in- bare metals (Ref. 106). This possibility is usually taken
creasing temperature and, as a result, require more care of by use of additives such as tricresyl phosphate.
frequent hydraulic fluid replacements. The oxidation
rate is also usually increased with increases in the 3-4.3 THERMAL STABILITY
amount of air and water contamination; and the pres-
ence of metallic particles, dirt, and dust. In addition, Thermal stability is the ability of a liquid to resist
for petroleum liquids the type of crude oil from which decomposition by temperature only. It determines the
the liquid is derived, as well as the refining methods, ultimate temperature limit of service for a hydraulic
may also affect the oxidation rate. fluid. As design temperatures of new hydraulic equip-
ment continue to rise, the thermal stability of lubricants
The oxygen necessary for the oxidation reaction usu-
and hydraulic fluids becomes increasingly important.
ally results from the presence of air contamination in
Much research in recent years has resulted in a number
the liquid or exposure to air in open systems. In order
of candidate hydraulic fluids which can operate for
to retain useful hydraulic fluid life at higher tempera-
long periods at relatively high temperatures. Sustained
tures, systems must exclude air, and the hydraulic fluid
high temperature stability of a hydraulic fluid is a
must be substantially free of dissolved air prior to necessary characteristic. Ideally, a hydraulic fluid
charging the system. The use of antioxidants can sub-
should not degrade significantly between normal sys-
stantially improve the oxidation stability of a liquid.
tem overhauls.
Practically all commerical hydraulic fluids are stabil-
Table 3-9 presents the deterioration temperatures for
ized by antioxidants.
the same fluids discussed in par. 3-4.2. The polyphenyl
Thermal and/or oxidative stability are generally the ethers and the silicones have high deterioration temper-
factors that limit the upper operating temperature of atures (in excess of 600T). However, the super refined
the hydraulic fluids, depending upon the systems in mineral oils and synthetic hydrocarbons have deterio-
which the hydraulic fluids are used. Most petroleum ration temperatures almost as high and are better lubri-
base hydraulic fluids are limited to less than 200°F cants. The data presented in Table 3-9 are approximate
operation in open systems while some are capable of only and vary depending on the conditions the tests are
550°F operation in closed inerted systems. The max- conducted under. For example, many nonhydrocarbon
imum useful temperatures and the oxidation resistance liquids are less stable in the presence of ferrous metals
of several types of hydraulic fluids are given in Tables than other metals.
3-7 and 3-8. The oxidation resistance ratings shown in Measurement of thermal stability has not previously
Table 3-8 are for operation below the recommended been standardized, but the usual procedure was to re-
long duration operating temperatures of Table 3-7. The late it to change in weight of the liquid sample, develop-
polyphenyl ethers and the silicones are the most stable ment of acidity, formation of insolubles, or changes in
liquids at the higher temperatures. However, most other properties such as color, viscosity, pour point,
types of liquids are relatively poor lubricants in com- flash and fire points, etc. (Ref. 106). ASTM D-2160-66
parison with petroleum-base liquids. (see par. 3-4.6.3.2) is now being used commonly as a
standard test method for thermal stability of hydraulic
Oxidation stability is an important factor in the pre- fluids. Various other laboratory and bench scale tests
diction of the performance of a hydraulic fluid in an have been developed, which usually involve heating the
oxidizing environment. Without adequate oxidation liquid and measuring changes in the properties. If the
stability, the life of a liquid may be extremely limited container holding the liquid is open to the air, the test
and unless the liquid is frequently replaced, there is a then becomes a combination oxidation and thermal
serious possibility of damage to lubricated parts. Oxi- stability test. In order to separate thermal and oxidative
dation stability becomes a prime requisite of liquids effects, test procedures have been devised in which oxy-
serving in closed uninerted lubrication systems such as gen is removed from the system and replaced by an
hydraulic systems where the oil is recirculated for ex- inert gas such as nitrogen or helium. These purely ther-
tended periods. There are some instances where con- mal stability tests are carried out in sealed systems. The
3-66
AMCP 706-123
TABLE 3-7.
MAXIMUM OPERATING TEMPERATURE OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS"
Approximate Upper Use Limit, °F

Hydraulic Fluid Type Long Duration Moderate Duration Hot Spot Short
(500-1000 hr) (10-100 hr) Duration (< 1 hr)
Mineral Oils 275 300 350

Emulsions
Water-glycols 200
Alkyl Phosphates 225 b
Super-refined Mineral Oils,
Synthetic Hydrocarbons 300-450& 550 700
Silanes
Polyglycols 325-350 375-400 450-500
Dibasic Acid Esters 350 400 425
Neopentyl-polyol Esters 375 425 550
Silicate Esters 375-400 475-525 575
Aromatic Phosphate Esters 200 400 575
Halogenated Aromatics 450 575 600
Silicones 425-550C 550-625 800
Polyphenyl Ethers 500 600-700 900
Fluorinated Alkyl Ethers 500 600 800
a
Temperature limits depend on the type of pump used such as gear, vane, piston, etc.
b Depending on oxidation resistance
c
Range due to many viscosities available
~~ No reliable data
liquid and container are placed in a chamber which is tions of solids or acidic and corrosive materials may
evacuated and then filled, using nitrogen or other inert result, or a stable water and oil emulsion which de-
gas. This procedure is repeated until little, if any, oxy- grades lubricating ability and promotes rusting and
gen remains in contact with or is dissolved in the test corrosion may form.
liquid. Containers are then heated for a given period of Since it is rarely possible to completely exclude mois-
time and the change in the liquid measured. ture from any lubricant or hydraulic system, hydrolytic
It is best to determine the thermal stability in an stability is an important requirement of fluids. It affects
operating system similar to that for which the hydrau- the life of liquids both in the original storage containers
lic fluid is intended. Pump-loop tests have been devised and in the hydraulic system. In storage, moisture may
which can be operated for extended periods at elevated come in contact with a hydraulic fluid if storage drums
temperatures, but they are often impractical because of are not properly sealed. Within the hydraulic system,
size and expense. The sealed bomb tests are then often temperature changes will cause reservoir breathing and
used because test conditions of interest nearly duplicate condensation of moisture during shut-down periods.
those in hydraulic systems. Even in supposedly "sealed" systems, moisture is dif-
ficult to exclude because of seals, fittings, and other
3-4.4 HYDROLYTIC STABILITY possible leakage points.
Hydrolytic stability refers to the ability of hydraulic Until the advent of synthetic liquids, little considera-
fluids to resist reaction with water. Undesirable formation was given to hydrolytic stability because of the
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AMCP 706-123
TABLE 3-8.
OXIDATION AND VARNISHING RESISTANCE OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
Resistance to Tendency to Form

Hydraulic Fluid Type
Oxidation Solids or Varnish
Mineral Oils Good

Water-in-mineral Oil Emulsions Good —
Water-glycols Good —
Alkyl Phosphates Good —
Super Refined Mineral Oils, Synthetic
Hydrocarbons, and Silanes Fair to good Large
Polyglycols Fair Small to medium
Dibasic Acid Esters Good Large
Neopentyl-polyol Esters Good Large
Silicate Esters Fair to good Small to medium
Aromatic Phosphate Esters Good Medium
Halogenated Aromatics Excellent to 500°F Small
Silicones Excellent to 400°F Small
Good above 400°F Small
Polyphenyl Ethers Excellent to 500°F Small
No reliable data
[From: F. D.Yeaple, Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power and Control58. Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
outstanding hydrolytic stability of petroleum oils. susceptible to damage by radiation. Since convention-
However, stability of synthetic fluids and of some addi- ally used hydraulic fluids and lubricants are especially
tives in hydraulic fluid formulations must be consid- susceptible, the effects of radiation on their perform-
ered. Table 3-10 presents data on the relative hy- ance should be considered in the design of almost all
drolytic stability of several classes of hydraulic fluids. systems. However, there is no general requirement for
The most moisture-sensitive of these hydraulic fluids radiation resistance in most hydraulic fluid specifica-
are the silicate esters. Hydrolysis of these fluids pro- tions.
duces a silicate sludge which readily clogs filters, servo Considerable basic work has been done on the radia-
valves, and capillary passages. Great care is needed to tion of simple organic structures. With the more com-
insure that no water is present in the system prior to plicated molecular structures characteristic of lubri-
charging with this type of fluid. cants, both petroleum and synthetic, it has not been
feasible to make studies of the precise reactions that
occur. The empirical observations are: (Ref. 107) (a)
3-4.5 RADIATION RESISTANCE viscosity may at first be decreased, but eventually in-
creases, (b) acidity increases, (c) volatility increases, (d)
It has only been since the early 1950's that the radia- foaming tendencies increase, (e) coking tendencies gen-
tion resistance of hydraulic fluids has become impor- erally increase but occasionally decrease, (f) flash
tant. In the design of modern weapon systems, aircraft, points decrease, (g) autogeneous ignition temperatures
and mechanical devices, hydraulic systems are fre- decrease, and (h) oxidation stability decreases.
quently expected to be exposed to nuclear radiation. Of In addition to the listed changes in physical and
all system components, the hydraulic fluid is the most chemical properties, gas is always liberated (Ref. 107).
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AMCP 706-123
TABLE 3-9. TABLE 3-10.

DETERIORATION TEMPERATURE OF HYDROLYTIC STABILITY OF
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
Comparative
Incipient Thermal Hydraulic Fluid Type Rating
Hydraulic Fluid Type Degradation
Temperature °F Super-refined Mineral Oils,
Synthetic Hydrocarbons, and
Super-refined Mineral Oils, Silanes Excellent
Synthetic Hydrocarbons,
Polyglycols Good
and Silanes 600-700
Dibasic Acid Esters Fair
Polyglycols 500-550
Neopentyl-polyol Esters Fair
Dibasic Acid Esters 525
Silicate Esters Poor to Fair
Neopentyl-polyol Esters 575
550-600 Aromatic Phosphate Esters Fair to Good
Silicate Esters
500-600 Halogenated Aromatics Excellent
Aromatic Phosphate Esters
600-650 Silicones Excellent
Halogenated Aromatics
625-800 Polyphenyl Ethers Excellent
Silicones
Polyphenyl Ethers 750-850 [From: F. D. Yeaple, Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power
and Control55. Used by permission of McGraw-Hill,
[From: F. D. Yeaple, Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power Inc.]
and Control . Used by permission of McGraw-Hill,
Inc.]
Considerable work has been done on the repression
of radiation damage to organic liquids by additives.
For petroleum liquids the gases are frequently hydro-
The presence of additives such as antioxidants and
gen and methane. The remaining products of decompo- foam inhibitors may offer a slight repression of the
sition are frequently gels that tend to clog hydraulic effects of radiation.
systems. The formation of the gases and gels presents
a difficult design problem, and provisions must be
made in the system for their presence. 3-4.6 CHEMICAL STABILITY TESTS
Although some changes in lubricants have been
found after radiation doses of 107roentgens,2 the major A large number of tests to determine the chemical
effects are observed between 108 and 109 roentgens stability of hydraulic fluids have been proposed and
(Refs. 107, 108). Beyond 10 roentgens most liquid lu- developed. Their number and variety are almost over-
bricants have been damaged to the extent that they are whelming. Some tests are comprehensive in that they
completely unserviceable. evaluate the overall stability of the liquid over a wide
In general, petroleum lubricants are more resistant range of conditions. Others are very narrow in their
to radiation damage than other lubricants. An excep- scope in that they evaluate the stability of one property
tion is the polyphenyl ether family which is very resist- of the liquid over a more limited range of conditions.
ant to damage. Currently, the silicone liquids exhibit All of the tests, however, are of two basic modes of
the poorest radiation resistance of all the high tempera- operation: (1) tests which measure changes in selected
ture liquids (Ref. 4). Inclusion of atoms other than properties of the liquid before and after exposure to
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the molecule gener- controlled conditions, and (2) tests which measure the
ally reduces radiation resistance. Table 3-11 presents effects of the liquid on a controlled system component
data on the relative radiation resistance of various hy- or test specimen. Examples of the latter type are pump-
draulic fluids. loop tests which measure the effect of liquids on the
2 pump, and oxidation-corrosion tests which measure the
1 roentgen = absorption of 93 ergs/g water or 83 ergs/g air.
1rad = 100 ergs/g. changes in metals exposed to the liquids.
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AMCP 706-123
TABLE 3-11. commonly used indicators. Viscosity test methods have

been described in par. 3-2.1.11. Flash and fire points
RADIATION RESISTANCE have been discussed in par. 3-2.7.1.1. Details of the test
OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS methods for precipitation number and ash content can
be found in the ASTM Test Methods (Refs. 109, 110).
Relative
Fluid Type Radiation
Resistance 3-4.6.1.1 Color
Mineral Oüs: MIL-H-5606 Poor Test Methods: Federal Test Method 102.6 (Ref. 111)
MIL-L-25598 Low ASTM D-1500-64 (Ref. 112)
Super-refined Mineral Oils: This method describes a procedure for the visual
Naphthenic and Paraffmic Poor determination of the color of a wide variety of pe-
troleum products such as lubricating oils, heating oils,
Synthetic Hydrocarbons (Average) Poor
diesel fuel oils, and petroleum waxes. While the color
Diesters: MIL-L-7808C Poor of a hydraulic fluid may have no correlation with its
Triesters: MIL-L-9236B Poor functional ability, a change in color generally does indi-
cate a change in the fluid and can be used as an indica-
Silicate Esters Poor
tor of possible stability changes.
Disiloxane-diesters: MLO-8515 Poor A measured sample of the test fluid (diluted with
Disiloxane: MLO-8200 Poor kerosene when samples are darker than ASTM Color
No. 8) is placed in a standard glass sample jar in a
Polysiloxanes Poor
colorimeter, and its color is compared to the color of
Chlorinated Silicones Poor standard glass panels. The color of the sample is re-
Silicone Ester Blends: MLO-5998 Poor ported as the number of the next darkest glass standard.
Phosphate Esters Poor Precision: The data which follow should be used for
Polyphenyl Ethers Excellent judging the acceptability of results. Results should not
be considered suspect unless they differ by more than
[From: C. Spar, Hydraulic Fluids and Their Applica- the following amounts:
tions^60. Used by permission of ASME.] (a) Repeatability. 0.5 color unit
(b) Reproducibility. 0.5 color unit
Since there is a wide variety of tests, only a few of the
more widely accepted procedures will be discussed 3-4.6.1.2 Neutralization Number
here. These tests can be divided into five areas of ap-
plication: general indicators of liquid stability, oxida- Test Methods: ASTM D-664-58 (Ref. 113)
tion stability tests, thermal stability tests, hydrolytic ASTM D-974-64 (Ref. 114)
stability tests, and radiation resistance tests. The inclu- Changes in acidity or alkalinity are often used as
sion of a test in one particular category does not mean measures of the deterioration of liquids, particularly in
it is limited entirely to that category-only that its stability tests for oxidation and corrosion. Oxidation of
predominant use is in that general area. most organic materials can result in the formation of
acidic compounds.
The term "neutralization number" is often used in
3-4.6.1 Indicators of Liquid Stability expressing an acidity or alkalinity of lubricating liquids
and hydraulic fluids. It is defined as the number of
A large number of the tests for liquid stability consist milligrams of potassium hydroxide required to neutral-
of determining the values of various properties of the ize all the acids present in one gram of the sample, or
liquid, subjecting the liquid to controlled test condi- the equivalent (in milligrams of potassium hydroxide)
tions, and then measuring the changes in the selected number of milligrams of hydrochloric acid required to
properties. Those properties most often used as indica- neutralize all of the bases present in one gram of the
tors of changes in liquid stability are: color, viscosity, sample. The neutralization number is a general term
flash and fire points, neutralization number, carbon that can refer to the results of different tests so the
residue, precipitation number, and ash content. The test method and the pH of the final solution must
viscosity and the neutralization number are the most be specified.
3-70
AMCP 706-1 23
Two widely accepted test procedures for determining that is required to neutralize the strong acid
the neutralization number of liquids have been deve- constituents present in one gram of sample.
loped. The methods were developed primarily for pe- (c) Total base number. The quantity of acid ex-
troleum base materials, and they give fictitious results pressed in terms of the equivalent number of
with certain synthetic materials used as hydraulic milligrams of potassium hydroxide that is re-
fluids, i.e., the results may actually indicate the quired to neutralize all basic constituents pre-
saponification of an ester, excessive hydrolysis of addi- sent in one gram of sample.
tives, etc. It is suggested that the test method recom- (d) Strong base number. The quantity of acid ex-
mended by the manufacturer of a synthetic liquid be pressed in terms of the equivalent number of
used to indicate changes which have occurred in a milligrams of potassium hydroxide that is re-
particular synthetic liquid. quired to neutralize the strong base constitu-
(1) Neutralization Number by Potentiometric Titra- ents present in one gram of sample.
tion (ASTM D-664-58 (Ref. 113)).- The results are reported as the total acid num-
This method describes the procedure for the determi- ber, strong acid number, total base number, and strong
nation of acidic or basic constituents in petroleum pro- base number.
ducts and lubricants. The method resolves these con- (2) Neutralization Number by Color-indicator Ti-
stituents into groups having weak acid, strong acid, tration (ASTM D-974-64 (Ref. 114);.
weak base, and strong base ionization properties, pro- This method is intended for the determination of
vided the dissociation constants of the more strongly acidic or basic constituents in petroleum products and
acidic or basic compounds are at least 1,000 times that lubricants, which are soluble in mixtures of toluene and
of the next weaker groups. In new and used liquids, the isopropyl alcohol. It is applicable for the determination
constituents that may be considered to have acidic of acids or bases which have dissociation constants in
characteristics include organic and inorganic acids, es- water larger than 10" . Extremely weak acids or bases
ters, phenolic compounds, lactones, resins, salts of having dissociation constants smaller than 10"9do not
heavy metals, salts of ammonia and other weak bases, interfere. Salts react if their hydrolysis constants are
acid salts of polybasic acid, and additional agents such larger than 10" .
as inhibitors and detergents. Constituents that may be To determine the total acid or strong base number,
considered to have basic properties include organic and the sample is dissolved in a mixture of toluene and
inorganic bases, amino compounds, salts of weak acids, isopropyl alcohol containing a small amount of water,
basic salts of polyacidic bases, salts of heavy metals, and the resulting single phase solution is titrated at
and additional agents such as inhibitors and detergents. room temperature with standard alcoholic base, or al-
To determine neutralization numbers by this coholic acid solution, respectively, to the end point
method, the sample is dissolved in a mixture of toluene indicated by the color change of the added p-naphthol-
and isopropyl alcohol containing a small amount of benzene solution (orange in acid and green-brown in
water. It is then titrated potentiometrically with al- base). To determine the strong acid number, a separate
coholic potassium hydroxide or hydrochloric acid solu- portion of the sample is extracted with hot water and
tion using a glass indicating electrode and a calomel the aqueous extract is titrated with potassium hydrox-
reference electrode. The potentiometer meter readings ide solution using methyl orange as an indicator. Defi-
are plotted against the respective volumes of titrating nitions of the terms total acid number, strong acid
solutions, and the end points for each acid or base number, and strong base number are given in par. 3-
group are taken at inflections in the resulting curve. 4.6.1.2(1).
When no definite inflections are obtained, end points The acid or base number is calculated and reported
are taken at meter readings corresponding to those as the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide to
found for standard nonaqueous acidic and basic neutralize one gram of the sample and is identified by
buffer solutions. the notation ASTM D-974-64 (Ref. 114).
Definition of the terms used to designate the various
measured values are:
(a) Total acid number. The quantity of base ex- 3-4.6.1.3 Carbon Residue
pressed in milligrams of potassium hydroxide
that is required to neutralize all acidic con- The carbon residue left after evaporation and pyrol-
stituents present in one gram of sample. ysis of a liquid can give some indication of the relative
(b) Strong acid number. The quantity of base ex- coke-forming properties of the liquid. The methods
pressed in milligrams of potassium hydroxide presented were originally intended for the study of fuel
3-71
AMCP 706-123
oils and motor oils that came in contact with extremely iron or copper are catalysts for oxidation, many test
hot surfaces. However, as the temperature ranges of procedures involve the use of these metals. Two general
hydraulic fluids are increased, the carbon residue and techniques are used to indicate oxidation stability. The
the tendency of the hydraulic fluid to coke or form first involves measuring changes in liquid properties
sludges becomes important to system design. Two gen- caused by the test. The second involves determining the
eral methods of determining carbon residue are cur- amount of oxygen that has been removed from the air
rently used, the Conradson and the Ramsbottom. or the system. Relating the oxygen consumed to time
Test Methods: Conradson-Federal Test Method will give the rate of oxidation. A few of the more widely
5001.9 (Ref. 115) accepted procedures are discussed here.
ASTMD-189-65 (Ref. 116)
Ramsbottom-Federal Test Method
5002.6 (Ref. 117)
ASTM D-524-64 (Ref. 118) 3-4.6.2.1 Oxidation-corrosion Test
These methods describe procedures for the determi-
nation of the carbon residue left after evaporation and Test Method: Federal Test Method No. 5308.5 (Ref.
pyrolysis of an oil. They are generally applicable to 119)
relatively nonvolatile petroleum products which par- Probably the most widely used test for oxidation
tially decompose on distillation at atmospheric pres- stability is the oxidation-corrosion test. This test
sure. Petroleum products containing ash-forming con- method is used for testing hydraulic fluids and other
stituents, such as detergents, will have an erroneously highly-refined oils to determine their ability to resist
high carbon residue depending upon the amount of oxidation and their tendency to corrode various met-
ash formed. als. The test is also used as an accelerated long term
(1) Conradson Test: storage test.
In the Conradson test, a weighed quantity of the Five different metal strips-one each of copper, steel,
sample fluid is placed in a crucible and subjected to aluminum alloy, magnesium alloy, and cadmium
destructive distillation. The residue undergoes cracking plated steel-are carefully cleaned, polished, and
and coking reactions during a fixed period of severe weighed. These metal strips are assembled in a pattern,
heating. At the end of the heating period, the crucible tied together, and the assembly immersed in a sample
with the residue is cooled in a desiccator and weighed. of the oil. The oil is held at 250T for 168 hr while air
The residue remaining is calculated as a percentage of is bubbled through it. The strips are then removed,
the original sample and reported as the Conradson car- cleaned and weighed, and the results are recorded as
bon residue. changes in weight per unit area of surface. Each strip
(2) Ramsbottom Test: is examined for any evidence of pitting, etching, or
In the Ramsbottom test, a sample of the liquid is stains. In addition, the oil sample is examined before
placed in a glass coking bulb having a capillary open- and after the test, and percent changes of neutralization
ing. The bulb with the specimen is placed in a metal number and viscosity are determined. Several varia-
furnace at approximately 1,020°F. The sample is tions of the test are used with different metal specimens
quickly heated to the point at which all volatile matter and/or test temperatures and/or test times. For exam-
is evaporated out of the bulb with or without decompo- ple, MIL-L-7808E specifies metal strips of steel, silver,
sition while the heavier residue remaining in the bulb aluminum, and magnesium alloys under conditions of
undergoes cracking and coking reactions. After a speci- 347°F for 72 hr. MIL-H-8446B specifies a 72-hr test at
fied heating period? the bulb is removed from the bath, 400°F with metal strips of silver, copper, steel, and
cooled in a desiccator, and weighed. The residue re- aluminum alloy.
maining is calculated as a percentage of the original
sample and reported as the Ramsbottom carbon residue.
3-4.6.2.2 Steam Turbine Oxidation Test
3-4.6.2 Oxidation Stability Tests Test Method: ASTM D-943-54 (Ref. 120)
This test was developed to measure the effectiveness
A large number of oxidation tests have been of antioxidant additives and to predict lubricant life.
proposed. All these tests involve exposing the liquid to The procedure is actually a combination oxidation and
air or oxygen at elevated temperatures in order to accel- hydrolytic stability test. Given amounts of the test liq-
erate the rate of oxidation. Since certain metals such as uid and water are placed in a large test tube, and a coil
3-72
AMCP 706-123
of iron wire and copper wire wound together in inti- ratio of oxygen-to-liquid. The amount of oxygen that
mate contact is completely immersed in the test mix- must be added to the system to maintain a desired
ture. The test tube is placed in a bath at 95°C and air pressure is a measure of that absorbed by the liquid.
at 3 liters per hour is bubbled through the test liquid/- Test data are usually accumulated in terms of amount
water mixture. The test liquid is sampled periodically of oxygen absorbed per unit time. Several variations of
to determine changes in acidity. A rapidly increasing this test have been developed. Details on them can be
acidity is taken as the end point of the test. The forma- found in Ref. 4.
tion of sludge deposits on the metal coil can also be
used to rate liquid stability. This procedure has been
found to be particularly useful in determining the effec- 3-4.6.3 Thermal Stability Tests
tiveness of inhibitors in petroleum products used as
steam turbine lubricants. Since many of these same 3-4.6.3.1 Penn State Bomb Test
materials are used as hydraulic fluids, the results of the
steam turbine oxidation test are often considered in the The Penn State Bomb Test described in MIL-H-
selection of petroleum-type hydraulic fluids. 27601 is a widely used thermal stability test. A 20 ml
sample of the liquid is placed in a stainless steel pres-
sure cylinder with a 46 ml capacity. Catalysts of 0.5 in.
diameter ball bearings of M-10 tool steel, 52100 steel,
3-4.6.2.3 Evaporation Tests and naval bronze are also placed in the cylinder. The
system is purged with nitrogen, sealed at atmospheric
Evaporation loss tests described in par. 3-2.8.2 pro- pressure, and the test begun. A temperature of 700°F
vide a measure of oxidation stability. These tests are (371°C) and a nitrogen pressure of 20 psig is maintained
primarily designed to measure the liquid volatility. for 6 hr. Changes in viscosity, weight of the catalyst ball
However, if the temperature at which the test is carried bearings, and acid or base number are reported as a
out is high enough that oxidation occurs, the total measure of thermal stability of the liquid.
weight loss experienced by the sample will be a measure
of oxidation stability-volatility of the liquid.
3-4.6.3.2 High-temperature Test
Test Methods: Federal Test Method 2508 (Ref. 121)
3-4.6.2.4 Thin Film Oxidation Tests ASTM D-2160-66 (Ref. 122)
A frequent occurrence in the operation of hydraulic the thermal stability of liquids. The volatile decomposi-
systems is the exposure to the atmosphere of a large tion products are held in continuous contact with the
area of metal surface covered by a thin film of hydraulic liquid during the test. The method does not measure
fluid. One such case is the extension of an actuator rod. the temperature at which oil fragments begin to form,
Normal oxidation tests involve the use of relatively but will indicate bulk fragmentation occurring at a
small surface-to-liquid ratios. A test for determining specified temperature and testing period.
oxidation properties at large surface-to-liquid ratios A sample of the liquid is placed in a glass test cell,
has been developed by the Pennsylvania State Univer- and the test cell and contents are degassed to reduce
sity Petroleum Refining Laboratory (Ref. 4). The oxidation and hydrolysis. The cell is then sealed under
procedure involves passing air and oxygen through a a vacuum and held at 500°F ± 2°F for a period of 24
tube containing a large amount of metal chain and a hr. The sample is observed during the test for evidence
small amount of liquid. Changes in liquid properties of insolubles, separation, or other changes. The test
occurring after a specific test period are measured. report includes (1) test temperature and duration, (2)
visual appearance of the liquid and test cell, and (3)
changes in neutralization number and viscosity of the
3-4.6.2.5 Dornte Oxidation Test liquid sample.
The Dornte oxidation test is one of the more com-

3-4.6.3.3 Sustained High-temperature Stability
mon absorption-type oxidation tests for hydraulic
Tests
fluids. Oxygen is circulated through the liquid which is
maintained under specified conditions. The total There are no standardized test procedures for sus-
amount of oxygen absorbed is replaced to maintain the tained high-temperature stability as such. However,
3-73
AMCP 706-123
when a hydraulic fluid is being considered for use for 3-4.6.4.2 Other Hydrolytic Stability Tests
long periods in a system operating near its upper tem-
perature limit, normal thermal stability data may not To determine the hydrolytic stability of fluids whose
be sufficient to indicate probable performance. In such rate of hydrolysis is low, or to predict hydrolytic stabil-
instances, it is common to test the liquid in a pump loop ity in closed systems at high temperatures, a metal
operating in a high-temperature environment. The bomb must be used in place of the beverage bottle. Test
pump loop test procedures discussed in pars. 3-2.5.3 procedures are quite similar to those used for the bever-
(Shear Tests) or 3-3.8.2.1 and 3-3.8.2.2 (Lubrication age bottle test except that no metal strip is added.
Tests) are adaptable to high temperature tests. The Shaking assemblies, such as those available from the
procedure is to enclose the loop in an oven, and operate American Instrument Company, are well suited for
the test continuously at the desired temperature for 100 this test. These particular assemblies oscillate a high-
to 1,000 hr. temperature high-pressure reaction vessel ± 15° at 36
cycles per min. Reflux tests present another general
3-4.6.3.4 Low-temperature Stability Test technique. While procedures have not been standard-
ized, the essential features are that measured amounts
Although the term "thermal stability" usually im- of water and fluid are placed in a container and heated
plies high-temperature stability, problems can occur to the temperature at which the oil boils. The vapors
with hydraulic fluid stability at low temperatures. Re- are condensed, and refluxing is continued for a speci-
fer to par. 3-2.14 for a discussion of low-temperature fied period of time. Changes in the fluid are deter-
stability and the various applicable tests. mined, and the development of any acidity in the water
layer is measured. These data are used as an indication
of hydrolytic stability. Simple storage tests are also a
3-4.6.4 Hydrolytic Stability Tests measure of hydrolytic stability. Measured quantities of
fluid and water are placed in a bottle or other container,
Hydrolytic stability is determined by exposing the agitated, and stored at desired temperatures for a
hydraulic fluid to water and measuring the changes desired period of time. The samples are examined peri-
that occur, under various environmental conditions, in odically to determine changes in appearance and, at the
selected properties of the liquid. A problem that often end of the test, are examined for the formation of in-
occurs in these tests is maintaining a sufficient contact solubles, gels, or other physical and chemical changes.
area between water and liquid to obtain a measur- Various types of metals, elastomers, surface coatings,
able reaction. Several of the more common tests are etc., can be added to the test containers to determine
described. their effect.
3-4.6.4.1 Beverage Bottle Test 3-4.6.5 Radiation Resistance Tests
Test Methods: Federal Test Method 3457 (Ref. 123) The usual test methods for determining radiation
ASTM D-2619-67 (Ref. 124) resistance by hydraulic fluids are based upon radiation
This method is used for determining the resistance of exposure followed by determination of changes in the
finished fluids to reaction when in contact with water. liquid. Certain selected properties-such as viscosity
It consists of placing 75 g of fluid and 25 g of distilled and neutralization number, etc.-of the fluid are mea-
water in a 7-oz beverage bottle. A cleaned and weighed sured before the test. The fluid is subjected to a given
copper strip is placed in the bottle and immersed in the amount of radiation exposure and the properties are
fluid. The bottle is sealed and placed in a rotating measured after exposure. Changes can vary from com-
mechanism that turns the bottle end over end at 5 rpm plete destruction of the fluids and loss of structural
for 48 hr in an oven at 200°F. The container is then integrity to minor variations in various properties. This
removed from the oven, allowed to cool, and examined. is a static test method and gives considerable informa-
Any insolubles formed are removed by centrifuging. tion on performance of fluids exposed to radiation.
The oil and water layers are separated and examined Under development, however, are various dynamic
for changes in neutralization number, viscosity, and test procedures. These procedures are based upon the
color. The weight change of the copper strip is also actual operation, in the presence of radiation, of some
reported, and the physical condition of the strip test devices such as a simulated hydraulic pump test
is observed. loop containing the test liquid. Also being studied is the
3-74
AMCP 706-1 23
effect of various types of radiation on the test liquid. its results are exhibited by an accumulation of metal
For example, gamma radiation is known to have a oxides. Acidic corrosion refers to the deterioration of
more destructive effect than alpha or beta radiation. the metallic surface caused by the metal actually being
Testing for radiation effects becomes complicated and dissolved by acids and washed away, leaving a pit-
expensive. Equipment needed is extensive and costly. ted surface.
Results vary greatly from test to test and also from Rusting is the oxidation of the base iron in the metal
sample to sample. Considerable effort is being ex- structures. The oxidation is usually catalyzed or in-
pended by the military on studies of potentially useful creased by the presence of dissolved air and water in the
hydraulic fluids and their radiation resistance. system liquid. Prevention of oxidation is theoretically
the easiest corrosion action to control. Simple exclusion
of air and moisture from the system could eliminate
rusting. However, because it is almost impossible to
3-5 CORROSIVENESS completely exclude all air and moisture from a hydrau-
lic system, numerous additives are used as oxidation
In its broadest meaning, corrosion refers to the and corrosion inhibitors (see Chapter 5).
deterioration of a metallic surface by chemical or elec- Oxidation of the hydraulic fluids while in use pro-
trochemical action; a familiar example is the rusting of duces acid-type products which can rapidly increase
iron. The corrosiveness of a hydraulic fluid relates to the corrosiveness of the fluid. It is, therefore, desirable
its tendency to promote or encourage corrosion in a to maintain a high level of oxidation stability in the
hydraulic system. It is obviously desirable to maintain fluid. There are numerous inhibitors which can reduce
the corrosiveness of a hydraulic fluid at as low a level the acid corrosion tendencies of a hydraulic fluid. A
as possible. discussion of the various corrosion inhibitors and their
The corrosiveness of a hydraulic fluid, usually at its mode of action is presented in Chapter 5.
lowest value when the fluid is new and unused, can be The corrosive tendencies of a liquid are frequently
affected by a number of variables such as temperature, increased by the presence of various metals which act
load, moisture, chemical nature of the liquid, oxidation as catalysts. Copper is a common example. Many liq-
stability, the type and amount of degradation products uids become much more corrosive than usual in the
formed, the dispersion of the products in the system, presence of copper; thus several of the test procedures
and numerous other variables. Only a few of these for determining corrosion properties of liquids make
variables, however, are parameters of the liquid. Varia- use of a copper catalyst. The problem is basically one
bles such as temperature, load, and exposure to mois- of liquid-metal compatibility and is discussed in par.
ture, etc., are system mechanical factors and can- 3-6.1.
through proper system design and the use of the correct
hydraulic fluid-be controlled within a range of accepta- 3-5.2 ELECTROCHEMICAL CORROSION
ble limits. Fluid parameters-those variables that relate
to the corrosiveness of the liquid such as chemical na- While almost any chemical reaction can be called
ture and oxidation stability-are fundamental properties electrochemical, the term is usually limited to cases
of the liquid and cannot be varied except by the use of with spatially separated anodic and cathodic areas, so
additives (see Chapter 5). that corrosion is accomplished by electric current flow-
ing for a perceptible distance through the metal. It is
not necessary to have two metals for electrochemical
3-5.1 CHEMICAL CORROSION corrosion. All that is needed is the metal, a material of
a different electric potential and a conductance path
Purely chemical corrosion is probably the most between them. A corrosion product or liquid can serve
prevalent type of corrosion found to exist in fluid power as the source of the second electric potential (Ref. 125).
systems. Although starting rapidly, it may often Galvanic corrosion is probably the most common
become low as soon as a layer of corrosion products has form of electrochemical corrosion. Galvanic corrosion
been formed on the metallic surface. If, however, the occurs when dissimilar metals, in electrical contact
layer or corrosion products are being continually with each other, are exposed to an electrolyte. A cur-
cracked or removed, corrosion will continue at its origi- rent, called a galvanic current, then flows from one
nal rate. Of the various types of corrosion, the two that metal to the other. Galvanic corrosion is that part of
occur in most systems are oxidation and acidic corro- the resulting corrosion of the anodic (positive) member
sion. Oxidation is limited to the surface of metals and of the metal couple.
3-75
AMCP 706-123
Many hydraulic fluids are not good electrolytes test liquid and is heated at 250°F for 168 hr while air
when new and do not promote galvanic or electro- is bubbled through the liquid. After the test, the strips
chemical corrosion. However, contaminants that enter are examined for evidence of pitting and corrosion, and
or form in the fluid during use, and some types of the liquid sample itself is examined for changes in basic
additives, may give the liquid electrolytic properties. properties. The oxidation-corrosion test, or variations
Several precautions can be taken to stop or reduce the of it, is frequently called for in property specifications
electrochemical action of the galvanic couple and of military hydraulic fluids. The acceptable corrosion
reduce the corrosion; e.g., using similar metals, insulat- limits for several military specification hydraulic fluids,
ing the metals, or eliminating the electrolyte. These as determined by the oxidation-corrosion test (or varia-
steps are frequently impractical and other precautions, tions) are given in Table 3-13.
such as using corrosion inhibitors, must be taken.
(2) Copper Corrosion (Copper Strip) Test
Test Methods: Federal Test Method 5325 (Ref. 126)
ASTM D-130-65 (Ref. 127)
3-5.3 CORROSIVENESS TESTS This method describes a procedure for the determi-
nation of the corrosiveness to copper of fuels, gasolines,
Numerous test methods have been proposed and cleaners, fuel oils, and other petroleum products.
developed for determining the corrosive properties of A polished copper strip is immersed in a 30-ml sam-
liquids. While most of the tests are universal in that ple of the liquid and heated at the temperature (nor-
they are designed for any type of liquid or lubricant, mally 122° or 212°F) and for the time (normally 2 to 3
certain tests have been developed specifically for gear hr) called for in the liquid specification. At the comple-
lubricants, for hydraulic fluids, or for other special tion of the test period, the copper strip is removed and
liquids. These corrosiveness tests fall into three general compared with a series of copper strip corrosion stand-
categories: (1) metal-liquid tests where a metal surface ards (available from ASTM). The results are reported
is exposed to the liquid for a given length of time at as the number of the corrosion standard with which the
given conditions, (2) fog or humidity cabinet tests test strip compares. Standards vary from a No. la
where a strip of metal is coated with the liquid and (slight tarnish) to No. 4c (corroded glassy or jet black).
exposed to extremely humid conditions for a predeter-
mined period of time, and (3) engine tests where the
liquid is tested in a gear box of an engine under con- 3-5.3.2 Humidity-type Corrosiveness Tests
trolled conditions.
Several corrosiveness test procedures using a fog or
humidity cabinet have been developed. The tests are
3-5.3.1 Metal-liquid Corrosiveness Tests similar in that a metal specimen is coated with the test
liquid and placed in a cabinet with constant high hu-
A large number of metal-liquid corrosiveness tests midity. In some instances the fog is treated with various
have been developed. Most of these tests are similar in chemicals to simulate actual conditions, i.e., sodium
that a metal sample is exposed to the liquid under chloride salt added to simulate sea water. These tests
controlled conditions. The metal is then examined for are not basically corrosiveness tests; they are primarily
evidence of corrosion and the liquid is examined for intended to determine the corrosion-protecting quali-
changes in properties. These tests can also be consid- ties of a liquid in the presence of a corrosive environ-
ered as liquid-metal compatibility tests. Two of the ment. Two of the more common test procedures are
more common types of tests are described and also described and also listed in Table 3-14 along with other
noted in Table 3-12 along with other tests of the tests of the same type.
same type.
(1) Oxidation-corrosion Test
Test Method: Federal Test Method 5308.5 (Ref. 119) (1) Corrosion-fog Cabinet
This test is probably the most commonly used liquid- Test Method: Federal Test Method 5312 (Ref. 128)
metal corrosiveness test. It is described in detail in par. This method is used for determining the rust inhibit-
3-4.6.2.1. In this test, five different metal strips-one ing properties of nonaqueous liquids, greases, and pre-
each of copper, steel, aluminum alloy, magnesium al- servative compositions. The method consists of coating
loy, and cadmium plated steel-are assembled in a pat- low-carbon, cold-rolled steel plates with the test liquid,
tern and the assembly is immersed in a sample of the rotating the plates in a fog cabinet under specified con-
3-76
AMCP 706-123
TABLE 3-12.
LIQUID-METAL CORROSIVENESS TEST METHODS
Test Method Title Procedure
Federal Test Method Corrosiveness and Oxidation 5 Metal strips—copper, steel, aluminum, mag-
5308.5 Stability nesium, cadmium plated steel,—immersed in
test liquid for 168 hr at 250 °F, with air
agitation.
Federal Test Method Copper Strip Corrosion Polished copper strip immersed in test liquid 2
5325 ASTMD-130-65 to 3 hr, 122°F(50°C) or 212°F (100°C).
Federal Test Method Corrosion at 450°F Copper and silver strip immersed in test liquid
5305 for50hr,450°F.
Federal Test Method Lead Corrosion Strips of lead and copper are rotated in test
5321 liquid 1 hr, 325°F, air bubbled through liquid.
Federal Test Method Copper Stain Polished copper strip immersed in used test
5324 liquid 3 hr, 300°F; nitrogen bubbled through
liquid.
Federal Test Method Rust Inhibiting Drop of water placed on 3 sheet-steel plates
5311 (Static Water Drop) immersed in test liquid, one week, 140°F.
Federal Test Method Rust Preventing- Cylindrical steei specimen immersed in test
4011 ASTMD-665-60 Steam Turbine Oils liquid-water mixture, 24 hr, 140°F'(60°C)
Federal Test Method Beverage Bottle Test Copper strip immersed in water-test liquid
3457 ASTM D-2619-67 mixture, 48 hr, 200°F.
References:
(1) Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test Methods 3457, 5308.5, 5325,5305, 5321, 5324,5311,4011.
(2) ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-130-65, Part 17, p. 82; Designation D-665-60, Part 17, p. 253;
Philadelphia, American Society for Testing Materials, 1967.
(3) ASTM Standards 1969, Designation D-2619-67, Part 17, p. 997; Philadelphia, American Society for Testing
Materials, 1969.
ditions of temperature and humidity as called for by the (2) Protection-salt Spray
liquid specifications, and observing the plates for the Test Method: Federal Test Method 4001 (Ref. 129)
formation of rust. The result is reported as the time This method is intended for the determination of the
required for three 1-mm diameter rust spots to form on corrosion resistance of a fluid in the presence of a salt-
the surface of at least two plates or until the specified type atmosphere. Steel test specimens are coated with
test period required by the fluid specification is com - the test fluid and suspended in a fog chamber. The fog
pleted, whichever comes first. consists of an atomized spray of a solution of 20 parts,
3-77
09
TABLE 3-13.
OXIDATION-CORROSION LIMITS OF SEVERAL MILITARY HYDRAULIC FLUID SPECIFICATIONS
Fluid Metal Changes

Changes - C
te O
Weight Change, mg/em a ■H
•H m
S3 O
o ^
•Ö +> >H
0) w o
Test Method +>CO o
-p 'W.
or •H rH bo cu
<l> PH C rH U CO 0)
O «i H •H ,£> cu o ;s
Test Description o u -Ö CU +> -H ft h o
m a 3 • rH w p, Sn rH
•H n tu o o +> •H -r+ O O H
> o O CO PM > O O <
Petroleum Hydraulic
Fluids
MIL-H-5606B Federal No. 5308.5 -5, +20 < 0.20 0.6 ± 0.2 + 0.2 t 0.2 ± 0.2 None E t < ASTM
(168 hr at 250°F) at 130°F 20X No. 3
MIL-H-6083C Federal Wo. 5308.5 -5, +20 <.0.30 0.6 t 0.2 0.2 + 0.2 + 0.2 None at Slight
(168 hr at 250°F) at 130°F 20X Etching
MIL-H-13866B 168 hr at 212°F -5, +20 < 0.5 - 0.2 0.2 None E t
at 100°F (Total) 20X
MIL-H-27601A Federal No. 5308.5 -5, +20 < 0.2 t 0.6 ± 0.2 (+ 0.2 for Silver)
(48 hr at 347°F) at 100°F (Total)
;Phosphate Ester Z 0.2 t 0.2 (i 0.2 for Brass None

' MTL-H-19457B 168 hr at 130°F and Zinc)
Silicate Ester
MIL-H-8446B Federal No. 5308.5 r 35 < 0.1 0.4 I 0.2 0.2 (t 0.2 - Silver) None at Slight
(72 hr at 400°F) at 210 °F (Total) 20X Discolor
AMCP 706-1 23
TABLE 3-14.
FOG OR HUMIDITY CORROSIVENESS TEST METHODS
Federal Test Method 5312 Corrosion 3 or more steel plates, 2 in. X 4-1/8 in., coated
with test liquid, rotated in fog cabinet, 110° to
160°F: Test run until rust occurs on at least
two plates, or for a specified time.
Federal Test Method 4001 Salt-Spray Similar to above, 95°F, solution is 20 percent
sodium chloride, 80 percent distilled water.
Federal Test Method 5329 Rust Protection- Similar to Federal Test Method 5312 above,
ASTM D-1748-62T Humidity Cabinet 120°F:
Federal Test Method 5323 Protection Tests Similar to Federal Test Method 5312 above.
Federal Test Method 5322 Corrosivity Brass clip-on sheet disk coated with test liquid,
placed in humidity cabinet, 50 percent relative
humidity, 80°F, 10 days.
References:
(1) Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test Methods 5312,4001, 5329, 5323, 5322.
(2) ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-1748-62T, Part 17, p. 672, Philadelphia, American Society for Testing
Materials, 1967.
by weight, sodium chloride and 80 parts distilled water. 3-6 COMPATIBILITY

The temperature in the chamber is kept between 92°
and 97°F. The test shall be conducted for as long as
required by the liquid specification. Criteria for deter- A hydraulic fluid must be compatible with the
mining if the candidate liquid passes or fails the test are materials used in the hydraulic system, including met-
to be supplied by the liquid specification. als, plastics, surface coatings, elastomers, and occasion-
ally other materials of construction, lubricants, and
other hydraulic fluids. If the hydraulic fluid in any way
attacks, destroys, dissolves, or changes any part of the
3-5.3.3 Gear-box and Engine Corrosiveness hydraulic system; the system may become inoperable
Tests and, conversely, any changes in the hydraulic fluid
caused by interaction with the system materials can
Several test methods have been developed to evaluate also cause system malfunction. Therefore, compatibil-
the corrosiveness of lubricating oils used in gear boxes. ity of a hydraulic fluid with the system means that the
These tests were not developed for testing hydraulic fluid should not attack the system, and the system
fluids and are not often used in their evaluation. How- should not attack the fluid.
ever, they are mentioned here as they are a means of Compatibility must be considered from several
evaluating liquids under conditions of high torque and points of view. First, there should be compatibility of
high loads. Three of the more common tests are de- the hydraulic fluid with the hydraulic system. Of pri-
scribed in Table 3-15. mary concern is compatibility with the metals of
3-79
AMCP 706-123
TABLE 3-1S.
GEAR-BOX CORROSIVENESS TEST METHODS
Federal Test Load-carrying, Wear, The test unit is a 3/4-ton Army truck hypoid rear-axle
Method 5317 Stability, and Corrosion carrier, 5:83 to 1 ratio. The test fluid is used as the
Characteristics lubricant, temperature maintained at 200°-250°F, load of
32,311 in.-lb at 62 rpm. Test is run for 30 hr.
Federal Test Moisture Corrosion Test unit is Chevrolet passenger car rear axle. 25 ml of
Method 5318 Characteristics - distilled water is added to the test fluid, temperature of
Universal 180°F; 2,400 rpm for 4 hr test. Unit is then stored for
10 days, opened and examined for corrosion.
Federal Test Moisture Corrosion Test unit is a Spicer differential assembly. One ounce of
Method 5326 Characteristics-Gear distilled water is added to test fluid temperature of
Lubricants 180°F; 2,500 rpm for 4 hr. Unit is then stored as required
by fluid specification, opened and examined for corrosion.
References: (1) Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test Methods 5317, 5318, 5326.
construction and the elastomers used for sealing. Also hydraulic fluid or of the material. Because compatibil-
important are the various surfacetreatments of materials ity is an interaction between a hydraulic fluid and enu-
in or near the system, such as paints and special surface merable other materials, hydraulic fluid specifications
finishes. Second, there should be compatibility of the usually include a limited number of requirements on
hydraulic fluid with the system environment. Break- compatibility. The most frequently encountered exam-
age, leakage, and spillage all too frequently bring the ples are rubber swelling requirements. Also, most
hydraulic fluid into contact with its immediate environ- hydraulic fluid specifications require that all liquids
ment. Of concern here are paints, fabric or plastic lin- qualified under the specification be compatible with
ings or covers, insulation and electrical wiring, and each other.
structural materials used near the hydraulic system.
Third, there should be compatibility of the hydraulic
fluid with other liquids and lubricants it may contact. 3-6.1 HYDRAULIC FLUID COMPATIBILITY
Of concern here is additive susceptibility, use of substi- WITH METALS
tute hydraulic fluids, and choices of lubricants for the
system. Each of these factors must be examined in- Compatibility of a hydraulic fluid with the metals
dividually and in combination for compatibility with used in a hydraulic system is most important. Care
the hydraulic fluid. must be taken that system design excludes all metals
There is often difficulty in determining the compati- that are damaged by the liquid or that degrade the
bility of a hydraulic fluid with the hydraulic system. liquid. Liquid-metal compatibility, in its strictest sense,
Because of the wide range of operating conditions and includes only chemical interrelationships; however, the
the large number of possible materials, there have been topic is broadened here to include any influence the
very few Federal or ASTM test procedures developed hydraulic fluid may have on metal fatigue and cavita-
for determining compatibility. When a question of tion.
compatibility arises, the normal test procedure is to It is common practice to use copper, silver, bronze,
expose the material in question to the hydraulic fluid aluminum, steel, magnesium, and many other metals as
(under simulated service conditions, if possible) and structural materials in hydraulic systems. Most pe-
determine changes in the material. One unique facet of troleum-base hydraulic fluids are not normally affected
this type of procedure is that emphasis is placed on the by these materials although some metals, especially
material and not on the hydraulic fluid. The question copper, act as catalysts after degradation starts in some
then arises whether compatibility is a property of the petroleum liquids. However, many of the newer
3-80
AMCP 706-123
synthetic fluids may not be compatible with one or more occurs from the progression of the cracks across a sec-
of the conventional metals. For example, diester fluids tion of the metal.
such as the turbine engine oil MIL-L-7808 are affected For each metal, the degree to which it is affected by
by copper and its alloys above 200°F. At 500T, which stress corrosion is associated with its environment. The
is 200°F above its maximum usable temperature, such hydraulic fluid constitutes the environment "seen" by
a diester still has a life of 8 to 12 hr in a sealed system. the metals in the hydraulic system. If the hydraulic
If a small piece of brass or copper is present, the fluid fluid is corrosive to the metals, the fatigue resistance of
is reduced to a thick, black, molasses-like substance of the metals will be reduced. However, the environment
high acidity and foul odor within an hour (Ref. 62). frequently will not be as corrosive to the metal if the
Liquid-metal compatibility may be measured by a stresses are absent.
number of tests. These techniques usually involve ex- The effect of the hydraulic fluid on the fatigue life of
posing the metal to the liquid under a variety of condi- a metal is not a problem that occurs very often. The
tions and determining any changes in the liquid or the degree of corrosiveness required to produce a signifi-
metals. Many of the tests mentioned in the paragraphs cant reduction in fatigue life is usually much greater
on Chemical Stability (par. 3-4.1) or Corrosiveness than normally occurs in hydraulic systems. For this
(par. 3-5) are quite useful and have been widely used. reason, almost no work has been done in this area.
Difficulty often arises in attempting to relate test Because of the protective nature of many hydraulic
conditions to actual service conditions. Many condi- fluids and the use of corrosion inhibitors, the corrosion
tions that occur in service cannot be anticipated and level of most hydraulic fluids tends to be low. If excess
incorporated into the test. One example is galvanic corrosiveness is present, it is usually an indication that
corrosion. Hydraulic fluids may become electrolytes the limits of the hydraulic fluid are being exceeded, or
between dissimilar metals during use and cause consid- that excess contamination is present. In such cases, the
erable corrosion. It then becomes necessary to study presence of the corrosiveness itself is dangerous and
metal-to-metal couples in the presence of candidate can produce system malfunction.
hydraulic fluids. Most fluid manufacturers have con-
ducted extensive research into the liquid-metal compat-
3-6.1.2 Cavitation
ibility of their products and data are available to pros-
pective purchasers. In most cases, hydraulic fluids are
compatible with all common metals used in construc- Cavitation has been defined as the "process of forma-
tion of hydraulic systems, and the fluid manufacturers tion of the vapor phase of a liquid when it is subjected
only provide data for those instances where the fluid to reduced pressure at constant ambient temperatures"
and metal are not compatible. (Ref. 130). Cavitation damage occurs when the result-
ant vapor cavities in the fluid collapse near a metal
surface on exposure to high pressure. The exact mech-
3-6.1.1 Metal Fatigue anism by which damage occurs is not known, but
most authors suggest a form of mechanical erosion
Metals fail through fatigue when they are subjected or corrosion.
to excessive local stresses, either cyclic or unidirectial. Cavitation damage is often more severe if the cavities
In both cases, the fatigue life of a metal can be affected consist of a vacuum or of the vapor of the liquid than
by its environment. If the environment is corrosive, if they contain some foreign gas, such as air. With the
resistance to fatigue is reduced (Ref. 125). The result- trend toward the use of pure fluids with high pressure
ant damage from the combination of corrosion and differentials and high frequency vibration, cavitation
stress will be worse than the damage produced by either becomes an increasingly important problem.
individually. Two basic types of combinations of stress Erosion or "wearing away" of the metal surface by
and corrosion are recognized-stress corrosion where action of the liquid producing a "pelted" surface seems
the stress is static and tensile, and fatigue corrosion to be the most prominent theory for cavitation damage.
where the stress is cyclic. The erosion is caused by the liquid leaving the metal
The mode of failure in both instances is similar. As surface and creating a vacuum into which air and liquid
a result of fatigue, corrosion, or a combination of the vapors are released from the liquid to form a bubble.
two, small pits or cracks are produced in the metal. The The bubble is maintained until an area of high pressure
corrosion then acts on the bottom of the cracks or pits is encountered and the bubble collapses suddenly, pro-
in such a way as to produce a greater stress concentra- ducing a "hammering" effect. When this action is re-
tion than would be produced by stress alone. Failure peated in rapid succession, the metal is worn away.
3-81
AMCP 706-123
Other mechanical effects such as noisy operation and in a manner similar to that in Venturis. Once cavitation
vibration are produced due to the repeated "hammer- is established in a pump, valve, or venturi, the flow rate
ing" effect of the collapsing bubbles (Ref. 131). remains constant unless some physical change is made-
Cavitation damage can occur in almost any compo- such as increasing the throat opening in a venturi.
nent in a hydraulic system. However, the damage usu- There are numerous variables that effect cavitation
ally occurs where the high pressure-low pressure-high damage. Some variables are mechanical factors of the
pressure sequence required occurs often, rapidly, and system design and some are properties of the fluid.
with high pressure differentials. The components most Mechanical factors include suction pressure, venting,
subject to damage are the hydraulic pump, Venturis, liquid velocity, film thickness, temperature, and sur-
and valves. face roughness. Liquid properties that effect cavitation
Cavitation in pumps occurs when the liquid cannot are vapor pressure, viscosity, density, bulk modulus,
enter the pump fast enough to fill the volume or when surface tension, and additives. The effect of these varia-
the liquid cannot keep up with moving pump elements. bles on cavitation is given in Table 3-16.
Cavitation in Venturis occurs when the high fluid A distinction must be made between the amount of
velocity in the throat drops the pressure below the cavitation and the extent of cavitation damage. Fre-
vapor pressure of the liquid. Cavitation in valves occurs quently, a reduction in the amount of cavitation will
TABLE 3-16.
EFFECT OF MECHANICAL AND LIQUID VARIABLES ON CAVITATION 130
Variable Cavitation Comment
Mechanical Factors:
Increasing Suction Reduced Increased pressure maintains a positive pressure throughout pump;
Pressure reduces probability of low pressure cavity formation in pump.
Venting Reduced Venting reduces cavitation if it de-aerates the system and removes
high vapor pressure dissolved gases.
Increasing Liquid Increased
Velocity
Reducing Lubricant Increased Cavitation is increased probably because the film is in compression
Film Thickness and pressure differences are large.
Increased Increased Cavitation and cavitation damage are probably increased due to
Temperature higher vapor pressure.
Increased Surface Increased Cavitation increases, probably because of the creation of more
Roughness high-low-high pressure sites.
Liquid Factors:
Lower Vapor Reduced
Pressure
Higher Viscosity Reduced
Higher Density Increased
High Bulk Modulus Increased
Increased Surface Reduced

Tension
3-82
AMCP 706-123
result in an increase in cavitation damage. This is be- additives and treatments to make a finished elastic
cause many of the variables that tend to reduce the compound. While the number of basic elastomers is
amount of cavitation by reducing the formation and small, the variety of finished compounds that can be
growth of cavities, also increase the collapse rate, and, made is almost infinite. It is usually possible to develop
therefore, the rate of energy released when the cavities a compound that is compatible with hydraulic fluids
collapse. This action has the effect of concentrating the under any normal environmental conditions.
energy into a smaller area and producing more severe The hydraulic fluid usually has more effect on the
damage. One example of this "double-acting" effect of seal or packing compound than the compound has on
inhibiting cavitation occurs when the vapor pressure is the hydraulic fluid. In most instances, the compound is
reduced. Lower vapor pressure tends to inhibit the for- almost inert as far as any harmful effects on the liquid
mation of cavities but results in a lower pressure inside are concerned. However, some liquids attack and de-
the cavities that do form, thereby increasing the rate of stroy some seal materials. The usual method of deter-
collapse and the amount of damage. mining if a liquid and an elastomer are compatible is to
Cavitation mainly occurs in two general situations measure selected properties of the elastomer before and
-thin films of lubricants, and full streams of liquid. In after immersion in the liquid. The common properties
both cases, the high-low-high-pressure sequence is used to compare or evaluate various elastomers are
found. One instance of cavitation in a thin film is shown described in Table 3-17. Other properties (not listed in
in Fig. 3-55. High pressure occurs on the gear teeth Table 3-17) of importance are corrosive effects on met-
surfaces as the lubricant approaches the pitch point and als, thermal resistance, permeability, coefficient of
is compressed. The low pressure, cavity formation, and thermal expansion, and coefficient of friction.
cavity collapse occur as the lubricant passes the pitch The greatest difficulty in evaluating liquid-elastomer
point. Cavitation occurs in the free stream whenever an compatibility is the selection of test conditions. Seals
orifice or venturi is encountered that produces the are subjected to a wide variety of operating parameters
high-low-high pressure sequence as shown in Fig. 3-56. including variables such as temperature, pressure, load,
The venturi effect can occur in valves, orifices, fittings, speed, abrasion, and stop-start conditions. In addition,
and other.components of a hydraulic system. changes in the chemistry of the liquid occur during use
by oxidation, thermal processes, corrosion, and con-
tamination; there are also different requirements for
3-6.2 ELASTOMERS static or dynamic seals. Evaluation of dynamic seals
must take into account the complete range of condi-
Almost all seals and packings used in a hydraulic tions expected in service because a change in the condi-
system are made from synthetic or natural rubbers tions within the expected range may have an effect on
which have an elastomer as the main ingredient. An the compatibility. In general, the final determination of
elastomer is a material exhibiting little plastic flow, and liquid-elastomer compatibility must be made in the in-
quick and nearly complete recovery from an extending tended system (or a simulated system) over the an-
force (Ref. 132). Such materials are usually modified by ticipated range of operating conditions.
High Pressure
Fig. 3-55. Cavity Formation and Collapse Between Rollers or Gear Teeth130
3-83
AMCP 706-123
Orifice
Fig. 3-56. Cavity Formation and Collapse in an Orifice 130
TABLE 3-17.
PROPERTIES OF ELASTOMERS
Property Definition
Hardness Hardness measured on the Share A durometer scale, calibrated to a durometer reading
of 100 on flat glass.
Tensile Strength The force in psi required to rupture a standard specimen.
Ultimate elongation The increase in length, expressed as a percent of original length, a standard specimen
will undergo before breaking.
Modulus The stress at a predetermined elongation, usually 100 percent.
Volume change The change in volume, expressed as a percent of original volume, of an elastomer
after contact with a media (hydraulic fluid).
Compression set The percent of original deflection by which an elastomer fails to recover in air after
a fixed time under specified load and temperature.
3-84
AMCP 706-123
3-6.2.1 Basic Elastomer Materials characteristics are less than desired for seal applica-
Several elastomer materials have been developed for tions.
use as seals and packings. A brief description of the 15 (7) Ethylene Propylene Rubber (EPM)
most commonly used basic types of elastomers is given Temperature Range: -65° to 300°F(-54° to 149°C)
in the paragraphs which follow (Ref. 132). Some com- Although EPM rubber was introduced only rece ntly,
mon trade names and recommended uses are given in its use has become widespread because of its excellent
Table 3-18. A comparative rating of various properties resistance to the widely used phosphate ester-type hy-
is given in Table 3-19. Table 3-20 lists data on the draulic fluids.
compatibility ratings of several commercial hydraulic (8) Fluorocarbon Rubber (FPM)
fluids with the elastomers described.
Temperature Range:-20° to 400°F (-29° to 204°C)
(1) Nitrile or Buna N (NBR) Fluorocarbon rubbers were first introduced in the mi d-
Temperature Range:-65° to 250T (-54° to 121°C) 1950's and have grown to major importance. They will
This elastomer is a copolymer of butadiene and withstand temperatures as high as 600°F (316°C) for
acrylonitrile. As the nitrile component increases, resist- short periods and as low as-65°F (-54°C) in some static
ance to petroleum base liquids increases, but low tem- uses. They exhibit maximum resistance to deterioration
perature flexibility decreases. Nitrile is the most widely by test and functional fluids.
used elastomer today. Nitrile compounds are superior
(9) Isoprene Rubber-Synthetic (IR)
to most elastomers with regard to compression set or
Isoprene rubber (polyisoprene) is a synthetic elas-
cold flow, tear, and abrasion resistance.
(2) Buna S Rubber (SBR or GRS) tomer with the same chemical composition as natur-
Temperature Range:-65° to 225°F (-54° to 107°C) al rubber.
SBR rubber is best known under its former designa- (10) Natural Rubber-Natural Polyisoprene (NR)
tion of Buna S or GRS, which refers to the U. S. Gov- Natural rubber is not used to a great extent for seals
ernment rubber made during World War II. SBR and and packings. Petroleum liquids seriously attack natu-
natural rubber account for almost 90 percent of world ral rubber compounds. Like neoprene, natural rubber
rubber consumption. These two materials are not gen- tends to crystallize in the stressed condition.
erally used in seals (except for those in automotive (11) Polyacrylic Rubber (ACM)
brake systems). Temperature Range: 0° to 350T (-18° to 177°C)
(3) Butadiene Rubber (BR) ACM rubber has outstanding resistance to pe-
Butadiene (polybutadiene) has properties similar to troleum fuels and oils. There are numerous types of the
natural rubber. It is not quite as good as natural rubber, ACM rubber available and all are polymerization pro-
but in some cases exhibits improved low tempera- ducts of acrylic acid esters. The greatest usage of ACM
ture characteristics. rubber is in automatic transmission and power steering
(4) Butyl Rubber (IIR) gear seals.
Temperature Range:-65° to 225°F (-54° tc 107°C) (12) Polysulfide Rubber
Butyl rubber is an all petroleum product made by Temperature Range:-65° to 225°F (-54° to 107°C)
co-polymerizing isobutylene and isoprene. Brominated Polysulfide rubber was one of the first synthetic
and chlorinated butyl rubbers are also available. Inner polymers; it is prepared from dichlorides and sodium
tubes and the inside layer of tubeless tires account for polysulfides. It has unique combinations of solvent re-
most of the butyl rubber consumption. Butyl has excel- sistance, low temperature flexibility, and oxygen and
lent resistance to permeation and is used in vac- ozone resistance. It has poor heat resistance, mechani-
uum applications. cal strength, and compression set.
(5) Chloroprene Rubber (CR) (13) Polyurethane Rubber
Temperature Range: -65° to 300°F (-54° to 149°C) Polyurethanes have superior mechanical and physi-
Chloroprene rubbers (known as neoprene) are cal properties. However, they cannot withstand water,
homopolymers of chloroprene (chlorobutadiene). They acids, ketones, and chlorinated or nitro hydrocarbons.
were an early synthetic rubber. Chloroprene tends to They have poor compression set and tend to soften
crystallize in a stressed condition at low temperatures. excessively above 250°F (121°C). Because of the many
(6) Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene (CSM) polyurethane rubber compounds, with minimum tem-
Temperature Range:-65° to 250T (-54° to 121°C) perature at which each may be used varying from com-
CSM rubber has good acid resistance but its me- pound to compound, no lower temperature restriction
chanical properties, compression, and permanent-set can be stated.
3-85
AMCP 706-123
TABLE 3-18.
COMMON TRADE NAMES AND RECOMMEND USES OF BASIC TYPES OF ELASTOMERS
Elastomer Trade I Tames and Mar ufactnrers Recommended uses '
llitrile or Buna V<

(NBR) Chemigum C-ocdyear Tire ?.- Rubber Co. General purpose sealin-
Butaprene Firestone Tire ■£ Rubber Co. Petrcleum oils and fluids
Paracril I'augatuck Chemical Water
Hycar Goodrich Chemic-il Co. Siliccr.e greases and oils
Herecrol Heresite lc Chemical Co. Di-ester "rase lubricants (MTL-L-760S)
Polysar Krynac Polymer Corp., Limited Ethylene glycol base fluids (Hydrolubes)
Buna 5
(SBR or GRS) (Too numerous) Automotive brake fluid
Alcohols (low molecular weight) i
Water
Butadiene (ER) Ameripol CB Goodrich-Gulf Chemicals, Inc. !

Budene Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.
Cisdene American Synthetic Rubber Corp. :
Diene Firestone Synthetic Rubber Corp.
Butyl (IIR) En Jay Butyl Enjay Chemical Co. Phosphate ester type hydraulic fluids
Hycar 2202 F. F. Goodrich Chemical Co. (Skvdrol. FRYOUEL(Cellulube). Pydraul)
Polysar Butyl Polymer Corp., Limited Ketones (MEK, Acetone)
Silicone fluids and greases
Chloroprene (CR) Neoprene E, I. duPont de Nemours Co. Refrigerants (Freons, NH3)

High aniline point petroleum oils
Mild acid resistance
Silicate ester lubricants
Chlorosulfonated
Polyethylene (CSM) Hypalon E. I. duPont de Nemours Co.
Ethylene Nordel E. I. duPont de Nemours Co. Phosphate ester base hydraulic fluids
(Skydrol, FRYQUEL(Cellulube), Pydraul) 1
Propylene Royalene Naugatuck Chemical Steam (to 400°F) (204°C)
Water
Enjay EPR Enjay Chemical Co. Silicone oils and greases
Dutral M Montecatini Soc. Gen. Dilute acids
Olethene Avisun Corp. Dilute alkalies [
Ketones {MEK, acetone)
Alcohols 1
Fluorocarbon (FPM) Viton E. I. duPont de Nemours Co. Petroleum oils

Fluorel Minnesota Mining &. Mfg. Co. Di-ester base lubricants
(MIL-L-7808, MIL-L-6085)
Silicate-ester base lubricants
(MLC 6200, M0 8515, OS-45)
Silicone fluids and greases
Halogenated hydrocarbons \
(carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethylene).
Selected phosphate ester fluids
Acids
Isoprene-
Synthetic (IR) Ameripol SN Goodrich-Gulf Chemicals, Inc.
Coral Firestone Tire & Rubber Co.
Natsyn Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.
Shell IR Shell Chemical Co.
Folyacrylic (ACM) Cyanacryl American Cyanamid Co.

Hycar 1042 B. F. Goodrich Chemical Co.
Polysar Krynac 880-Polymer Corp., Ltd.
Thiacril Thiokol Chemical Corp.
Polysulfide FA Polysulfide Rubber Thiokol Chemical Corp. Mixtures of petroleum solvents, ketones,
and ethers
ST Polysulfide Rubber Thiokol Chemical Corp.
ZR-300 Polysulfide Rubber Thiokol Chemical Corp.
Silicone (Si) Silastic Dow Coming Corp. High-aniline point oils

No trade name General Electric Dry heat
No trade name Union Carbide & Carbon Chlorinated di-phenyls
Pluorosilicone (FSi) LS Dow Corning Corp.
3-86
AMCP 706-123
TABLE 3-19.
COMPARATIVE PROPERTIES OF COMMONLY USED ELASTOMERS
CO
1
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u
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Polyethylene (CSM)
cd C
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Chlorosulfonated
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O
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3
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es
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PH OH OH CO H
Ozone resistance p P P GE GE E E E P P E E E E E
Weather resistance F F F GE E E E E F F E E E E E
Heat resistance G FG F GE G G E E F F E P FG E E
Chemical resistance FG FG FG E FG E E E FG FG P G P EG E
Oil resistance E P P P FG F P E P P E E G FG E
Impermeability G F F E G G G G F F E E F P G
Cold resistance G G G G FG FG GE F G G P G G E E
Tear resistance FG FG GE G FG FG GE F GE GE FG P GE P
Abrasion resistance G G E FG G G GE G E E G P E P E
Set resistance GE G G FG F F GE G G G F P F GE P
Dynamic properties GE G F F F F GE GE F E F F F P P
Acid resistance F F FG G FG G G E FG FG P P P FG E
Reinforced tensile GE GE E G G F GE GE E E F F E P
Electrical properties F G G G F F G F E G G F F G E
Water/steam resistance FG FG FG G F F E FG FG FG P F P FG E
Flame resistance P P P P G G P E P P P P P F G
E-Excellent G-Good F-Fair P-Poor -No reliable data
[From: Seal Compound Manual . Used by permission of Parker Seal Company.]
(14) Silicone Rubber (Si) 3-6.2.2 Effect of Radiation on Elastomers,

Temperature Range:-135° to 700°F (-93° to 371°C) Plastics, and Resins
Silicone elastomers are made from silicone, oxygen,
hydrogen, and carbon. They have poor tensile strength,
tear resistance, and abrasion resistance. However, they Seals, packings, and other similar components of hy-
have excellent resistance to temperature extremes, draulic systems that use elastomers, plastics, or resins
especially dry heat. Silicones are not resistant to pe- are subject to damage from radiation. As these compo-
troleum liquids, but are resistant to many of the syn- nents are usually the "weakest link" in the structure of
thetic liquids.
a system, it is important to select materials that will
(15) Fluorosilicone (FSi)
Temperature Range:-80° to 350°F(-62° to + 176°C) provide the radiation resistance needed for a particular
Fluorosilicone rubbers are a recent development and application. Data on the relative radiation resistance of
combine the good extreme temperature properties of elastomers, thermosetting resins, and thermoplastic re-
silicone rubber with fuel and oil resistance. sins are given in Figs. 3-57, 3-58, and 3-59 (Ref. 133).
3-87
AMCP 706-123
TABLE 3-20.
COMPATIBILITY OF COMMERCIAL HYDRAULIC FLUIDS WITH ELASTOMERS
Dynamic and
Static Stat ic Only
CD
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CO CD C CD p CD
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01 CO H o CD •H O CD o fi PC O
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CO fn O p< CO CO p. o •H
Hydraulic Fluid
-p
w m
c3 -P
•H
S5
H
O
-P O
&
-P
a O
Ifl
H
H
O
FM
-p H
<H
CO
H
0
P-,
Phosphate Ester Liquids:

Skydrol 500 1 4 4 4 4 2 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 3 4
7000 1 4 4 2 4 1 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 3 4
Pydraul F-9 2 4 4 1 4 2 4 4 4 4 2 4 4 2 X
150 1 4 4 1 4 2 4 4 4 4 2 4 4 2 X
625 2 4 4 1 4 2 4 4 4 4 2 4 4 2 X
AC 2 4 4 1 4 2 4 4 4 4 2 4 4 2 X
FRYQUEL (Cellulube) 90,
100, 150, 220, 300, 500 1 4 4 1 ; 4 1 4 4 4 4 2 4 4 1 *
Houghto-Safe, 1010, 1055,
1120 1 4 4 1 4 1 4 4 4 4 2 X 4 3 3
MIL-H-19457B 1 4 4 2 : 4 1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4
Halogen-Containing Liquids:
Aroclor 1246 (a chlorinated
biphenyl) 2 4 3 1 1 4 2 4 4 4 4 2 X 4 2 4
Pydraul A-200 (chlorine-
4 4 4 1 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 4 4 2 X
containing aromatic) ;
FC-43, FC-75 (perfluoro- 1
butyl amines) 1 4 1 2 X 1 1 X 1 X 2 X X 1 1
Silicate Ester Liquids:

OS-45 4 4 2 1 X 4 1 4 2 4 2 4 4 4 X
Oronite 8200, 8515 4 4 2 .1 ' X 4 1 4 G 4 1 1 4 4 X
MLL-H-8446B 4 4 2 1 X 4 1 4 X 4 1 1 4 4 X
Silicone Liquids:
Dow Corning 200, 510, F-60,
F-61 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1
G.E. Versilube F-50 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 2
Water Base:
(Water-Glycol solutions)
UCON Hydrolube 1 1 1 1 4 1 2 2 X X 2 4 X 1 X
Houghto-Safe 271, 620 1 1 1 1 4 2 2 X X X 2 4 X 2 X
(Water-oil emulsions)
Sunsafe 4 4 1 1 4 4 2 4 2 4 1 4 4 X X
Shell Iris 902 4 4 1 1 1 4 2 4 4 4 1 1 4 4 1
Mineral Oils:
KIL-H-5606B 4 4 1 1 1 4 2 4 2 4 1 1 4 4 1
MIL-H-6083C 4 4 1 1 1 4 1 4 2 4 4 1 2 4 1
MIL-H-276014 4 4 1 1 1 4 2 4 X 4 2 X 4 3 X
Compatibility Rating:
1 Satisfactory 3 Doubtful X Insufficient Data
2 Fair 4 Unsatisfactory G Good
[From: Seal Compound Manual|132 . Used by permission of Parker Seal Company.]
3-88
AMCP 706-123
Damage Utility of Plastic
Incipient to mild Nearly always usable
Mild to moderate Often satisfactory
Moderate to severe Limited use
Incomplete data
Polyurethane Rubber m
Natural Rubber
Adduct Rubbers
Styrene-butadiene (SBA)
Viton-A
Poly FBA
Cyanosilicone Rubber
Vinyl Pyridine Elastomer
Perylonitrile Rubber
Nitrile Rubber
Neoprene Rubber
Hypalon
Kel-F
Silicone Rubber
Polyacrylic Rubber —
Butyl Rubber E
Polysulfide Rubber mm mm *(measured against carbon
as the absorption medium)
1 J_ _L J
10° 107 108 105 10 10
1
Gamma Exposure Dose, ergs g" (C) *
Fig. 3-57. Relative Radiation Resistance of Elastomers133

3-89
AMCP 706-1 23
Phenolic, glass laminate
Phenolic, asbestos filled
Phenolic, unfilled
Epoxy, aromatic-type
curing agent
Polyurethane
Polyester, glass filled
Polyester, mineral filled
Diallyl phthalate,
mineral filled
Polyester, unfilled
Mylar
Silicone, glass filled
Silicone, mineral filled
Silicone, unfilled
Furane, resin
Melamine -formaldehyde
Urea-formaldehyde
Aniline-formaldehyde
*(measured against carbon
J I I
10' 10s 10' 10 10 10 11 10 12
Gamma Exposure Dose, ergs g"1 (C)*
Fig. 3-58. Relative Radiation Resistance of Thermosetting Resins133

3-90
AMCP 706-123
Polystyrene
Polyvinyl carbazole
Acrylonitrile/butadiene/styrene (ABS) I
Polyimlde
Polyvinyl chloride
Polyethylene
Polyvinyl formal
Polyvinylidene chloride
Polycarbonate
Ethylene propylene polyallomer
Kel-F
Polyvinyl butral
Cellulose acetate
Polymethyl alpha -chloroacrylate
Polymethyl methacrylate
Polyamide
Vinyl chloride-acetate
Teflon *(measured against carbon

L _L _L
10 6
10' 10s 109 10 10 10 11 10 12
Gamma Exposure Dose, ergs g"1 (C)*
Fig. 3-59. Relative Radiation Resistance of Thermoplastic Resins133

3-91
AMCP 706-123
3-6.2.3 Test Methods for Elastomer-liquid "Changes in Properties Resulting From Immersion in
Compatibility Liquids" (Ref. 135), and (2) Federal Test Methods for
"Swelling of Synthetic Rubber" (Refs. 136, 137). These
two test procedures are discussed in the paragraphs
The usual procedure for determining the compatibil- which follow.
ity of an elastomer with a particular liquid is to measure (1) Changes in Properties of Elastomers Resulting
changes in various properties of the elastomer after from Immersion in Liquids
immersion in the liquid. The most commonly used in- Test Method: ASTM D-471 (Ref. 135)
dicators of deterioration of an elastomer compound are This method is intended for use in estimating the
excessive volume swell or shrinkage, a large decrease or comparative ability of rubber and rubber-like composi-
increase of hardness, and an extreme change in tensile tions to withstand the effect of liquids by examination
strength or elongation. Many of the changes (such as of the material after removal from the liquid.
loss of hardness and tensile strength) that various This method leaves the selection of test conditions of
media cause in an elastomer compound cannot be con- temperature and time to the parties involved, but
sidered a deterioration of the compound. Often such recommends the choice of one of eight test tempera-
changes are purely physical and the compound returns tures and one of four test periods. Three specimens of
to its original state after removal from the media. Also, the elastomeric material are immersed in the liquid in
certain changes, such as swelling of rubber, are often a test tube for the time and at the temperature specified.
required for satisfactory operation of the system. Al- After immersion, the specimens are examined for
most all seal designs require a definite amount of swell- changes in weight, volume, tensile strength, elongation,
ing to effect a complete seal. Table 3-21 lists the rubber and hardness. All changes are reported as a percentage
swell requirements of several Military Specification hy- of the original value.
draulic fluids. (2) Swelling of Synthetic Rubbers
Standard test procedures for various properties of Test Methods: Federal Test Method 3603 (Ref. 136)
elastomers can be found in ASTM Standards (Ref. Federal Test Method 3604 (Ref. 137)
134). However, two general test methods have been These test methods describe a procedure for the
developed specifically for the purpose of determining determination of the swelling effect of lubricants
the effect of liquids on elastomers: (1) ASTM Test for on synthetic rubber. Method 3603 is for petroleum
TABLE 3-21.
RUBBER SWELL REQUIREMENTS OF MILITARY
SPECIFICATION HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
Military Test Method or Type of Required Rubber
Specification Test Description Rubber Swell, %
Min Max
MIL-H-5606B Federal No. 3603.4* Standard L 19.0 28.0
MIL-H-6083C Federal No. 3603.4* Standard L 19.0 26.5
MIL-H-13866A 168hrat 158°F Standard L - 25.0
MIL-H-27601A 70hrat400°F Viton A or B 0 10.0
Phosphate Ester
MIL-H-19457B Federai No. 3603.4* Butyl ±5%o f swell
(SHIPS) caused by
tricresjA
phospriate
Silicate Ester
MIL-H-8446B Federal No. 3603.4* Synthetic S 15.0 25.0
*Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a.

3-92
AMCP 706-123
products in general, and Method 3604 is for aircraft some of this work are shown in Table 3-23. Hydraulic
turbine lubricants. The basic procedures of the test fluid manufacturers frequently have proprietary data
methods, however, are adaptable to other products. available on compatibility of their products with special
The volume of standardized test rubber sheets (1 in. paints or finishes and will supply the data to purchasers.
X 2 in. X 0.075 in.) is determined by water displacement.
The rubber sheets are then immersed in the specimen
liquid for 168 hr at 158°F. The rubber sheets are then TABLE 3-22.
removed, cleaned, and the volume again determined by EFFECT OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
water displacement. Any change in volume is presented ON STANDARD PAINTS*
as a percent of the original volume.
Hyraulic Fluid Effect on Paints
Type
3-6.3 COMPATIBILITY WITH COATINGS
Mineral Oils None
Water-glycols Softens or strips
Compatibility of hydraulic fluids with paints and
Water-oil Emulsions None
other surface protection coatings is a problem that is
Chlorinated Aromatics Incompatible
often ignored in early design stages. Although it may
Phosphate Esters Incompatible
have been previously determined that a candidate hy-
Silicones Incompatible
draulic fluid is compatible with the materials used in
the system, it is still necessary to determine compatibil-
*Standard paints are petroleum fuel- and oil-resistant.
ity with surface coatings it may contact. The number
and types of coatings are many-painted, anodized,
phosphatized, nitrided, and plated.
The resistance of various types of paints to attack by
chemical media is given in Table 3-24. The data pre-
3-6.3.1 Compatibility With Paints sented in Table 3-24 are not directly applicable to hy-
draulic fluids, but can be useful in determining what
Paints are probably the most common surface coat- effect various contaminants or additives may have on
ings encountered. Although paints are normally ex- the compatibility of hydraulic fluid with paints.
terior to the hydraulic system (except in rare cases
where reservoirs or other components have their in- 3-6.3.2 Compatibility With Other Coatings
terior surfaces painted), their compatibility with hy-
draulic fluids must be considered. Hydraulic fluids can The compatibility of hydraulic fluids with surface
come into contact'with painted surfaces from spillage coatings other than paints is an area that has received
during filling, from leaks, and from rupture of hydrau- very little attention. Other surface coatings would in-
lic lines. clude metal platings, anodizing, nitriding, and phos-
Many of the synthetic liquids have a softening or phate finishing. There are essentially no data available
stripping action on paints that are resistant to pe- on these topics either in the general literature or on
troleum oils and fuels. Phosphate ester fluids, com- hydraulic fluid manufacturers' data sheets.
monly used in commercial aviation, have a marked The lack of data could lead to the conclusion that
stripping" action on conventional paints. Water-glycol compatibility with these surface finishes is not a prob-
solutions also have a softening and stripping action on lem. However, because these finishes are either metallic
many paint finishes. For these and other synthetic hy- or a chemical conversion of the base metal, the question
draulic fluids, the more resistant synthetic finishes is one that should be considered in the determination
must be employed, e.g., epoxy-resin paints. The effect of liquid-metal compatibility.
of various types of hydraulic fluids on standard oil and
fuel resistant paints is summarized in Table 3-22. The
data presented in Table 3-22 are generalized and in 3-6.4 COMPATIBILITY WITH OTHER
every case, compatibility of a particular paint should be LUBRICANTS
checked with the candidate hydraulic fluid. Workers at
the U.S. Army Coating and Chemical Laboratory have Compatibility of a hydraulic fluid with other lubri-
done research on the compatibility of various hydraulic cants it may contact must also be considered. Other lub-
fluids with Military Specification paints. The results of ricants include substitute hydraulic fluids, lubricating
3-93
AMCP 706-123
TABLE 3-23.
RESISTANCE OF MILITARY SPECIFICATION COATINGS TO HYDRAULIC FLUIDS*

Coating Liquids or Hydraulic Fluids
Title
Specification the Coating Resists
MIL-L-19537A Lacquer, Acrylic-Nitrocellulose, (for Diester Lubricating Oils
Aircraft Use)
MIL-L-19538B Lacquer, Acrylic-Nitrocellulose Camouflage MIL-L-7808G, Synthetic Base Lubri-
(for Aircraft Use) (ASG) cating Oil
MIL-C-22750B Coating, Epoxy-Polyamide Diester Lubricating Oils
MIL-P-22808A Paint, Epoxy, Hydraulic Fluid Resistant MIL-E-17111, Petroleum Base Power
Transmission Fluid
MIL-H-19457B, Phosphate Ester
Fluids
MIL-P-23377B Primer Coating, Epoxy Polyamide Diester Lubricating Oil

Chemical and Solvent Resistant
MIL-L-7146A Lacquer, Hydraulic Fluid Resistant (for MIL-H-5606B, Petroleum Base

Interior Aircraft Use) Hydraulic Fluid
MIL-H-22072 (AER), Water Base
Hydraulic Fluid
*Data obtained in private communication with Dr. C.F. Pickett, Director, U.S. Army Coating and Chemical
Laboratory, 26 Aug. 68.
oils, greases, and solid film lubricants. Most hydrau- with certain other fluids in the sense that they do not
lic systems in operation today use components not lub- separate or form gums, precipitates, or gels. However,
ricated by the hydraulic fluid. For the system to this requirement may have the effect of deactivating
operate satisfactorily, it is essential that the hydraulic important additives or the loss or reduction of impor-
fluid be compatible with any of these lubricants it may tant properties.
contact, either accidentally or by design.
Compatibility of one hydraulic fluid with another is There are no standard ASTM or Federal Test Meth-
a problem that does not occur often and so it is fre- ods available for directly determining the compatibility
quently forgotten. The problem is primarily of concern of one hydraulic fluid with another. Simple mixing tests
in replacing one hydraulic fluid with another. When with visual observation to determine separation, emul-
nonadditive petroleum hydraulic fluids were the only sification, formation of solids, etc., are normally used
ones available, changing to another hydraulic fluid was to screen for compatibility. However, there are stand-
an easy matter. However, the advent of extensive use ard test methods to determine the compatibility of lu-
of additives and the synthetic liquids made substitution bricating oils and solid film lubricants with hydraulic
of hydraulic fluids virtually impossible. Many of the fluids. Two of them are discussed in the paragraphs
synthetic fluids are completely incompatible with one which follow.
another or with petroleum fluids. Upon mixing, even in
(1) Compatibility of Turbine Lubricating Oils
small ratios, they may form precipitates, gums, sludges,
or gels. Water and oil emulsions are often compatible Test Method: Federal Test Method 3403 (Ref. 138)
with mineral oil fluids in the sense that they will tend This method is used to determine the compatibility
to absorb small amounts of the oil into the emulsion. of aircraft turbine lubricants with specific referee lubri-
Reduction of the fire retarding properties is the only cants. Although the test procedure is designed for air-
resulting harm. Several Military Specification hydrau- craft turbine lubricants, it can be used to test the com-
lic fluids have requirements that they be compatible patibility of hydraulic fluids with any referee liquid.
3-94
AMCP 706-123
TABLE 3-24.
RESISTANCE OF PAINTS TO ATTACK BY CHEMICAL MEDIA
Vinyl-Alkyd
Chlorinated
CO
Rubber
Chemical Media o
u
1
(1:1)
>> ©
•3 §a.
< < 09 U W >
Salt Spray G-E E E E E- E E E E E

Alcohol Solvents F-G P P G G-E E G F G E
Gasoline G-E G P G E E E E E G
Hydrocarbon Solvents G-E F P F E E E - - -
Ester, Ketone Solvents P P P P G-E F P P P P
Chlorinated Solvents P P P P G-E F P P P P
Alkalis F-G F-G E P E P P E F-G E
Mineral Acids P-G F-G F-G F-G G-E P-F E E G-E E
Oxidizing Acids P-F P-F - P P-G P-F P E P G
Organic Acids (Acetic,
Formic) P P E P F-G P P G F-G F-G
Organic Acids (Oleic,
Steric) F F P F E E F E E F
Phosphoric Acids P P E G-E G-E F F E F G
Water F-G E E G E E F E E E
P-Poor F-Fair G-Good E-Exce llent
[From: Materials Engineering, Materials Selector Issue141. Used by permission of Reinhold Publishing Corp.
Three mixtures of 200 ml are prepared with the test various fluids. A 0.0002 - 0.0005 in. thick film of the
liquid and the referee liquid. Mixtures are of 20, 100, solid lubricant is sprayed on both sides of a 3 in. by 6
, and 180 ml of referee fluid. The mixtures are agitated in. anodized aluminum panel and cured. Two test pa-
by vigorous shaking and then heated to 212°F for 168 nels with solid film lubricant are immersed one-half
hr. The mixtures are then cooled, agitated again, and their length in a test fluid at 73.5°F (23°C) for 24 hr.
centrifuged (at 600 to 700 relative centrifuge force) for The panels are then cleaned with naphtha and exam-
10 min. The amount of sediment, if any, is recorded. ined for softening, lifting, blistering, cracking, or peel-
The test temperature and mixture ratios can be ing. A test of lubricant adhesion is made by pressing a
changed to fit the type of fluid being tested. strip of masking tape on the dry film lubricant and
removing it rapidly.
(2) Fluid Resistance of Dry Solid Film Lubricants The test fluids listed in the procedure are aircraft
Test Method: Federal Test Method 7001 (Ref. 139) turbine oil (MIL-L-7808), standard hydrocarbon test
This method determines the resistance of dry solid fluids (MIL-S-3136, Type II), aircraft engine lubricat-
film lubricants to loss of adhesion after exposure to ing oil(MIL-L-6082, grade 1100), aircraft reciprocating
3-95
AMCP 706-123
engine fuel (MIL-G-5572, Grade 115/145), aircraft Part 17, p. 916, Philadelphia, American Society
turbine and jet fuel (MIL-T-5624, JP-4) and petroleum for Testing Materials, 1967.
base hydraulic fluid (MIL-H-5606B). The general 13. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-341-43,
procedure of the test method, however, is adaptable to Part 17, p. 160, Philadelphia, American Society
any fluid desired. for Testing Materials, 1967.
14. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test
Method No. 9121.1.
3-6.5 COMPATIBILITY WITH ADDITIVES 15. CM. Murphy, J. B. Romans, and W. A. Zis-
man, "Viscosities and Densities of Lubricating
Liquids for fluid power systems may contain addi- Fluids from-40° to 700°F", ASLE Transactions,
tives to improve the viscosity index, to suppress the 561 (1949).
formation of foam and emulsions, to combat corrosion,
16. ASTM Standards 1969, Designation D-2270-64,
etc. If the proper chemicals are not used, one additive
Part 17, p. 784, Philadelphia, American Society
may counteract the desired effects of another, or may for Testing Materials, 1969.
react with another to form insoluble substances that
could be more harmful than the original problem. Ad- 17. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test
ditives must remain soluble in the fluid at all exposed Method No. 9111.2.
temperatures and should not react with component 18. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-567-53,
parts or contaminants. Chemicals must not be indis- Part 17, p. 226, Philadelphia, American Society
criminately mixed with an oil. Hydraulic fluid sup- for Testing Materials, 1967.
pliers should be consulted on special problems. Addi- 19. R. C. Bowers and C. M. Murphy, Status of
tives are discussed in greater detail in Chapter 5. Research on Lubricants, Friction, and Wear,
NRL Report No. 6466, Naval Research
Laboratory, Washington, D. C, 1967.
REFERENCES 20. E. C. Fitch, Jr., Fluid Power and Control
Systems, McGraw-Hill, Inc., N.Y., 1966.
1. "Viscosity", Lubrication 47, 1 (1966).
2. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-2161-66, 21. Pressure- Viscosity Report, Vols. 1 and 2, Ameri-
Part 17, p. 757, Philadelphia, American Society can Society of Mechanical Engineers, N. Y.,
for Testing Materials, 1967. 1953.
3. H. H. Zuidema, The Performance of Lubricat- 22. D. R. Wilson, Effect of Extreme Conditions on
ing Oil, Reinhold Publishing Corp., N. Y., 1959. the Behavior of Lubricants and Fluids, AFML-
4. Roger E. Hatton, Introduction to Hydraulic TR-67-8, Part II, January 1968.
Fluids, Reinhold Publishing Corp., N. Y., 1962. 23. E.E. Klaus, E.J. Tewksbury, and M. R. Fenske,
5. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-445-65, Fluids, Lubricants, Fuels and Related Materials,
Part 17, p. 184, Philadelphia, American Society ML-TDR-64-68, February 1964.
for Testing Materials, 1967. 24. E.E. Klaus, E.J. Tewksbury, and M. R. Fenske,
6. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test Fluids, Lubricants, Fuels and Related Materials,
Method No. 305.4. AFML-TR-65-112, April 1965.
25. E.E. Klaus, E.J. Tewksbury, and M. R. Fenske,
Method No. 304.8.
Fluids, Lubricants, Fuels and Related Materials,
AFML-TR-67-107, Part I, March 1967.
for Testing Materials, 1967. 26. E. E. Klaus and M. R. Fenske, "Some Viscosity
9. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test Shear Characteristics of Lubricants", Lubrica-
Method No. 9101.3. tion Engineering, 100 (March 1955).
10. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-2161-66, 27. A. J. Gironda, E. B. Essing, and Bernard Rubin,
Part 17, p. 757, Philadelphia, American Society A Sonic Shear Method for Determination of
for Testing Materials, 1967. Shear Breakdown on Hydraulic Fluids and Lu-
11. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-2162-64, bricating Oils, WADC-TR-55-62, March 1955.
p. 783, Philadelphia, American Society for Test- 28. N. W. Furby and R. I. Stirton, "Viscosity Sta-
ing Materials, 1967. bility of Hydraulic Fluids", Applied Hydraulics
12. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-2515-66, and Pneumatics 12, 84 (1959).
3-96
AMCP 706-123
29. Determination of the Shear Stability of Non- 49. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test
Newtonian Liquids, ASTM Special Technical Method No. 352.
Publication No. 182, Philadelphia, 1955. 50. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-2155-66,
30. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test Part 17, p. 737, Philadelphia, American Society
Method No. 3471.2. for Testing Materials, 1967.
31. M. Z. Fainman and W. B. Mackenzie, "The 51. M. G. Zabetakis, A. G. Imhof, and F. W. Lang,
Characteristics and Performance of Specifica- Research on the Flammability Characteristics of
tion MIL-H-5606 Hydraulic Fluid", Lubrica- Aircraft Hydraulic Fluids, WADC-TR-57-151,
tion Engineering, 234 (June 1966). Supplement 1, 1958.
32. R. L. LeMar, Effect of Several Gas Atmospheres 52. M. G. Zabetakis, G. S. Scott, A. G. Imhof, and
on Hydraulic Fluid Stability, RIA Technical S. Lambiris, Research on the Flammability
Report 67-1954, Rock Island Arsenal, Rock Is- Characteristics of Aircraft Hydraulic Fluids,
land, Illinois, 1967. WADC-TR-57-151, Part II, 1959.
33. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test 53. "Fire Resistant Hydraulic Fluids", Lubrication,
Method 201.8. 161 (December 1962).
34. ASTM Standards 1969, Designation D-97-66, 54. "Synthetic Lubricant Research", Lubrication
Part 17, p. 46, Philadelphia, American Society (November 1959).
for Testing Materials, 1969. 55. R. L. Adamczak, R. J. Benzing, and H.
35. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-2500-66, Schwenker, Eds., Proceedings of the AFML Hy-
Part 17, p. 897, Philadelphia, American Society draulic Fluids Conference, AFML-TR-67-369,
for Testing Materials, 1967. December 1967.
36. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test 56. E. S. Blake, J. W. Edwards, and W. C. Ham-
Method No. 203. man, High Temperature Hydraulic Fluids,
37. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test WADC 54-532, March 1955.
Method No. 204. 57. E. S. Blake, J. W. Edwards, W. C. Hamman,
38. Federal Test Method Standard No. 79la, Test and T. Reichard, High Temperature Hydraulic
Method No. 202. Fluids, WADC 54-532, Part III, April 1957.
39. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test 58. F. D. Yeaple, Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power
Method No. 1103.6. and Control, McGraw-Hill, Inc., N.Y., 1966.
40. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-92-66, 59. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-2251-
Part 17, p. 31, Philadelphia, American Society 66T, Part 17, p. 980, Philadelphia, American
for Testing Materials, 1967. Society for Testing Materials, 1967.
41. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test 60. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-323-58,
Method No. 1101.6. Part 17, p. 151, Philadelphia, American Society
42. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-56-64, for Testing Materials, 1967.
Part 17, p. 1, Philadelphia, American Society 61. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test
for Testing Materials, 1967. Method No. 1201.6.
Method No. 353.
Method No. 1102.
Method No. 351.2.
for Testing Materials, 1967.
45. MIL-F-7100, Fluid, Hydraulic, Nonflammable, for Testing Materials, 1967.
Aircraft, issued December 1950, cancelled Feb- 65. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test
ruary 1958. Method No. 350.
46. Fire Resistance ofHydraulic Fluids, ASTM Spe- 66. E. E. Lewis and H. Stern, Design of Hydraulic
cial Technical Publication No. 406, Phila- Control Systems, McGraw-Hill, Inc., N.Y.,
delphia, 1966. 1962.
47. MIL-H-19475 (SHIPS), Hydraulic Fluid, Fire 67. E. E. Klaus, Some Properties of Spec. MIL-O-
Resistant. 5606 Hydraulic Fluid at Elevated Temperatures,
48. MIL-H-22072 (AER), Hydraulic Fluid, PRL Report 6.3, Pennsylvania State University,
Catapult. Pennsylvania, 1953.
3-97
AMCP 706-123
68. H. C. Mufifley, Development of High Density 85. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a,
Recoil Oil, RIA Report 58-516, Rock Island Method No. 3211.3.
Arsenal, Rock Island, Illinois, 1958. 86. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-892-63,
69. H. C. Muffley, Density versus Viscosity as it In- Part 17, p. 287, Philadelphia, American Society
fluences the Action of a Recoil Mechanism, RIA for Testing Materials, 1967.
Report 60-598, Rock Island Arsenal, Rock Is- 87. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test
land, Illinois, 1960. Method No. 307.
70. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test 88. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test
Method No. 401.5. Method No. 3458.
71. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-287-64, 89. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test
Part 17, p. 138, Philadelphia, American Society Method No. 3459.
for Testing Materials, 1967. 90. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test
72. ASTM-IP Petroleum Measurement Tables Method 3004.4.
(American Edition), Philadelphia, American 91. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-2273-
Society for Testing Materials, 1967. 64T, Part 17, p. 831, Philadelphia, American
73. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test Society for Testing Materials, 1967.
Method No. 402.2. 92. Friction, Wear, and Lubrication: Terms and
74. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-941-55, Definitions, Research Group on Wear of Engi-
Part 17, p. 317, Philadelphia, American Society neering Materials, Organization for Economic
for Testing Materials, 1967. Cooperation and Development.
for Testing Materials, 1967. 94. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test
76. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-1298-55, Method No. 3807.
for Testing Materials, 1967. Method No. 3812.
77. Thermal Properties of Petroleum Products, M.S. 96. ASTM Standards 1969, Designation D-2596-
Bureau of Standards Miscellaneous Publication 67T, Part 17, p. 970, Philadelphia, American
No. 97. Society for Testing Materials, 1969.
78. R. L. Leslie, "The Relation of Fluid Properties 97. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test
and High Temperature Hydraulic Perform- Method No. 6514.
ance", ASLE Transactions 7, 180 (1964). 98. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-2266-
79. W. A. Wright, "Prediction of Bulk Moduli and 64T, Part 17, p. 799, Philadelphia, American
Pressure-Volume-Temperature Data for Pe- Society for Testing Materials, 1967.
troleum Oils", ASLE Transactions 10, 349 99. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test
(1967). Method No. 6501.
80. J. A. Tichy and W. O. Winer, "A Correlation 100. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-2428-
of Bulk Moduli and P-V-T Data for Silicone 66T, Part 18, p. 565, Philadelphia, American
Fluids at Pressures up to 500,000 psig", ASLE Society for Testing Materials, 1967.
Transactions 11, 1338 (1968). 101. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-2271-66,
81. Fire Resistant Hydraulic Fluids, Part 35, Sub- Part 17, p. 818, Philadelphia, American Society
chapter E, Schedule 30, U.S. Dept. of Interior, for Testing Materials, 1967.
Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 102. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test
(1965). Method No. 6511.
82. H. C. Muffley, Foaming Characteristics of Re- 103. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-1947-66,
coil and Hydraulic Oils, RIA Report 55-1686, Part 17, p. 703, Philadelphia, American Society
Rock Island Arsenal, Rock Island, Illinois, for Testing Materials, 1967.
1955. 104. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test
83. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-1401-64, Method No. 6509.
84. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, 106. R. E. Hatton, Hydraulic Fluids for High Alti-
Method No. 3201.5. tude-High Temperature Vehicles, Paper 660661,
3-98
AMCP 706-123
SAE-ASEM Meeting, Los Angeles, California, 124. ASTM Standards 1969, Designation D-2619-67,
October 1966. Part 17, p. 997, Philadelphia, American Society
107. H. Gisser, The Effects of Nuclear Radiation in for Testing Materials, 1969.
Lubricants, Conference on Effects of Nuclear 125. H. H. Uhlig, Corrosion Handbook, John Wiley
Radiation on Materials, Watertown Arsenal, and Sons, N.Y., 1948.
1967. 126. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test
108. R. C. Gunderson and A. W. Hart, Synthetic Method No. 5325.
Lubricants, Reinhold Publishing Corp., N.Y., 127. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-l 30-65,
1962. Part 17, p. 82, Philadelphia, American Society
130. D. Godfrey and N. W. Furby, "Cavitation of
111. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test Oils and Hydraulic Fluids", In: Adamczak,
Method No. 102.6. Benzing, Schwenker, Proceedings of the AFML
112. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-1500-64, Hydraulic Fluids Conference, AFML-TR-67-
Part 17, p. 564, Philadelphia, American Society 369, December 1967.
for Testing Materials, 1967. 131. J. J. Pippenger and T. G. Hicks, Industrial
113. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-664-58, Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill, Inc., N.Y., 1962.
Part 17, p. 243, Philadelphia, American Society 132. Seal Compound Manual, Catalog C5702,
for Testing Materials, 1967. Parker Seal Co., Cleveland, Ohio, 1967.
133. The Effect of Nuclear Radiation on Lubricants
and Hydraulic Fluids, REIC Report No. 4, Bat-
telle Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio,
115. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test April 30, 1955.
Method No. 5001.9.
134. ASTM Standards 1967: Rubber; Carbon Black;
Gaskets, Part 28, American Society for Testing
Materials, Philadelphia, 1967.
117. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test 135. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-471,
Method No. 5002.6. Part 28, p. 268, Philadelphia, American Society
119. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test 137. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test
Method No. 5308.5. Method No. 3604.
for Testing Materials, 1967 Method No. 3403.
121. Federal Test Method Standard No. 79la, Test 139. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test
Method No. 2508. Method No. 7001.
122. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-2160-66, 140. Charles Spar, Hydraulic Fluids and Their
Part 17, p. 751, Philadelphia, American Society Applications, ASME Publication 64 WA/LUB-
for Testing Materials, 1967. 14.
123. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test 141. Materials Selector Issue,. Materials Engineer-
Method No. 3457. ing, October 1967.
3-99
AMCP 706-123
CHAPTER 4
TYPES OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
4-1 GENERAL Because of the wide and vastly different areas of

application, it is not suprising that hydraulic fluids
As the use of hydraulics and fluid power systems has have been classified by many different systems based on
increased, the number and types of hydraulic fluids their different characteristics such as physical proper-
available have also increased. This chapter presents a ties, chemical types, operating capabilities, utility, or
description of several methods used to classify hydrau- specific applications. Although none of these groupings
lic fluids. In addition, descriptions of the more common fully describe the properties of a hydraulic fluid, they
types of hydraulic fluids are presented with a brief are still employed and assist in selecting fluids for use
summary of specifications for each type of fluid and in specific areas.
specification data sheets listing exact specification re-
quirements for every hydraulic fluid discussed. These
specification summaries and data sheets are presented 4-2.1 CLASSIFICATION BY PHYSICAL
at the end of the chapter. PROPERTIES
4-2 CLASSIFICATION OF A classification based on viscosity ranges was one of

HYDRAULIC FLUIDS the. earliest methods used since petroleum products
were the only hydraulic fluids widely used and viscosity
A wide range of liquids is available for use in hydrau- was the most important property of this class of hy-
lic systems, and it is desirable to employ a classification draulic fluids. The viscosity method is accepted and
system to assist those using hydraulic fluids to deter- used as a means of classifying petroleum base hydraulic
mine if a liquid under consideration may function satis- fluids by the fluid manufacturers, the automotive in-
factorily for a particular application. However, the task dustry, hydraulic component manufacturers, and hy-
of selecting the most meaningful classification system draulic system designers and builders. Hydraulic fluids
is complicated by several factors. The areas of applica- grouped in this manner are generally specified as suita-
tion of hydraulic systems and the type.of equipment ble for use in a given application within a specified
used have become so diverse that a classification useful viscosity range. However, in the case of nonpetroleum
in one area of application has little or no meaning in base synthetic fluids, a classification based on viscosity
another. In addition, the increasing number and types range alone is not sufficient because of the importance
of hydraulic fluids available add to the complexity of of other properties.
the task. In simple, low performance hydraulic sys-
tems, where operating parameters are not severe, al-
most any liquid-water, water-based liquids, natural pe-
troleum products, or the more sophisticated synthetic 4-2.2 CLASSIFICATION BY CHEMICAL
liquids-may be used with varying degrees of satisfac- PROPERTIES
tion. In other areas, where the operating parameters are
very severe, only a limited number of liquids may be Chemical classification of hydraulic fluids is exten-
considered and selection must be made with considera- sively used by technical personnel, such as chemists
ble care. In addition, there are liquids which are used and petroleum engineers. Chemical classification as-
primarily for purposes other than as hydraulic fluids, sists them in predicting general characteristics of a new
but which have properties permitting them to be em- hydraulic fluid or in developing a new hydraulic fluid
ployed for the latter purpose in many applications. for a specific application. In chemical compounds such
4-1
AMCP 706-123
as hydraulic fluids, the physical properties are depend- Classification of hydraulic fluids and systems based
ent upon the compound structure and, accordingly, the on operational temperature ranges is not satisfactory in
physical properties of two chemically similar fluids many cases, such as in industrial systems, since there
may not be the same. Within a given class of hydraulic is no need for a-65°F operational temperature require-
fluids where the chemical properties are similar, the ment. However, it is important that every hydraulic
physical properties of these fluids may vary greatly. fluid have a definite operational temperature range es-
tablished. Knowledge of these temperature limits is
4-2.3 CLASSIFICATION BY OPERATING necessary in selecting a hydraulic fluid for a specific
CHARACTERISTICS application.
When classifying hydraulic fluids according to ope-

rating characteristics, the most common operational
4-2.4 CLASSIFICATION BY FIRE
parameters used are the temperature limits and the
RESISTANCE
fire-resistant characteristics of the hydraulic fluid. The
aerospace industry and the Air Force are the principal
Hydraulic fluids can be classed as flammable or fire-
users of the classification system based on operational
resistant. However, this classification is somewhat arbi-
temperatures and have established the following system
trary since the degree of flammability depends on both
types:
the specific fluid and the definition of "flammability".
(1) Type 1.-65° to 160°F
Generally, fire-resistant hydraulic fluids are of three
(2) Type 11.-65° to 275°F
types-synthetic fluids, water-based fluids, and emul-
(3) Type 111.-65° to 400°F
sions. Fire-resistant synthetic fluids are fire-resistant
(4) Type IV.-65" to 550°F
because of their chemical nature and include phosphate
(5) Type V. 0° to 700T
esters, chlorinated hydrocarbons, halogen-containing
(6) Type VI. +40° to 1,000°F (Proposed)
compounds, organophosphorus derivatives, and mix-
Although this classification system has proved valu-
tures of similar materials. The water-base fluids are
able and useful to some users, it does not identify other
solutions of various natural or synthetic materials in
properties of the liquids and one type may include sev-
water, and depend upon their water content for fire-
eral chemical classes. Type I liquids include some pe-
resistance. Glycols, polyglycols, and mixtures contain-
troleum hydrocarbons, phosphate esters, silicate esters,
ing additives are the most common hydraulic fluids of
emulsions, water-base liquids, polyalkylene glycols,
this type. Emulsion-type hydraulic fluids also depend
and halogenated hydrocarbons. Type II liquids include
upon water content for fire-resistance and are water-in-
petroleum hydrocarbons and silicate esters. Type III
oil mixtures made from petroleum hydrocarbons, but
liquids include the deep dewaxed highly refined hydro-
may contain various additives to provide other desira-
carbons, synthetic hydrocarbons, silicate esters, and
ble properties.
silicones. Type IV liquid requirements have not been
fully met by any class of fluids. However, the deep
dewaxed highly refined mineral oils covered under
MIL-H-27601A (-40° to + 550°F) closely approach the 4-2.5 CLASSIFICATION INTO PETROLEUM
Type IV requirements. Type V and VI fluids have not OR NONPETROLEUM HYDRAULIC
been completely defined or tested. Some potential can- FLUIDS
didate fluids for Type V are polyphenyl ethers, per-
fluoroalkylesters, and specially refined hydrocarbons. One of the most widely used classifications of hy-
Liquid metals have some potential for satisfying Type draulic fluids is based on a separation into two general
VI requirements. classes-petroleum and nonpetroleum. However, the
In general, there are commercial hydraulic fluids petroleum class hydraulic fluids may contain additives,
readily available which operate satisfactorily over the even synthetic additives, without changing their clas-
temperature ranges of Types I, II, and III hydraulic sifications. The nonpetroleum and/or synthetic class of
systems. However, for the higher temperature ranges of hydraulic fluids includes a considerably wider range of
Types IV, V, and VI, only a limited number of fluids liquids since it contains those derived from nonpe-
are available and those are usable only for relatively troleum base liquids (water, castor oil) as well as the
short durations. Extensive research programs are being synthetic base liquids produced by major chemical
conducted to develop fluids (and components) which reactions, although the base material for some of these
will be usable in Types IV, V, and VI hydraulic systems. liquids may be a petroleum product.
4-2
AMCP 706-123
4-2.6 CLASSIFICATION USED IN THIS oxidation, corrosion, sludge, and foam formation. Of
HANDBOOK course, not all fluids in this class will have all of these
characteristics but, through selection of the proper
The classification system used in this handbook com- grade of petroleum base fluid and additives, the desired
bines the two classification systems described in pars. properties may usually be obtained. These fluids gener-
4-2.2 and 4-2.5. The major division in this classification ally have a high viscosity index (approximately 100) so
is petroleum base and nonpetroleum and/or synthetic that they may be used over a wide temperature range.
base. However, the latter category is subdivided into They have pour points as low as-90°F and flash points
chemical classes to aid in identifying the wide range of as high as 400°F. Fire point of these fluids generally
properties of these hydraulic fluids. ranges from 400° to 550°F. Viscosity and viscosity-tem-
Comparative or relative ratings of some of the gen- perature characteristics vary over a wide range.
eral characteristics of the different classes of hydraulic Most petroleum and many chemical manufacturing
fluids are shown in Table 4-1. It must be remembered companies market a large number of petroleum base
that these ratings are only a general overall rating of hydraulic fluids, and these companies can provide in-
the hydraulic fluid base stock in each class and that formation on specific properties or applications of their
wide variation may be found in specific liquids products. There are numerous Military or Government
particularly when additives are used. Specifications covering different types of petroleum
A description of general properties and characteris- base hydraulic fluids. Some of the more widely used
tics of the different classes of hydraulic fluids is given liquids are described in the specification summaries
in subsequent paragraphs. Included at the end of the and specification data sheets in par. 4-6.
chapter are summaries and specification data of Mili-
tary or Government Specifications for typical liquids in
the respective classes (see par. 4-6). Requirements such
as composition, usable temperature range, and typical 4-4 NONPETROLEUM BASE
usage are listed. There are specifications for hydraulic HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
fluids other than those listed. No attempt was made to
list specifications for all liquids or oils which could be
used as hydraulic fluids. The hydraulic fluids and lubri- 4-4.1 PHOSPHATE ESTERS
cants selected are those which are most widely used or
those which represent the range of properties in specific This class of hydraulic fluids results from the incor-
classes of hydraulic fluids. It should be remembered poration of phosphorus into organic molecules. The
that the specification values are only limiting values resulting compounds have properties making them use-
and that specific hydraulic fluids may differ considera- ful as hydraulic fluids. They can also be used as a base
bly from these values. Also, it should be noted that stock fluid, as a part of the base stock, or as an additive.
there are many nonspecification hydraulic fluids, in all The principal advantage of this class of hydraulic fluids
classes, which may have properties equal or superior to over petroleum base hydraulic fluids is that many of the
the specification values. compounds are not only excellent lubricants but also
have excellent fire-resistant properties. They have good
oxidation stability and their thermal stability is consid-
4-3 PETROLEUM BASE HYDRAULIC ered good at medium-high temperatures, but they begin
FLUIDS to deteriorate rapidly above 300°F. Hydrolytic stability
ranges from poor to very good depending upon in-
Petroleum base hydraulic fluids were among the first dividual compounds. Viscosity-temperature character-
liquids employed as hydraulic or power transmission istics of most phosphate esters are considered medium-
fluids. The use of petroleum base hydraulic fluids far to-good. In this respect they are equivalent to the better
surpasses that of all other classes including the synthet- petroleum base hydraulic fluids but are not as good as
ics and nonpetroleum classes. However, the wide var- the best petroleum products. Viscosity of the phosphate
iety of materials produced from different grades of ester hydraulic fluids is generally low and, on an
crude oils and additives makes a summary of their equivalent volatility basis, their viscosity characteris-
properties difficult. In general, these fluids are consid- tics are superior to petroleum base products. Some
ered to give outstanding performance, long life, good phosphate esters can be used as a mild extreme pres-
lubricating characteristics, and protection against rust, sure lubricant.
4-3
TABLE 4-1.
CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDRAULIC FLUID BASE STOCKS
Viscosity- Volatility- Thermal Oxidative Hydrolytic Fire Lubricating Additive
Fluid Class temperature viscosity Stability Stability Stability Resistance Ability Response
I. Petroleum Base G P G F E P F E
II. Nonpetroleum Base

A. Phosphate Esters G F F G F E E G
B. Silicate Esters E G E G F F G G
C. Carboxylic Acid Esters G G F F G F G G
D. Polysiloxanes E 3 G F E F P P
E. Glycols G G G G G F G F
F. Castor Oils G G F F G F G G
G. Polyoxy Glycols G G n G G F G F
H. Water Glycols G P F G E E P G
I. Emulsions G P F G E. E P G
III. Experimental and Potential Fluids

A. Polysiloxanes (Silanes) F F E G E F F F
B. Hydrocarbons G G E F E P G G
C. Fluorinated Polymers P P E E G E P P
D. Polyphenyl Ethers F G E G E F G G
E. Heterocyclic Synthetics - - G - - G - -
F. Phosphonitrilates F G W E W G E G
G. Liquid Metals G F G P P P F F
E Excellent
G Good
F Fair
P Poor
W Wide Range Variable
- Not Defined
AMCP 706-123
The MIL-SPEC requirements for a typical phos- lubricating properties. However, they allow fairly high
phate ester base hydraulic fluid are shown in the sum- wear because of low shear strength, high volatility, and
mary and specification data sheets in par. 4-6. susceptibility to oxidative breakdown. For these rea-
sons, the monoesters have little or no applications as
hydraulic fluids. On the other hand, the diesters
4-4.2 SILICATE ESTERS have excellent viscosity-temperature properties, low
volatility, good lubricating characteristics, high chemi-
This class of hydraulic fluids has many properties cal solvency, good additive response, and good hy-
similar to the phosphate esters since both are esters of drolytic stability. The diester lubricating film charac-
organic acids. The principal differences in the two teristics and oxidation stability are generally equal to or
classes are in hydrolytic stability, lubricating character- better than equivalent petroleum hydrocarbon fluids.
istics, flammability, and viscosity-temperature rela- The principal restriction or limitation of organic ester
tionships. In general, silicate esters have low volatility liquids is thermal stability since they tend to break
and excellent viscosity-temperature characteristics, but down at temperatures above 500°F.
relatively poor hydrolytic stability. One of the out- The MIL-SPEC requirements for typical organic
standing characteristics of this class of hydraulic fluids acid esters are given in the summary and data sheets in
is good thermal stability combined with excellent re- par. 4-6.
sponse to antioxidant additives. Silicate esters possess
only fair oxidation stability and are similar to hydro-
carbon hydraulic fluids in their susceptibility to attack 4-4.4 POLYSILOXANES
by oxygen; however, it is relatively easy to improve this
property with proper additives. The lubricating proper- The silicone liquids, as a class, possess very good
ties of silicate esters are only fair but with care in viscosity-temperature and mechanical properties, mak-
selection of materials and operating conditions, these ing them attractive as base stocks for synthetic lubri-
hydraulic fluids will provide some degree of lubrica- cants or as hydraulic fluids. These liquids have been
tion. Silicate esters are generally fairly good solvents used as hydraulic fluids, either alone or as compounded
and, although they do not dissolve many plastics or hydraulic fluids. Other characteristics which make the
synthetic elastomers, they tend to harden most elas- silicone liquids ideal for hydraulic fluids under severe
tomers after prolonged exposure at elevated tempera- operating conditions are: (1) their properties do not
tures. With proper additives and the right operating change appreciably under a wide range of temperature
conditions, some silicate ester hydraulic fluids operate and atmospheric conditions, (2) they have very low
satisfactorily for extended periods at temperatures up volatility, (3) they are compatible with many construc-
to 425°F. tion materials, (4) they resist permanent viscosity
In addition to their use as hydraulic fluids, silicate change under severe mechanical stresses, (5) they are
esters are used as heat-transfer fluids, electronic equip- available in a wide range of viscosities, (6) they have
ment coolants, weapon lubricants, etc. because of their very good dielectric properties, (7) they have good oxi-
outstanding thermal stability and excellent response to dation resistance, and (8) they have low chemical sol-
antioxidants. A typical MIL-SPEC for a silicate ester vency properties. These liquids are also less flammable
aircraft hydraulic fluid is given in the summary and the than petroleum oils of similar viscosities but do not
specification data sheets in par. 4-6. resist ignition in many flammability tests. Significant
limitations of silicone liquids are their marginal lu-
4-4.3 ORGANIC ACID ESTERS
bricity for ferrous materials in sliding contact and their
high compressibility. In general, the serviceable tem-
This class of liquids is employed principally as lubri-
perature of most silicone fluids ranges from well below
cants for gas turbine engines, instrument lubricants,
-65° to above 400°F.
base stock for synthetic greases, and, to a limited ex-
Summaries of Federal and MIL-SPEC requirements
tent, as a base stock for hydraulic fluids. Use as a
for typical silicone fluids and data sheets for these
hydraulic fluid is generally in applications where en-
specifications are in par. 4-6.
gine lubricating oil is used to actuate hydraulic units
such as accessories attached to jet engines.
Organic esters are produced in both monoester (sin- 4-4.5 GLYCOLS
gle ester group) and diester (two ester groups per mole- This class of hydraulic fluids is frequently referred to
cule) compounds. The monoesters have relatively good by several names including polyglycols, polyalkylene
4-5
AMCP 706-123
glycols, and polyethers. These glycol or polyglycol liq- polyoxypropylene base and are characterized by high
uids are used extensively as base stocks and as compo- viscosity indexes, low pour points, good thermal stabil-
nents for synthetic lubricants and hydraulic fluids such ity, fair-to-good oxidation stability, good water toler-
as air conditioner lubricants, heavy duty brake fluids, ance, good corrosion resistance, and compatibility with
and components of fire-resistant water-base hydraulic rubber and other materials in brake systems. These
fluids. These liquids are characterized by good lubricity liquids are considered particularly useful as hydraulic
and antiwear properties, high flash point, high viscosity fluids for automotive brake systems.
indices (up to 150), wide range of viscosities, low A summary of MIL-SPEC requirements for a brake
volatility and pour point, poor-to-fair high temperature fluid containing this class of liquid and a data sheet of
oxidation properties, little effect on rubber and metals, specification properties are in par. 4-6.
and very good solubility characteristics and additive
response. They have good resistance to sludge and var-
nish formation, and excellent resistance to mechanical
shear. The viscosity-temperature properties are equal
to or better than similar petroleum products. In gen- 4-4.8 WATER GLYCOLS
eral, the serviceable temperature range of these fluids
is from near 0° to above 500°F.
MIL-SPEC requirements for a typical glycol type
This class of hydraulic fluids is generally considered
hydraulic fluid are given in the summary and specifica-
fire-resistant. It usually contains 35-60 percent water,
tion data sheets in par. 4-6.
a glycol, and a water-soluble thickener to improve vis-
cosity. Additives are also incorporated to improve anti-
4-4.6 CASTOR OILS corrosion, antiwear, and lubricity properties. Since
the fire-resistance properties of these liquids are de-
This class of hydraulic fluids is based on organic pendent upon the water content, extended use at tem-
fatty oils similar to animal oils, fish oils, and mineral peratures above 150°F is not recommended. The vis-
oils. Because of their properties, they are seldom used cosity of these liquids is fairly low, but with proper
alone as a lubricating oil or hydraulic fluid. The organic additives they may be used satisfactorily at fairly low
oils oxidize, causing gumming, and they spoil or operating temperatures in systems such as aircraft hy-
become rancid, thus releasing free fatty acids. At high draulic systems. Typical viscosity indices for these liq-
temperature, these oils tend to decompose to corrosive uids are in the range of 140 to 160. Because of the
acids. These oils also will support bacteria and care corrosive nature of the water component of these liq-
should be taken to keep them sterile. The addition of uids, proper additives must be used to make them com-
castor oil or other fatty oils to petroleum mineral oils patible with most common construction materials such
will increase the load-carrying ability. Some of the liq- as steel, aluminum, brass, and copper. It is generally
uids incorporating these oils are steam-cylinder oils, not good practice to use these liquids in contact with
marine-engine oils, cutting oils, automatic-transmis- soft or sacrificial plated materials such as galvanizing
sion fluids, hydraulic fluids, and industrial gear oils. In or cadmium plating. Antiwear and lubricity additives
general, castor oils are moderately high viscosity liq- can make these liquids suitable for use in hydraulic
uids with a flash point above 500°F and a pour point systems and machines at moderate pressures. However,
above 0°F. at high pressures or loads, service and maintenance
Summary and data sheets of several typical MIL- problems increase. The additive-containing water-
SPEC requirements for compounded liquids containing glycol liquids generally are compatible with the various
castor oil are in par. 4-6. seal and packing materials used in systems designed for
petroleum type fluids, but these aqueous-base liquids
tend to soften or lift many conventional paints or coat-
4-4.7 POLYOXYALKYLENE GLYCOLS ings. In general usage, it is a good practice to conduct
periodic checks of water content of these liquids since
The polyoxyalkylene glycol class of hydraulic fluids the viscosity and other properties vary appreciably with
have many of the same properties as the polyalkylene the water content.
glycol liquids discussed in par. 4-4.5. In some cases, the MIL-SPEC requirements for a typical water-glycol
polyoxyalkylene liquids have somewhat superior prop- type hydraulic fluid are given in the summary and
erties. Most of these fluids have a polyoxyethylene- specification data sheets in par. 4-6.
4-6
AMCP 706-123
4-4.9 EMULSIONS petroleum base hydraulic fluids. Improvements sought

are in the area of extended operating temperature
These water-oil mixtures are another class of liquid range, fire resistance, improved thermal and oxidative
which depend upon water content for their fire-resist- stability, better viscosity-volatility characteristics, bet-
ant properties. These liquids, which have many character response of susceptibility to inhibitors and addi-
teristics similar to the water-glycol liquids, are availa- tives, and better low temperature fluidity. Improve-
ble in two general types-oil-in-water or water-in-oil. ments are being obtained by a combination of several
The first of these has water as the continuous phase and procedures including chemical conversion of selected
the oil is present in lesser amounts as the dispersed mineral oil fractions such as (1) hydrocracked naph-
media. Many problems are associated with the water thenes, (2) isomerized wax, (3) alkylated aromatics,
phase-including corrosion in both the liquid and vapor and polymerized olefins; use of advanced refining tech-
phase, and high wear because of poor lubricating char- niques (super-refining, vacuum fractionation, deep
acteristics. The other type of emulsion, the water-in-oil dewaxing) on selected crude stocks; and a selection of
mixture in which the oil is the continuous phase and the improved inhibitors and additives. Petroleum fractions
water is the dispersed media, has considerably different have been produced that are capable of extended use at
and generally better characteristics. These emulsions temperatures up to 650°F, and with a useful life of more
have good-to-acceptable corrosion and lubricating than 50 hr at 700°F in essentially oxygen-free systems.
properties as well as fire-resistance, emulsion stability, New products in this class of hydraulic fluids are con-
high viscosity index, film strength, good system cool- stantly being developed so it is not practical to specify
ing, compatibility with most materials, oxidation sta- property limits here. However, the developmental hy-
bility, and reasonable material cost. draulic fluids generally have properties superior to the
Water-in-oil emulsions do not have high load specification fluids. This result is, of course, the objec-
capacity or lubricating characteristics but where fire tive of the research efforts.
resistance is needed for safety, these liquids can be
applied. The usable temperature range of these liquids
is generally between 0° and 150°F. However, they may 4-5.2 NONPETROLEUM BASE HYDRAULIC
be used somewhat beyond this range. At this time, FLUIDS
there are no MIL-SPEC requirements covering this
class of fluids; however, there are several commercial
4-5.2.1 Phosphate Esters
products that are widely used.
The nonspecification and commercial phosphate es-
ter hydraulic fluids have chemical and physical proper-
4-5 NONSPECIFICATION AND ties which are generally similar, or somewhat superior,
POTENTIAL HYDRAULIC to the specification phosphate ester fluids discussed in
FLUIDS par. 4-4.1. Three groups of materials, called tertiary
phosphate esters, are products whose physical proper-
ties vary with type of ester and molecular weight.
4-5.1 PETROLEUM BASE FLUIDS One group, the trialkyl phosphates, range from wa-
ter soluble liquids to water immiscible liquids, or low
Most petroleum and many chemical companies pro- melting solids, with increasing molecular weight.
duce hydrocarbon or petroleum base hydraulic fluids A second group, alky aryl phosphates are intermedi-
which are not qualified under Military or Federal ate range phosphates that vary from mobile liquids to
Specifications. However, many of these liquids have low-melting-point solids depending upon chemical
properties generally similar to the specification liquids structure. These liquids have a typical viscosity range
and are useful in hydraulic system applications. The list of 1.5 to 10 cSt at 210°F and viscosity indices up to 160.
of these products and manufacturers is too extensive to The recommended maximum operating temperature of
list in this handbook, and it is recommended that in- this class of phosphate esters, which is probably the
dividual manufacturers be contacted for information most widely used material for fire-resistant hydraulic
concerning properties and applications of a specific hy- fluids, is as high as 350°F. The phosphate esters have
draulic fluid. flash points which range from 200° to 500°F with fire
Many petroleum manufacturers have extensive pro- points from 50°F to more than 300°F above the flash
grams directed toward the development of improved points. However, the most indicative property, as a
4-7
AMCP 706-123
measure of the flammability of phosphate esters, is the that "Houghto-Safe" is also the name of a glycol
spontaneous or autogenous ignition temperature which water fluid.)
ranges from 800°F to more than 1,100°F. 5. Other Phosphate Ester Base Hydraulic Fluids
The third group, the triaryl phosphates, are the most and Lubricants
viscous of the tertiary phosphate compounds, have a In addition to these typical commercial products,
short liquid range, and are essentially water insoluble. phosphate ester liquids are compounded with many
This type of phosphate has a maximum recommended different materials to produce new liquids for different
bulk operating temperature range between 150° and applications. Some of these liquids are compounds of
200°F which is somewhat lower than the aryl phos- several types of phosphate esters and additives; others
phates. Their applications are mostly as compounding are compounds of phosphate esters and other liquids
ingredients for synthetic hydraulic fluids. such as chlorinated silicone liquids. In general, the pur-
The major advantage of the phosphate esters as a pose of these developmental oils is to improve or extend
class of hydraulic fluids is their fire resistant properties the operating temperature limits and the range of cer-
combined with their ability to lubricate moving parts, tain characteristics such as lubricity, antiseize, and vis-
especially steel on steel. cosity index.
Some of the names of commercial liquids of the phos-
phate ester-type widely used by industry are:
1. Skydrol 7000 and 500A (Monsanto Chemi-
4-5.2.2 Halogenated Compounds
cal Company)
Both of these hydraulic fluids are fire-resistant phos-
phate esters containing small amounts of several addi-
tives (the 7000 and 500 designations refer to the fluid 4-5.2.2.1 Polysiloxanes (Silanes)
viscosity in centistokes at-40°F). These fluids were
developed for use in transport aircraft hydraulic sys- These compounds are silicone-containing materials
tems. Skydrol 500A has been adopted as the standard being investigated for applications as hydraulic fluids.
hydraulic fluid by most of the world's airlines. These liquids have molecular structures which contain
only silicon-to-carbon bonds and no silicon-oxygen
2. Pydraul (Monsanto Chemical Company) bonds as do other silicones and silicate esters. The
These liquids are a series of fire-resistant phosphate molecular organic radical of these fluids may be paraf-
esters and additive-containing hydraulic fluids deve- finic or aromatic hydrocarbons with mixtures of alkyl,
loped for industrial machinery. Pydraul hydraulic aryl, alkaryl, or arylalkyl groups present.
fluids are less expensive than Skydrol and are available In general, these liquids have poor lubricity and -\
in a range of viscosities to fit numerous industrial ap- narrow viscosity range. Some additives have shown
plications. Pydraul AC, although produced primarily promise of improving selected characteristics; some
as a fire-resistant lubricant for air compressor systems,
polymers are effective in increasing the viscosity; tricre-
may also be used in certain hydraulic systems.
syl phosphate and sodium petroleum sulfonate both act
3. FRYQUEL (Cellulube) (Stauffer Chemical as antiwear additives, and sodium and potassium
Company) amides are effective as antioxidants. Because of su-
These liquids are a group of fire-resistant triaryl perior thermal stability and chemical inertness, the si-
phosphate ester hydraulic fluids and/or lubricants lanes appear to be a promising base stock for hydraulic
available in controlled viscosity ranges. The product or fluids for use in the temperature range of 0° to more
fluid numbers represent the fluid viscosity at 100°F in than 700°F. Typical properties of silane fluids are pour
Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS). Products available point,-25°F; flash point, above 500°F; bulk density, 7.4
include FRYQUEL 90, 150, 220, 300, 550, and 1,000. lb/gal; and viscosity, 37 cSt at 100°F.
Although these liquids function primarily as fire-resist-
ant hydraulic fluids, they also find applications as lu- 4-5.2.2.2 Hydrocarbons
bricants where fire resistance is not a requirement.
The halogenated hydrocarbon liquids possess several
4. Houghto-Safe (E. F. Houghton and Company) properties that make them attractive for use as hydrau-
These products are also a series of phosphate ester lic fluids. They have outstanding fire resistance, good
fire-resistant hydraulic fluids and lubricants which thermal stability and heat-transfer characteristics,
have properties and recommended usage similar to the good oxidative stability, and boundary-lubrication ac-
Cellulube and Pydraul fluids. (The reader is reminded tivity. However, they do have some deficiencies, i.e.,
4-8
AMCP 706-123
poor viscosity-temperature properties and high freez- and are marginal lubricants. Their operating tempera-
ing point. ture range is room temperature to near 1,000°F. How-
Some of the commercial hydrocarbon liquids usable ever, their main deterrent is their deficiency in low-
as hydraulic fluids and/or lubricating fluids are: temperature characteristics.
(1) Aroclor (Monsanto Chemical Company)
Aroclor fluids are a series of hydrocarbon liquids 4-5.2.4 Heterocyclic Compounds
containing chlorinated biphenyls and cover a wide
range of viscosities. These fluids have excellent shear Several heterocyclic compounds have been investi-
resistance, are thermally and chemically stable, non- gated for applications as synthetic hydraulic fluids and
corrosive, and provide a high degree of extreme pres- lubricants. The most promising are those compounds
sure lubricity. containing nitrogen, which show thermal stability
(2) Kel-F Fluids (Halocarbon Corporation) above 800°F to around 1,200°F. Other heterocyclic
The Kel-F fluids are a series of wide range hydrocar- compounds are less stable. At the present time, no
bon hydraulic fluids and oils containing halofluorocar- commercial fluids of this class are available.
bon oils. These fluids are fire-resistant, chemically and
thermally stable, and may be used in mechanisms as-
sociated with reactive chemicals. The Kel-F fluids have 4-5.2.5 Phosphonitrilates
extreme resistance to breakdown, and excellent flow
and load-bearing characteristics. In addition to hydrau- These liquids are being investigated as intermediate
lic fluid applications, they are also employed as com- temperature range hydraulic fluids and also as lubri-
pressor lubricants. cants. Generally, they are stable to hydrolysis and resist
thermal polymerization up to 750°F. These liquids are
(3) Fluorolube (Hooker Chemical Company)
still classed as research items and no commerical fluids
The Fluorolube fluids are a series of hydrocarbon are available.
compounded liquids of similar composition, properties,
and usage as the Kel-F fluids.
4-5.2.6 Liquid Metals
Liquid metals have some possible usage as hydraulic

4-5.2.2.3 Perfluorinated Polymers
fluids for special applications at very high temperatures
(to 1,500°F). The liquid metal which has been investi-
The perfluorinated polymers are stable, high-tem- gated most, identified as NAK-77, is a mixture of
perature liquids capable of use in the range of—50° to sodium and potassium. This liquid is silvery in appear-
+ 700°F that do not form sludge or tar even in the ance (similar to mercury), and highly reactive with
presence of air. These liquids have excellent flow char- oxygen so that it must be used in closed oxygen-free
acteristics, outstanding thermal and chemical stability, systems. The mixture melts at about 10°F, atomizes in
generally good corrosion characteristics, and are com- air at room temperature, and ignites spontaneously in
patible with most metals and seal materials. A typical air at 239°F. If water is present, NAK-77 reacts vio-
commercial fluid of this type is Krytox 143 (E. I. du lently, releasing hydrogen and heat sufficient to ignite
Pont de Nemours and Company). Perfluorinated both the hydrogen and the NAK-77 if any oxygen is
polymers are corrosive with certain metals above present. Surface tension is about twice that of water and
500°F, and provide little or no protection against rust- its specific gravity is slightly less than water. Viscosity
ing of ferrous metals at relatively high humidities. is about 0.50 cSt at 115°F and the friction coefficient is
high, about 10 times that of light oil.
Handling and usage of liquid metals are difficult
since the hydraulic system must be hermetically sealed
4-5.2.3 Polyphenyl Ethers and contain an inert gas. If NAK-77 burns, it is nonex-
plosive unless water is present, but the fumes are toxic.
This class of liquids has been proposed for use as a In addition to NAK-77, other liquid metals have
high-temperature hydraulic fluid and considerable been investigated experimentally but they generally
investigation has been conducted in this direction. Gen- have higher melting points and similar hazardous ope-
erally, these liquids have good oxidation stability, do rating characteristics so that liquid metals seem to offer
not hydrolyze, resist decomposition from radiation, only limited usage for very special applications.
4-9
AMCP 706-123
4-6 HYDRAULIC FLUID AND Navy-WP: Naval Air Systems Command (AS)
Washington, D.C. 20360
LUBRICANT SPECIFICATIONS
Navy-SA: Naval Supply Systems
The following pages contain information on the Command Headquarters
specifications for hydraulic fluids and lubricants men- Washington, D.C. 20360
tioned in preceding paragraphs. For each liquid, data Navy-YD: Naval Facilities Engineering
presented are: (a) a Specification Summary Sheet; and Headquarters Command
(b) Specification Property Requirements Sheet. The Washington, D.C. 20360
specifications are presented in the following order: Air Force-11: Systems Engineering Group
(AFSC, SEP)
1. Petroleum Base Liquids: Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433
VV-L-800 Air Force-67: Middletown Air Material Area
MIL-L-2104B (MAAMA, MANSS)
MIL-H-5606B Olmsted AFB, Pennsylvania 17057
MIL-H-6083C
MIS-10137 VV-L-800: LUBRICA TING OIL, GENERAL PUR -
MIS-10150 POSE, PRESERVATIVE (WATER-
MIL-L-10295A DISPLA CING, LOW TEMPERA TÜRE)
MIL-H-13866B(MR)
MIL-H-13919B (NATO Symbol: 0-190)
MIL-F-17111(NORD)
MIL-L-17331F(SHIPS), Amendment 1 a. General characteristics: This specification cov-
MIL-L-17672B ers a general purpose, water-displacing, lubricating oil
MIL-L-21260A for low-temperature applications. It has a pour point of
MIL-F-25598(USAF) -70°For lower and a viscosity of 7,000 cSt at -40°F.
MIL-H-27601A(USAF) b. Usable temperatures: The operating tempera-
MIL-L-45199A ture range is not specified.
MIL-H-46001A c. Chemical composition: This liquid is a pe-
MIL-L-46002(ORD) troleum base oil containing additives necessary to meet
MIL-L-46004(ORD) specification requirements. Principal requirements are
MIL-H-81019(WEP) for corrosion, oxidation and water displacing proper-
ties.
2. Phosphate Ester Liquids: MIL-H-19457B
d. Uses: This liquid is a lubricating oil for protec-
(SHIPS)
tion against corrosion of small arms, automatic weap-
3. Silicate Ester Liquids: MIL-H-8446B
ons, fuze mechanisms, general squirt-can applications
4. Organic Acid Ester Liquids: MIL-6085A; MIL-
and whenever a general purpose, water-displacing, low
L-7808G; MIL-L-23699A
temperature, lubricating oil is required.
5. Polysiloxane Liquids: MIL-S-81087A(ASG);
e. Limitations: This liquid loses its Newtonian
VV-D-001078 (GSA-FSS)
properties at temperatures below -40°F, snould not be
6. Glycol Liquids: MIL-H-5559A(WEPS) used on aircraft equipment such as guns when opera-
7. Castor Oils Liquids: MIL-P-46046A(MR); tion at -65°F is required.Very low-temperature applica-
JAN-F-461 tions should be established by tests.
8. Polyoxyalkylene Glycol Liquids: MIL-H- f. Custodian: Army-MR
1391 OB; VV-B-680a
9. Water Glycol Liquids: MIL-H-22072A(WP)
The code assigned to the abbreviations for military MIL-L-2104B: LUBRICATING OIL, INTERNAL
activities listed as the custodians of a specification is: COMBUSTION ENGINE (HEAVY
DUTY)
Army-MR: U.S. Army Materials Research Agency
Watertown, Massachusetts 02172 (NATO Symbol: None)
Army-GL: U.S. Army Natick Laboratories a. General characteristics: This specification cov-
Natick, Massachusetts 07162 ers a multi-grade, detergent-type, petroleum base oil
Navy-SH: Naval Ship Engineering Center which may contain additives to meet specifica-
Washington, D.C. 20360 tion requirements.
4-10
AMCP 706-123
VV-L-800: LUBRICATING OIL, GENERAL PURPOSE, PRESERVATIVE (WATER-DISPLACING, LOW TEMPERATURE)
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: No. 7 (Max) (ASTM)

Specific Gravity: NR
Pour Point, °F; (Max): -7 0
Flash Point, °F; (Min): 275
Viscosity, cSt: -65°F (Max) 60,000
-40°F (Max) 7,000
100°F (Min) 12
Neutralization Ho.: mg KOH/g (Max) Report
Additives: Antiwear (tricresyl phosphate); $ wt As Req'd and Approved
Oxid. Inhibitors, $ wt As Req_'d and Approved
Pour Point Depressant, $ wt As Req.'d and Approved
Viscosity Improvers $ wt As Req/d and Approved
Others As Req'd and Approved
Precipitation No.. 0.05
Water Content: $ (Max) --
Corr. and Oxid. Stability: Steel +0.20
168 hr at 250°F Aluminum Alloy ±0.20
Max wt Chg,mg/cm Magnesium Alloy +0.20
Cad.-Plate ±0.20
Copper +0.20
Pitting, Etch and Corr. at 20X None
$ Vis Chg at 100°F -5 to +20
Neutral. No. Increase (Max) 0.20
Insoluble Mat'l or Gumming;
$ wt None
Copper Corr.: 72 hr at 212°F No. 3 (ASTM)
Low Temperature Stability: 72 hr at -65°F No Solids, nongel
Rubber Swell: Type "L", Vol Chg; $ ;
Solid Particle Content: 5-15 Microns —
(Max Parts/100 ml) 16-25 Microns --
26-50 Microns --
51-100 Microns —
Over 100 Microns —
Evaporation: 4 hr at 150°F —
Corrosivity: brass-steel, 10 days, 75°F, 50$ R.H. No Corrosion
Recommended Temperature Range, °F: > -40
NATO Symbol: 0-190
Storage Stability: --
Compatibility: —
Water Stability: 1 hr at 77°F, 50$ R.H. No Corrosion
Humidity Cabinet: 8 days, 95-100$ R.H. Three 1.0 mm dots
Machine Gun Test; -75°F, 25 Rounds No Stoppage
Notes: NR, no requirements.

—, no information.
Use: General purpose water displacing lub at low temperature, corrosion protection for
small arms and automatic weapons.
4-11
AMCP 706-123
MIL-L-2104B: LUBRICATING OIL, INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE (HEAVY DUTY)
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: NR
Pour Point, °F (Max): Grade 10 -20
Grade 30 0
Grade 50 + 15
Stable Pour Point, °F (Max): Grade 10 (cnly) -20
Flash Point, °F (Min): Grade 10 360
Grade 30 390
Grade 50 400
Viscosity, cSt: 0°F; Grade 10 (Max) 2,614
0°F; Grade 30 (Max) 43,570
0°F; Grade 50 (Max) NR
210°F; Grade 10 5.44- 7.29
210°F; Grade 30 9.65-12.98
210°F; Grade 50 16.83-22.7
Additives: Allowed (Ho rerefined)
Oxid. Characteristics: (ferrous and nonferrous engine
parts) No Corrosion
Low Temperature Deposit: 180 hr low temp cycle Slight Corrosion
Ring Stick: 120 hr engine test Nonstick, min wear
Light-load deposit accumulation: 120 hr engine test Minimize Deposit
Foaming: 75°F, after 5.0 min blowing, ml (Max) No limit
75°F, after 10.0 min settling, ml (Max) 300
200°F after 5.0 min blowing, ml (Max) No limit
200°F after 10.0 min settling, ml (Max) 25
Repeat 75°F Test Same as init. 75°F Test
Oil Additive Stability: No additive instability
Storage Stability: Remain Homogeneous
Compatibility: All oils to Spec
Recommended Temperature Range, °F: Above -10
NATO Symbol: None
Water Content:

--, no information.
Use: Heavy duty engine oil for recripocating engines, etc.
4-12
AMCP 706-123
b. Usable temperatures: The operating tempera- "open" hydraulic system unless the reservoir is filled
ture range is not specified, but use above -10°F frequently. It is most effective in "closed-system" hy-
is recommended. draulic units. It is not interchangeable with any other
c. Chemical composition: This liquid is a pe- types of hydraulic fluid,
troleum base oil which may contain antifoam and pour f. Custodians: Army-MR
point depressant additives, as well as corrosion and Navy-WP
oxidation inhibitors to meet specification requirements. Air Force-11
It shall not contain any re-refined components.
d. Uses: This liquid is for crankcase lubrication of MIL-H-6083C: HYDRA ULICFL UIDS, PETROLEUM
reciprocating internal combustion engines of both BASE, FOR PRESERVATION AND
spark-ignition and combustion-ignition types when TESTING
ambient temperatures are above -10°F. (NATO Symbol: C-635)
e. Limitations.This liquid is not recommended for a. General characteristics: This liquid is a pe-
gear box applications without prior performance troleum base corrosion preservative for hydraulic
evaluation. For highly supercharged compression-igni- equipment. The finished product shall have no deleteri-
tion engines operating at output levels of 150 psi brake ous effect on pressure-seal packing used on aircraft
mean effective pressure or above, it may be necessary hydraulic systems and shock struts.
to decrease oil drain periods or change to oils supplied b. Usable temperatures: The operating tempera-
under MIL-L-45199 A and specifically intended for this ture range is -65° to +160°F.
service. This liquid shall be compatible with other oils c. Chemical composition: The finished liquid shall
qualified to this specification and shall have good stor- be a petroleum base oil with additives to provide corro-
age life when stored in closed containers at nor- sion protection and to improve the viscosity/tempera-
mal temperatures. ture characteristics and resistance to oxidation. No
f. Custodians: Army-MR pour point depressant additive is allowed.
Navy-SH d. Uses: This fluid is intended as a preservative oil
Air Force-11 in aircraft and ordnance hydraulic systems during ship-
ment and storage, and also as a testing and flushing
MIL-H-5606B: HYDRA ULICFL UID, PETROLEUM liquid for hydraulic system components. It is not in-
BASE; AIRCRAFT, MISSILE, AND tended as an operational hydraulic fluid, but may be
ORDNANCE used for limited operational use.
e. Limitations: Not recommended for high tem-
(NATO Symbol: H-515)
perature use or for heavy duty requirements. This liq-
a. General characteristics: This specification cov-
uid is not interchangeable with Hydraulic Fluid, Castor
ers a petroleum base hydraulic fluid for low tern -
Oil Base, Specification MIL-H-7644(USAF) or Hy-
persture applications. It is dyed red for identifica- draulic Fluid, Nonpetroleum Base, Automotive,
tion purposes.
Specification VV-B-680a.
b. Usable temperatures: The recommended operat-
f. Custodians: Army-MR
ing temperature ranges are -65° to 160°F in open sys-
Navy-SA
tems and -65° to 275°F in closed systems.
Air Force-11
c. Chemical composition: This liquid is a pe-
troleum base oil with the following additives: viscosity
MIS-10137: HYDRAULIC FLUID, PETROLEUM
index improver, oxidation inhibitor, and TCP antiwear
agent. The finished liquid must not contain any pour BASE, INTERMEDIATE VISCOSITY
point depressants. (NATO Symbol: None)
d. Uses: The primary uses for this liquid include a. General characteristics: This hydraulic fluid is a
aircraft hydraulic system, automatic pilots, shock petroleum base liquid containing additives for moder-
struts, brakes and flap control mechanisms. It is also ate temperature ranges. It is dyed dark green or dark
used in missile hydraulic servo-controlled systems and blue for identification purposes.
ordnance hydraulic systems using synthetic seal- b. Usable temperatures: The operating tempera-
ing materials. ture range is not specified.
e. Limitations: Since this material has a rather c. Chemical composition: This liquid is a refined
high rate of evaporation, it should not be used as a petroleum base liquid with additive materials to im-
general purpose high temperature lubricant or in prove oxidation resistance and viscosity-temperature
4-13
AMCP 706-123
MI1-H-5606B: HYDRAUIIC FIUID, PETROLEUM BASE, AIRCRAFT, MISSIIE AND ORDNANCE
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: Red
Pour Point, °F (Max): -75
Flash Point, °F (Min): 200
Vircosity, cSt: -65°F (Max) 3,000
-40°F (Max) 500
130°F (Min) 10
Additives: Antiwear; fa wt 0.50
Oxidation Inhibitors, fa wt S 2.00
Corrosion Inhibitors, fa wt NR
Viscosity Improvers, fa wt s 20.00
Others No Pour Point Dep.
neutralization Ho.: mg KOH/g (Max) 0.20
Precipitation Ho.: (Max) NR
Evaporation: 4 hr at 150°F Oily, nontacky
Corr. and Oxid. Stability: Steel ±0.20
]68 hr at 250°F, Aluminum Alloy +0.20
Max wt Chg , Magnesium ±0.20
mg/cm2 Cad.-Plate +0.20
Copper ±0.60
Pitting, Etch, or Corr. at 20X Hone
Vise Chg at 130°P, fa -5 to +20
Neutral. No. Chg (Max) +0.20
Solid Particle Content: 5-15 Microns 2,500
(Max Part/]00 ml) 16-25 Microns 1,000
26-50 Microns 250
51-100 Microns 25
Over 100 Microns None
Copper Strip Corr.: 72 hr at 250°F (Max) No. 2 (ASTM)
Low Temp Stability: 72 hr at -65°F No Solids, nongel
Rubber Swell: Type "b" Vol Chg, fa 19-28
Foaming:.' After 5.0 min blowing, ml (Max) 65
(at 75°F) After 10.0 min settling, ml (Max) None
Storage Stability: 75°F, months (Min) 12.0
Water Content: (Max) 100 ppm
Recommended Temp. Range, °F : Air (closed) -65/160 (275)
Specific Gravity; NR
Shear Stability: Vise Chg; cSt/l30°F (Max) s -15$
(30 min Sonic Oscil.) Vise Chg; cSt/-40°F (Max) s
Ref. Fluid
2
Neutral. No. Chg (Max) 0.20
NATO Symbol/interchangeable Ifyd. Fluid: H-515/none
Corr. Prot. (bare steel): 100 hr at 120°F, 100$ R.H. NR
Notes: MR, no requirements.

RT, room temperature.
Use: Auto, pilots, shock absorbers, brakes, flap controls, m issile servo, and other
systems using synthetic seals.
4-14
AMCP 706-123
MIL-H-6083C: HYDRAULIC FLUID, PETROLEUM BASE, FOR PRESERVATION AND TESTING
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: Red (Clear)

Flash point, °F (Min): 200
Viscosity, cSt: -65°F (Max) 3500
-40°F (Max) 800
130°F (Min) 10
Additives: Antiwear; $ wt 0.50
Oxidation Inhibitors, $ wt S 2.00
Corrosion Inhibitors, $ wt Allowed
Viscosity Improvers, % wt 10.0
Others No Pour Point Dep.
Neutralization No.: mg KOH/g (Max) 0.20
Precipitation No.: (Max) 0
Evaporation: 4 hr at 150° F NR
168 hr at 250°F, Aluminum Alloy +0.20
Max wt Chg, Magnesium ±0.20
mg/cm^ Cad.-Plate ±0.20
Copper +O.60
Pitting, Etch, or Corr. at 20X None
Vise. Chg at 130°F, /» -50 to +20
(Max Part/100 ml) 16-25 Microns 1,000
26-50 Microns 250
51-100 Microns 25
Over 100 Microns 5
Low Temp Stability: 72 hr at -65°F No Solids, nongel
Rubber Swell: Type "L" Vol Chg, j, 19-26.5
Foaming: (75°F) After 5.0 min blowing, ml (Max) 65
After 10.0 min settling, ml (Max) Complete collapse
Storage Stability: 75°F, months (Min) ±u\
Water Content:% (Max) 0.05
Recommended Temp Range °F: Air -65/160
NE
Specific Gravity:
Shear Stability: Vise Chg; cSt/l30°F (Max) r
15,000 pump cycle; Test 1 1
(30 min Sonic Oscil.) Vise Chg; cSt/-40°F (Max) \<L Ref. fluid, MIL-F-5602]
Neutral. No. Chg (Max) ^- +0,30 J
NATO Symbol/interchangeable Hyd. Fluid: C-635/See Note
Corr. Prot. (bare steel): 100 hr at 120°F, 100$ R.H. Trace

Not interchangeable with castor oil or nonpetroleum b ase oils.
Use: Preservative oil for ord. and aircraft systems, test or flush.
4-15
AMCP 706-123
MIS-10137: HYDRAULIC FLUID, PETROLEUM BASE, INTERMEDIATE VISCOSITY
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: Blue/Green
Viscosity, cSt: 0°F 50 +5.0
100°F 7.5 + 0.5
Additives: "jo wt; Antiwear (tricresyl phosphate) 0.5 + 0.1
Oxidation Inhibitor 5i 2.0
Viscosity Improvers s 10.0
Pour Point Depressant None
Others Approval Req'd
Max wt Chg, Magnesium Alloy +0.20
mg/cm2 Cad.-Plate ±0.20
Copper ±0.60
Pitting, Etch or Corr. at 20X None
i Vise Chg at 130°F -5 to +20
Increase in neutral No. (Max) 0.20
Insoluble Mat'l or Gumming None
Low Temperature Stability : 72 hr at -65°F No Solid, nongel
Rubber Swell: Type "L", j, Vol Chg 19-28
(Max Parts/lCO ml) 16-25 Microns 1,000
15 min Max filter
time 26-50 Microns 250
51-100 Microns 25
Over 100 Microns None
Weight of Residue: mg (Max) 0.30
Foaming: (75°F) after 5.0 min blowing, ml (Max) 65
after 10.0 min settling ml (Max) None
Water Content: % (Max) 0.015
Storage Stability: (70-120°F) month (Min) 12
NATO Symbol: None
Recommended Temperature Range, °F : Intermediate
Compatibility: None Recommended
Use: Guided missile (NIKE) hydraulic systems, moderate temperat ures.
4-16
AMCP 706-123
characteristics, and tricresyl phosphate for antiwear a. General characteristics: This specification cov-
properties. The liquid may also be prepared by blending ers a light duty, low viscosity oil with suitable additives
equal quantities of fluids on the qualified products list to meet specification requirements for low ambient
of MIL-H-5606 and MIL-H-46004. temperatures.
d. Uses: This hydraulic fluid is for guided missile b. Usable temperatures: This liquid is intended for
hydraulic systems such as the NIKE HERCULES use at ambient temperatures from -65° to 0°F.
Missile System at intermediate temperatures. c. Chemical composition: This liquid is a pe-
e. Limitations: This liquid shall contain no pour troleum base oil, or a synthetically prepared product,
point depressants, admixtures of resins, rubber, soaps, or combination thereof, with suitable additives to meet
gums, fatty oils, oxidized hydrocarbons or other addi- the requirements of this specification including foam-
tives unless specifically approved. It has a storage life ing, oxidation, ring stick and wear tests, as well as
of 12 months under normal conditions (-70° to viscosity range, flash, pour point, etc.
+ 120°F). d. Uses: This liquid is used for crankcase lubrica-
f. Custodian: U.S. Army Missile Command tion of reciprocating internal combustion engines at
Redstone Arsenal, Alabama 35809 very low ambient temperatures, and other applications
where a light duty nonoxidizing and nondeposit-form-
MIS-10150: HYDRAULIC FLUID, PETROLEUM ing oil is required.
BASE, LOW TEMPERATURE, COR- e. Limitations:Th\s liquid is not for high tempera-
ROSION PREVENTING ture or heavy duty applications. This liquid is to be
compatible with all engine oils previously qualified to
(NATO Symbol: None) this specification. It has good storage life when stored
a. General characteristics: This liquid is a pe- in closed containers at normal temperatures.
troleum base hydraulic fluid containing additives for f. Custodians: Army-MR
use in aircraft, missile, and ordnance hydraulic systems Navy-SH
in the low temperature range. It has a pour point of Air Force-11
-90°Fand a viscosity of 800 cSt at -65°F.
MIL-H-13866B(MR): HYDRAULIC FLUID, PETRO-
b. Usable temperatures: The operating tempera-
LEUM BASE, ARTILLERY
ture range is not specified, but the liquid is generally for
RECOIL, SPECIAL
very low temperature applications (to -90°F)and mod-
erate high temperatures (less than + 200°F). (NATO Symbol: None)
c. Chemical composition: The finished liquid is a a General characteristics: This hydraulic fluid is
clear and transparent petroleumbasefluid with polyme- one grade of special recoil hydraulic fluid for shock
ric additives to improve viscosity-temperature charac- load mechanisms. The liquid is clear and transparent
teristics, and other additives to inhibit oxidation and and is dyed green for identification purposes.
corrosion and to improve antiwear properties. b. Usable temperatures: The usable temperature
d. Uses: This hydraulic fluid is intended for use in range is not specified, but is generally limited to be-
automatic pilots, shock absorbers, brakes, flap-control tween -30° and +200°F.
mechanisms, missile hydraulic servo-controlled sys- c. Chemical composition: The finished liquid base
tems, and other hydraulic systems using synthetic seal- is a refined mineral oil-free from resin, soap, unrefined
ing materials. oils, and injurious ingredients which may affect the
e. Limitations: This hydraulic fluid is not for high proper function of the fluid. Viscosity index improvers,
temperature applications, and is not interchangeable oxidation inhibitors, and other additives-within de-
with any other hydraulic fluid except as specified in fined limits-may be added if needed to meet specifica-
equipment Technical Manuals. It has a normal storage tion requirements.
life of 12 months. d. Uses: This hydraulic fluid is primarily for ord-
f. Custodian: U.S. Army Missile Command nance equipment such as hydrosprings and hydro -
Redstone Arsenal, Alabama 35809 pneumatic artillery recoil mechanisms. It may also
(ERR MI-56001) be used in other fluid or force damping mechanisms.
e. Limitations: This hydraulic fluid is not suitable
MIL-L-10295A: LUBRICATING OIL, INTERNAL for extreme temperatures; the fluid, and any of its com-
COMBUSTION ENGINE, SUB-ZERO ponents, must not be subjected to temperatures above
300°F during blending or subsequent operation.
(NATO Symbol: None; Product Symbol: OES) f. Custodian: Army-MR
4-17
AMCP 706-123
MIS-10150: HYDRAULIC FLUID, PETROLEUM BASF, LOW TEMPERA TUB E, CORROSION PREVENTING
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: Clear and Transparent

Viscosity, cSt: -90°'F (Max)
-80°F (Max).
-65°F (Max) 800
-40 °F (Max) 200
130 °F (Min) 5
210 °F (Min) 2.5
Neutralization No. ag KOH/g (Max) 0.20
Additives: $ wt; Anti-wear (tricresyl phosphate) 0.5 + 0.]
Oxidation Inhibitor £ 2.0
Corrosion Inhibitor As Req'd and Approved
Viscosity Improver £ 10.0
Max wt Chg, Magnesium Alloy +0.20
mg/cm2 Cad.-Plate +0.20
Copper +0.60
<?o Vise Chg at 130"F -5 to +20
Increase in Neutral. No. (Max) 0.20
Shear Stability: Viscosity Chg at 130°F (Max) < Ref. Fluid
(30 min sonic oscil.) Viscosity Chg at -40°F (Max) < Ref. Fluid
s
Copper Strip. Corr.: 72 hr at 250°F (Max) Ho. 2 (ASTM)
Solid Particle Content: 5-15 Micron 2,500
(Max Parts/l00 ml) 16-25 Micron 1,000
26-50 Micron 250
51-100 Micron 25
Over 100 Micron None
Foaming: (75°F) after 5.0 min blowing; ml (Max) 65
after 10,0 min settling; ml (Max) None
Rubber Swell: Type "L", Vol Chg, $ 19-28
Water Content: $ (Max) 0.08
Storage Stability: (-80°to 120°F) Months (Min) 12
Recommended Temperature Range ( °F : Low Temperature
Compatibility Hyd Fluids:(Emergency Only) None
NATO Symbol: None
Corr. Inhib. (humidity): 20 hr at 72°F (bare steel) No Corrosion
Corrosivity (brass and steel): 10 days at 80°F No Corrosion
Wear (Steel): Shell 4-ball; (2 hr, 167°F,
40 kg 1,200 rpm) Scar Dia < 1.0
Notes: HR, no requirements.

--, no information.
Use: Auto-pilots, shock absorbers, brakes, flap-control mech. missile hyd. servo-control
and other systems using synthetic seals.
4-18
AMCP 706-123
MIL-L-10295A: LUBRICATING OIL, INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE, SUB-ZERO
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: NR
Specific Gravity: NR - Report
Stable Pour Point, °F (Max) : -65
Flash Point, °F (Min) : 290
Viscosity, cSt: -40°F(Min) 5.75
-210°F (Max) 8,500
Additives: Allowed
Effect of Additives: Increase in foam None
Homogeneity Range, °F -65 to +250
Storage Stability No Separation
Oxid. Characteristics: (ferrous and nonferrous
engine parts) No Corrosion
Ring Stick: 120 hr Engine Test Nonstick, Report mm Wear
200°F, after 5.0 min blowing, ml (Max) No limit
Repeat 75°F test Same as init. 75°F Test
Comp a tib i ii ty: All oils to Spec.
Water Content, % ; None
Suspended Matter, % ; None
Storage S* ability: NR
NATO Symbol: None
Recommended Ambient Temperature Range °F : -65 to 0

Use: Low temperature lub for crankcas of internal combustion engines. May be synthetic
4-19
AMCP 706-123
MIL-H-L3866B(MR): HYDRAULIC FLUID, PETROLEUM BASE, ARTILLEHi RECOIL, SPECIAL
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: Green (Clear)

Specific Gravity, 60/60, °F: 15
Pour/Cloud Points, °F (Max): -50/-40
Flash/Fire Points, °F (Min): 210/220
Viscosity, cSt: -40°F (Max) --
-30°F (Max) 4,400
100°F (Min) 55
210°F (Min) 15
Additives: Oxidation Inhibitors, $ wt Approval Req_'d
Corrosion Inhibitors, $ wt Approval Req'd
Viscosity Improvers, $ wt < 17.5
Others None
Precipitation No.: (Max) 0.05
Corr. and Oxid. Stability: Steel -0.20
168 hr at 212°F Copper -0.20
Max wt Chgt Pitting, Etch or Corr. at 20X None
mg/cm2 Viscosity Chg at 100°F, $ -5 to +20
Neutralization No. s 0.50
Precipitation No. g 0.05
Copper Strip Corr.: 3 hr at 212°F NR
Low Temperature Stability: 72 hr at -30°F Nongel, No. Sep.
Rubber Swell: Type "L", 168 hr at 70°F, $ Vol Chg a 25.0
Dielectric Strength; kv/imn (Min) 15.0
Shear Stab.: (Pump); 100°F, Cycles to reduce Vise. 25$ > Ref. Fluid*
Corr. Prot.; (bare steel): 200 hr at 77°F, 100$ R.H. NR
Salt Water Corr.; (bare steel): 20 hr at 77$ NR
Distillation: 10$ Evaporation; °F (Min) NR
50$ Evaporation; °F (Min) NR
Foaming: 75°F, after 5.0 min blowing; ml (Max) NR
75°F, after 10.0 min settling; ml (Max) NR
200°F, after 5.0 min blowing, ml (Max) HR
200°F, after 10.0 min settling, ml (Max) NR
Recommended Temperature Range, °F : —
Service Perf.: (Oil Gear M3), Oil Temperature °F (Max) NR
Water Content:

* R.I.A. Ref. Oil No. 1.
Use: Hydrosprings and bydropneumatic artillery recoil mecbani sms .
4-20
AMCP 706-123
MIL-H-13919B:HYDRAULICFLUID,PETROLEUM MIL-L-17331F(SHIPS)Amendmen tl.L UBRICA TING

BASE, FIRE-CONTROL OIL, STEAM TURBINE
(NONCORROSIVE)
(NATO Symbol: None) (NATO Symbol: 0-250; Military Symbol: 2190-TEP)
a. General characteristics: This hydraulic fluid is a a. General characteristics: This liquid is a pe-
rust inhibiting, petroleum base liquid, containing addi- troleum base steam turbine lubricating oil which may
tives, for use at ambient temperatures above 0°F. or may not contain additives. The liquid is noncorro-
ASTM color is Code No. 5 Max, bright in color and sive and has a work factor of 0.9 min.
free of haze. b. Usable temperatures: The operating tempera-
b. Usable temperatures: The operating temperature range is not specified, but general usage is between
ture range is not specified. + 20°F and 190°F with short duration elevated temper-
c. Chemical composition: The base liquid is a re- ature use to 250°F.
fined mineral oil, free of unrefined oils and other injuri- c. Chemical composition: This liquid is a
ous ingredients which may affect the proper function of homogeneous blend of virgin petroleum lubricating
the liquid. The finished liquid contains suitable rust- oil plus required additives to meet requirements of
inhibiting and other approved additives. the specification.
d. Uses:This liquid is a medium grade rust-inhibit- d. Uses: This liquid is a steam turbine lubricating
ing, ambient temperature, ordnance hydraulic fluid for oil for main turbines and gears, auxiliary turbine instal-
use in fire control systems, hydraulic variable speed lations, certain hydraulic equipment, general mechani-
gears, and in other hydraulic mechanisms where cal lubrication, and air compressors.
recommended. e. Limitations: The liquid has limited use as hy-
e. Limitations: This hydraulic fluid is not suitable draulic fluid and is not for low temperatures (minimum
for extreme temperature applications, below 0°F or recommended temperature is +20°F). It is compatible
above 200"F. It is not recommended or intended for use with reference oils furnished by the Government and
in aircraft. other oils to this specification.
f. Custodian: Army-MR f. Custodian: Navy-SH (Project 9150-N029Sh).
MIL-F-17111(NORD): FLUID, POWER TRANS- MIL-L-17672B: LUBRICATING OIL, HYDRAULIC

MISSION AND LIGHT TURBINE, NONCOR-
ROSIVE
(NATO Symbol: H-575)
a. General characteristics: This liquid is a pe- (NATO Symbol: H-573)
troleum base, power transmission fluid suitable for use a. General characteristics: This specification cov-
in Naval ordnance systems involving mechanical or ers a multiclass mineral base hydraulic oil containing
fibrous type filters or centrifugal purification. It shall anticorrosion and antioxidation additives:
be noncorrosive to bearings and hydraulic systems, and 1. Military Symbol 2075 T-H
shall not cause clogging of oil screens or valves. It has 2. Military Symbol 2110 T-H
an ASTM color of Code No. 2. 3. Military Symbol 2135 T-H
b. Usable temperatures: The operating tempera- b. Usable temperatures: The operating tempera-
ture range is not specified. ture range is not specified.
' c. Chemical composition: The finished liquid is a c. Chemical composition: This liquid is a blend of
petroleum base fluid plus an antiwear agent tricresyl virgin petroleum base oils and additives to meet re-
phosphate, and other approved additives which im- quirements of this specification; including oxidation,
prove the compounded fluid with respect to viscosity- corrosion, foam and emulsion tests in addition to vis-
temperature and lubricating properties, resistance to cosity range, flash, pour point, etc.
oxidation, and corrosion protection. d. Uses: This liquid is for steam turbines, hydraulic
d. Uses: This liquid is intended for use in connec- systems, water turbines, water-wheel type generators,
tion with the hydraulic transmission of power, particu- hydraulic-turbine governors, and other applications
larly in Naval ordnance hydraulic equipment. where a high grade lubricating oil having anticorrosion
e. Limitations: Not for high temperature applica- and antioxidation properties is required.
tions since the fluid is flammable. e. Limitations: There are no storage life require-
f. Custodian: Air Force-11 ments, but the liquid has good storage properties if
4-21
AMCP 706-1 23
MIL-H-1391f-B: HYDRAULIC FLUID, PETROLEUM BASE, FIRE CONTROL
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: No. 5 (ASTM)

Specific Gravity, 60/60, °F: HR
Pour/Cloud Points, °F (Max): -50/NR
Flash/Fire Points, °F (Min): 225/NR
-30°F (Max) NR
100°F (Min) 38
210°F (Min) 10
Additives: Oxidation Inhibitors, % wt Approval Req'd
Corrosion Inhibitors, % wt Approval Req'd
Viscosity Improvers, % wt Approval Req'd
Others None
Neutralization No.: mg KOH/g (Max) NR
Precipitation No,: (Max) 0.05
Corr. and Oxid. Stability: Steel -0.20
168 hr at 212°F Copper -0.20
Max wt Chg, Pitting, Etch or Corr. at 20X Slight Etch
mg/cm2 Viscosity Chg at 100°F, % -5 to +20
Neutralization No. +0.50
Precipitation No. £ 0.05
Copper Strip Corr.: 3 hr at 212°F No Etch or Pit
Low Temperature Stability: 72 hr at -30°F Nongel, No Sep.
Rubber Swell: Type "L", 168 hr at 70°F, % Vol Chg S 25.0
Dielectric Strength: kV/mm (Min) NR
Shear Stab.: (Pump); 100°F, Cycles to reduce Vise. 25$ > Ref. Fluid*
Corr. Prot.; (bare steel): 200 hr at 77°F, 100$ R.H. Slight Trace
Salt Water Corr.; (bare steel); 20 hr at 77$ Slight Trace
Distillation: 10$ Evaporation; °F (Min) 490
50$ Evaporation; °F (Min) 575
Foaming: 75°F, after 5.0 min blowing; ml (Max) No limit
75°F, after 10.0 min settling; ml (Max) £ 100
200°F, after 5.0 min blowing ml (Max) No limit
Recommended Temperature Range, °F: Ambient > 0
Service Perf.: (Oil Gear M3), Oil Temperature °F (Max) ä 205
Water Content: None

* R.I.A. Ref. Oil No. 1.
Use: Fire-control hydraulic variable speed gears and other mec nanisms. Rust inhibiting.
Not for aircraft.
4-22
AMCP 706-123
MIL-F-17111 (NORD): FLUID, POWER TRAIISMISSION
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: No. 2 (ASTM)

Pour Point, °F, (Max): -40
Flash/Fire Points, °F (Min): 220/235
0°F (Max) 215
100°F (Min) 27
210°F (Min) 10
Additives: Antiwear; $ wt Approval Req'd
Oxidation Inhibitor, % wt Approval Req'd
Corrosion Inhibitor, % wt A.pproval Req'd
Viscosity Improver, % wt Approval Req'd
Tricresyl Phosphate, ^ wt 1.0 ± 0.1
Precipitation No.: 0.05
Water Content: $ (Max) None
Rust Prevention: (bare steel), 24 hr at 140°F No Visual Evidence
Corr. and Oxid. Stability: copper wt loss; mg/cm s 0.20
336 hr at 220°F $ Vise Chg; 210°F 0 to +25
Fluid and water j> Vise Chg; 0°F 0 to +25
Neutralization No. (Max) 0.50
Oil-Insoluble Residue; $ wt
(Max) 0.50
Color; (ASTM) (Max) No. 5
Copper Wire Oxid.: <jo Vise Chg; 210°F 0 to +15
72 hr at 200°F % Vise Chg; 0°F 0 to +15
Fluid and Water Neutralization No. (Max) ä 0.50
Shear Stability: $> Vise Chg at 210°F (Max) -25
5,000 cycle pump Fluid Condition No Separation or Sludge
100°F and 1,000 psi Neutralization Ho. (Max) 0.50
Wear-Gear Pump: Wt Loss/Pump Gear, g 0.20 (Max)
(100 hr, 100°F, 1,000 psi) Wt Loss/Bronze Bushing, g 0.04 (Max)
Wt Loss/4 Bronze Bushings, g 0.08 (Max)
Evaporation: 72 hr at 190°F; Vise; 210°F, cSt 3,000 (Max)
Water Sludging: 24 hr at 100°F; f Vise Chg at 100°F -2 to +10
NATO Symbol: H-575
Recommended Temperature Range , °F: NR
Foaming: NR
Storage Stability: NR

Use: Fluid for hydraulic transmission of power, particularly in Naval Ord. Hyd. equipment.
4-23
AMCP 706-123
MIL-L-17331F(SHIPS) AMENDMENT 1: LUBRICATING OIL, STEAM TURBINE (N0NC0RR0SIVE)
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: NR - Record
Specific Gravity: NR - Record
Pour Point, °F (Max): 20
Flash Point, °F (Max): 350
Viscosity, cSt: 100°F 82-110
210°F (Min) 8.2
Mineral Acidity: Neutral
Additives: Allowed (nonchlorine)
Corr. Prot.: (bare steel) salt spray (fog); 48 hr at 95°F No Corrosion
Copper strip corr: 3 hr at 212°F Slight Tarnish
Oxid. Test: (l,000 hr at 95°F): Neutralization No. (Min) 2.0
Iron-Copper Cat., Insoluble Sludge, rag (Max) 100
air and water Copper or. iron in oil; mg (Max) 100
Work Factor: (Min) 0.9 (No deposit)
Water Content: None
Ash (sulphated residue): NR - Record
Carbon Residue: NR - Record
Compatibility : Ref. Oils
Homogeneity Temperature Range, "F: 30 to 250
Foaming: 75°F, after 5.0 mm blowing, ml (Max) No limit
Repeat 75 °F Test Same as init. 75°F Test
Emulsion: 130°F, settling time; min (Max) 30
Load Carrying Ability: (Ryder Gear Machine); P.P.I. (Min) 2,200
Wear: (2 hr 175°F, 600 rpm, 15 kg); Scar. Dia mm (Max) 0.45
Contamination: (325 Mesh); mg/gal; (Max) 10.0
6.0 ml fiber/gal (Max) 1.0
NATO Symbol: 0-250
Military Symbol: 2190-TEP
Recommended Temperature Range, °F:

--, no information.
Use: Steam turbine and gears, hyd. equipment, general mechanic al lub., and air compressors.
4-24
AMCP 706-123
MIL-L-17672B: LUBRICATING OIL, HYDRAULIC AND LIGHT TURBINE, NONCORROSIVE
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: NE
Pour Point, °F (Max): MIL-Symbol 2075 T-H -20
MIL-Symbol 2110 T-H -10
MIL-Symbol 2135 T-H 0
Flash Point, °F (Min): MIL-Symbol 2075 T-H 315
Viscosity, cSt: 0°F, MIL-Symbol 2075 T-H 1,200 (Max)
0°F, MIL-Symbol 2110 T-H 2,400 (Max)
10°F, MIL-Symbol 2135 T-H 2,800 (Max)
210°F, MIL-Symbol 2075 T-H 4.3-5.3
210°F, MIL-Symbol 2110 T-H 5.3-6.7
210°E MIL-Symbol 2135 T-H 6.7-7.7
Neutralization No.: mg K0H/g (Max) 0.20
Neutrality, Qualitative:• Neutral
Copper Strip: 3 hr at 212°F (Max) No. 1 (ASTM)
Rust Preventative: 24 hr at 140°F No Corrosion
Water Content: $ (Max) None
Ash, Sulfated Residue :<f> (Max) NR - Report
Additives: Allowed
Homogeneity Temperature Range, °F: MIL-Symbol 2075 T-H -20 to 250
MIL-Symbol 2110 T-H -10 to 250
MIL-Symbol 2135 T-H 0 to 250
Emulsion: 130°F, 30 min settling, Max Cuff, ml 3.00
200 °F, after 10.0 min settling, ml (Max) 25
Oxid. Test: Time to reach Neut. No. 2.0 mg KDH; hr (Max) 1,000
Contamination: (325 Mesh); mg/gal (Max) 10.0
6.0 ml fibers/gal (Max) 1.0
NATO Symbol: H-573
Storage Stability: —
Recommended Temperature Range, °F: —
Compatibility: Ref. and Spec, oils

Use: Mineral oil and additives for steam turbines, hyd. systems, water turbines and other
systems, anticorrosion and antioxidant additives are requ ired.
4-25
AMCP 706-123
stored in closed containers at normal temperatures. It d. Uses: This liquid is used for low temperature
shall be compatible with other reference oils furnished hydraulic systems such as missile hydraulic systems,
by the Government. Compatibility is determined by automatic pilots, shock struts and other hydraulic sys-
mixing equal portions of specification oil and reference tems using synthetic sealing material.
oil, and passing requirements of this specification, e. Limitations: This liquid is not for high tempera-
f. Custodians: Army-GL ture conditions. It is not interchangeable with Hydrau-
Navy-SH lic Fluid, Castor Oil Base, Specification MIL-H-7644
Air Force-11 (blue color) nor Hydraulic Fluid, Petroleum Base,
Specification MIL-H-5606B.
MIL-L-21260A: LUBRICATING OIL, INTERNAL f. Custodian: Air Force - WADC, WCRTR-1
COMBUSTION ENGINE, PRE- (Preliminary Spec: Non-release)
SERVATIVE Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,
Ohio 45433
(NATO Symbol: None)
ers three viscosity grade preservative lubricating oils MIL-H-27601A(USAF): HYDRAULIC FLUID, PE-
used as lubricants in spark-ignition and compression- TROLEUM BASE, HIGH
ignition types of reciprocating internal combus- TEMPERATURE, FLIGHT
tion engines. VEHICLE
ture ranges are not specified.
(NATO Symbol: None)
c. Chemical composition: The finished oil may be
a. General characteristics: This hydraulic fluid is a
a petroleum base of a synthetically prepared product,
petroleum or synthetic hydrocarbon base fluid contain-
or a combination thereof, with or without additives.
ing specified additives. The finished fluid has good
However, no re-refined components are permitted.
thermal and electrical properties and a viscosity index
d. Uses: The oil is a crankcase oil for diesel or
of 89 (min).
spark-ignition type internal combustion engines. Al-
though intended principally as a static preservative,
ture range is -40° to 550°F.
this oil may be used as an operating lubricant for short
c. Chemical composition: This liquid is a pe-
periods, and for some hydraulic equipment. It is com-
troleum or synthetic hydrocarbon base fluid with speci-
patible with other fluids to this specification and MIL-
fied amounts of hindered bisphenol oxidation inhibitor
L-2104.
and tricresyl phosphate antiwear additives.
e. Limitations: This oil is not for low temperature
d. Uses:This fluid can be used in high temperature
usage and not generally for gear box applications.
hydraulic systems, principally for flight vehicles.
Navy-SH e. Limitations: The fluid is not suitable or recom-
Air Force-11 mended for extreme low temperature operation. Also,
this fluid is not compatible with any other hydraulic
MIL-F-25598(USAF): OIL, HYDRAULIC, MISSILE, fluids except those meeting this specification.
PETROLEUM BASE f. Custodian: Air Force-11
(NATO Symbol: None)
MIL-L-45199A: LUBRICATING OIL, INTERNAL
ers a low viscosity hydraulic oil for light or medium
duty applications at low temperatures. It has a pour COMBUSTION ENGINE, HIGH
point of-90°Fand a viscosity of 600 cSt at -65°F.It is OUTPUT DIESEL
dyed purple for identification purposes. (NATO Symbol: None)
b. Usable temperatures: No specified requirement a. General characteristics: This specification cov-
but intended for temperatures -65°F to + 200°F. ers a multi-grade heavy duty crankcase engine oil with
c. Chemical composition: This liquid is a pe- a pour point as low as-20°F.
troleum base oil containing approved additives to meet b. Usable temperatures: The operating tempera-
specification requirements for oxidation, corrosion and ture range is not specified.
wear (tricresyl phosphate, 0.5 percent by weight, an- c. Chemical composition: This liquid is a pe-
tiwear agent). No pour point depressant shall be used. troleum base oil or synthetically prepared product, or
4-26
AMCP 706-123
MIL-L-21260A: LUBRICATING OIL, INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE, PRESERVATIVE
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: NR
Grade 2 0
Grade 3 +15
Stable Pour Point, °F (Max): Grade 1 only -20
Grade 2 390
Grade 3 400
Viscosity, cSl: Grade 1 2,614/5.44-7.29
(Vise, 0°F (Max)/ Grade 2 43,570/9.65-12.98
Vise, 210°F) Grade 3 NR/16.83-22.75
Viscosity Index: Grade 3 only 75
Volatile Matter: (4 hr steam bath); % wt 2.0
Additives: Allowed
Corr. Prot.: 200 hr, high-humidity; % Corr. Trace Only
(Bare Steel, 77°F) salt water dip, 20 hr dry; % Corr. Trace Only
Acid Ileut.: 77 °F, acid sol. dip, 4 hr in oil; $ Corr. No Corrosion
Oxid. Characteristics: (ferrous and nonferrous engine
parts) Noncorrosive
Compatibility: MIL- L- 2104
75°F, Repeat 75°F Test Same as init. 75° Test
Water Content: $ _„
NATO Symbol: None
Recommended Temperature Range, °F : --
--, no information.
Use: Light, medium, and heavy preservative lub and preservative oil for reciprocating
internal combustion engines.
4-27
AMCP 706-123
,MIL-F-25598(USAF): OIL, HYDRAULIC, MISSILE, PETROLEUM BASE
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: Purple (Clear and Transparent)

-50°F (Max) 240
-40°F (Max) 140
0°F (Max) 28
130 °F (Min) 2.6
160°F (Min) 2.0
210 °F (Min) 1.25
Precipitation No. : 0
Additives; $ wt: Antiwear (tricresyl phosphate) (Max) 0.05 ± 0.1
Oxidation Inhibitor (Max) < 2.0
Corrosion Inhibitor (Max) As Req'd
Viscosity Improvers (Max) None
■ Others No Four Point Dep.
Corr. and Oxid. Stability: Steel + 0.20
168 hr at 250°F Aluminum ALloy ± 0.20
Max wt Chg, mg/cm2 Magnesium Alloy + 0.20
Cad.-Plate + 0.20
Copper + 0.60
Pitting, Etch and Corr. at 20X None (slight stain)
$ Vise Chg at 130°F -5 to +20
Low Temperature Stability: 72 hr at -65°F No solids, nongel .
Rubber Swell: Type "L", Vol, <f, 19 - 26.5 \
Evaporation: 4 hr at 150°F Oily, nontacky |
Copper Strip. Corr.: 72 hr at 212°F No Corrosion (slight stain)
Corr. Prot.: Steel, 100 hr, 120°F, 100$ R.H. Trace of Corrosion 1
Solids: 250 cc, 0.047 mm filter; Max Part Size 30 micron
Water Content: $ 0.005
Recommended Temperature Range, °F : --
NATO Symbol: None
Compatibility: Not Interchangeable

--, no information.
Use: Missile hyd. systems using synthetic material.
4-28
AMCP 706-123
MIL-H-27601A(USAF): HYDRAULIC FLUID, PETROLEUM BASE, HIGH TKMPERATURE, FLIGHT VEHICLE
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: NR
Pour Point, °F (Max) : -65
Flash Point, °F (Min) : 360
Viscosity, cSt: -65°F Report
-40°F (Max) 4,000
0°F (Max) 385
210°F (Min) 3.2
550°F (Min) Report
Viscosity Index: (Min) 89
Additives, $ wt: Antiwear (tricresyl phosphate) (Jfex) 1.0
Oxidation Inhibitors (bis-phenol) 0.45 - 1.0
Others Approval Reqjd
Corr. and Oxid. Stability: Copper 0.60
48 hr at 347°F Type 350 St. Steel 0.20
Max vt Chg , Type 355 St. Steel 0.20
mg/cm2 Type 440 St. Steel 0.20
Silver 0.20
% Vise. Chg. at 100°F -5 to +20
Neutralization No. (Max) 2.0
Insoluble Mat'l <f> vt (Max) 0.1
Thermal Stability: M-10 Tool Steel 0.10
6 hr at 700°F, 52100 Steel 0.10
20 psig Nitrogen Naval Bronze 0.10
atmosphere, *f> Vise Chg at 100°F (Max) 25
Neutral. No. (Max) 0.40
Rubber Swell (Syn): Viton A or B; 72 hr at 400°F, <f, Vol. +10.0 (Max)
Lubricity; (Shell 4-Ball Tester): 1 kg load 0.21
1.0 hr at 600 rpm, 167°F, 10 kg load 0.30
52100 Steel Max Scar Dia mm 40 kg load 0.65
Solid Particles: Time to filter 100 ml, min (Max) 10.0
(0.45 Micron filter) Max Particle on filter (Micron) 100.0
Compatibility: All fluids to this Spec.
Foaming: 75°F, after 5.0 min blowing, ml (Max) 75
75°F, after 3.0 min settling, ml (Max) None
200°F after 5.0 min blowing, ml (Max) 75
200°F after 3.0 min settling, ml (Max) None
Repeat 75°F Test Same as init. 75° Test
Water Content: <f> (Max) 0.10
Trace Sediment: <f> Vol (Max) 0.025
Dielectric Strength: (volt/mil), 68°F; (Min) 300
Specific Heat:(Btu/lb °F) at 200°F (Min) 0.484
Thermal Cond.: (Btu/(ft2)(hr)( °F)/ft at 400°F (Min) 0.063
Thermal Expansion/°F: at 400°F (Max) 0.00060
Bulk Mod.: (isothermal secant, 0-104 psi, 100°F), psi > 200,000
Recommended Temperature Range, °F: -40 to +550

Use: Hyd. Systems of flight vehicles.
4-29
AMCP 706-123
MIL-L-45199A: LUBRICATING OIL, INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE, HIGH OUTPUT DIESEL
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: NR
Grade 30 0
Grade 50 NP
Stable Pour Point, °F (Max): Grade 10 (only) -20
Grade 30 390
Grade 50 NP
Viscosity, cSt: 0°F; Grade 10 (Max) 2,614
O°F; Grade 30 (Max) 43,570
O°F; Grade 50 (Max) NP
210°F; Grade 10 5.44-7.29
210°F; Grade 30 9.65-12.98
210°F; Grade 50 NP
Additives: Allowed (No rerefined)
Oxid. Characteristics (ferrous and nonferrous engine
parts) No Corrosion
Low Temperature Deposit: 180 hr low temp cycle NR
Ring Stick: 120 hr engine test No Stick, Min. Wear
Light-load deposit accumulation: 120 hr engine test NR
Foaming: 75°F, after 5.0 min blowing, ml (Max) No Limit
200°F after 5.0 min blowing, ml (Max) No Limit
200°F after 10.0 min settling, ml (Max) 25
Oil Additive Stability: No Additive Instability
Storage Stability:
Compatibility: All Oils to Spec.
Recommended Temperature Range, °F: Above -20
NATO Symbol: None

NP, no product.
Use: Crankcase lub of high output diesels where temperature is above -20°F. May be
synthetic base.
4-30
AMCP 706-123
combination thereof, with additive materials (deter- b. Usable temperatures: The operating tempera-
gents, dispersants, oxidation inhibitors, etc.) necessary ture range is not specified, but the oil or oil-water va-
to meet the requirements of this specification. No re- pors shall be capable of protecting parts from corrosion
refined components are allowed. throughout a temperature range of +40° to +130T.
d. Uses: This liquid is for crankcase lubrication of c. Chemical composition: This oil is a volatile cor-
high output supercharged and unsupercharged diesel rosion inhibited, petroleum base oil containing addi-
engines under all conditions of service at ambient tem- tives necessary to meet specification requirements. The
peratures above-20°F. oil shall contain no ingredients injurious to personnel
e. Limitations: This liquid is not for use at low using reasonable safety precautions and must be free
temperature conditions. It is compatible with all oils from disagreeable or offensive odors.
qualified to this specification. d. Uses: This oil is intended for use in the preserva-
f. Custodians: Army-MR tion of enclosed systems where the volatile components
Navy-SH will provide protection above the oil level. It is also
Air Force-67 effective as a contact preservative.
e. Limitations: The oil is not intended for use as an
MIL-H-46001A.HYDRA ULIC FL UID, PETR OLEUM operational preservative oil and should not be used in
BASE, FOR MACHINE TOOLS, applications where magnesium, cadmium-plated or
TYPES I, II, III, AND IV rubber components are present. Generally, it should
not be mixed with other oils to same specification due
(NATO Symbol: None)
a. General characteristics: This liquid is a multi- to wide product tolerances.
f. Custodian: Army-MR
grade refined petroleum hydrocarbon hydraulic fluid
containing additives. It has a viscosity range of 30 to
121 cSt at 100°F, and a minimum viscosity index of 80.
b. Usable temperatures: The operating tempera- MIL-H-46004(ORD):HYDRAULIC FLUID, PETRO-
ture range is not specified, but ambient temperatures LEUM BASE, MISSILE
should be above + 20°F.
(NATO Symbol: None)
c. Chemical composition: The finished liquid shall
be a petroleum base fluid containing additives neces-
ers a low viscosity liquid containing approved additives
sary to meet the requirements of this specification-i.e.,
for low temperature missile applications. It has a vis-
oxidation, corrosion, foam, flash, etc.
cosity of 300 cSt at-65°F and a pour point of-75°F. The
d. Uses: This liquid is primarily for use in hydrau-
liquid is dyed yellow for identification purposes.
lic systems of metalworking machine tools. The selec-
tion of the particular type of liquid is based on fluid
ture range is not specified.
viscosity recommendations of machine tool manufac-
c. Chemical composition: This liquid is a refined
turers. The finished liquid shall be compatible with
petroleum base liquid with additives to improve oxida-
other liquids meeting this specification.
tion resistance and wear (tricresyl phosphate, 0.5 -■+ 0.1
e. Limitations: This liquid is not suitable for low
percent by weight as the antiwear agent). The finished
temperatures, and ambient temperatures should be
product shall contain no pour point depressants, vis-
above + 20°F.
cosity index improvers, admixtures of resins, rubber,
soaps, gums, fatty oils, oxidized hydrocarbons, nor
Navy-SA
other additives not specifically approved.
Air Force-11
d. Uses: This liquid is designed for use in missile
hydraulic systems applications at ambient tempera-
MIL-L-46002(ORD): LUBRICATING OIL, CON-
tures below 20°F.
TACT AND VOLA TILE, COR -
ROSION INHIBITED e. Limitations:Th\s liquid is not for high tempera-
ture or high load applications. It is not interchangeable
(NATO Symbol: None) with Hydraulic Fluid, Castor Oil Base (blue color),
a. General characteristics: This oil is a dual grade Specification MIL-H-7844. This liquid shall not be
volatile corrosion inhibited lubricating oil for preserva- mixed with, but may be substituted for, Hydraulic
tion of material in enclosed systems. Light and medium Fluid, Petroleum Base, Specification MIL-H-5606B,
viscosity oils are available with pour points of-50°F for low temperature operation.
and -10°F. f. Custodian: Army-MR
4-31
AMCP 706-123
MIL-H-4S001A: HYDRAULIC FLUID, PETROLEUM BASE, FOR MACHINE TOOLS, TYPES I, II, III, AND IV
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: NR
Pour Point , CF (Max) : Type I +10
Type II +10
Type III +10
Type IV +20
Flash Point , °F (Min) : Type I • 325
Type II 325
Type III 350
Type IV 375
Viscosity, cSt: 100°F Type I 30-37
Type II 42-52
Type III 62-70
Type IV 106-121
Viscosity Index: (Min) 80
Additives: Approval Req'd
Oxidation Stability: Bare Steel Strip 0.20
168 hr at 212°F Copper Strip 0.20
Max wt Chg, Pitting, Etch and Corr. at 20X None
mg/cm2 $ Vise. Chg at 100°F (Max) 25.0
Neutral. No. Chg (Max) +0.15
Precipitation No. (Max) 0.05
Compatibility: All Fluids to This Spec.
Water Content: None
Repeat 75°F test Same as init. 75°F 1 est
Emulsion: After 30 min settling; foam or cuff (Max) 3.0 ml
(Oil and Water, 130°F, 5.0 min stir, 30 min settling) Trace
Copper Corr.: 168 hr at 212°F No Pit or Etch
Rust Prevention: (bare steel), 24 hr at 130°F None
Recommended Temperature Range , c F ; NR
NATO Symbol: None
Use: Hydraulic systems of metal working machine tools.
4-32
AMCP 706-123
MIL-L-46002(ORD): LUBRICATING OIL, CONTACT AND VOLATILE, CORROSION INHIBITED
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: NR
Grade 2 -10
Grade 2 250
Viscosity, cSt: -40°F (Max) Grade 1 10,000
-40°F (Max) Grade 2 NR
100°F (Min) Grade 1 12
100°F (Min) Grade 2 95 to 125
210°F Grade 1 NR
210°F Grade 2 9.65 to 12.98
Precipitation No.: ml/10 ml (Max) 0.05
Hydrocarbon Solubility: 24 hr at 77°F No Separation
Corrosive Protection: Humidity Cabinet, 300 hr at 12C°F No Corrosion
Vapor Phase; 6 hr at 40°F
and 18 hr at 130°F No Corrosion
Vapor Phase Prot. after exhaustion;
6 hr at 210°F No Corrosion
Acid Neut.: 77°Fj acid sol. dip, 4 hr in oil; $ Corr. No Corrosion
Water Displacement/Stability: 1.0 hr at 77°F No Corrosion
Corrosion Immersion: Aluminum 0.20
7 days at 130°F Steel 0.50
Max wt Chg; mg/cm Copper 1.50
Evaporation: $ wt Volatile matter (Max), Grade 1 15.0
(210°F) $ wt Volatile matter (Max), Grade 2 5.0
i Vise, Chg at 100°F, Grade 1 -5 to +20
# Vise, Chg at 100°F, Grade 2 -5 to +20
NATO Symbol: None
Recommended Temperature Range , °F : Up to 130

Use: Preservative oil for closed syster.s, both as vapor and contact lub. Not recommended
as an operational oil.
4-33
AMCP 706-123
MIL-H-46004(0RD): HYDRAULIC FLUID, PETROLEUM BASE, MISSILE
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: Yellow (Clear and Transparent)

Specific Gravity: Report
-40°F (Max) 75
100°F (Min) 2.8
Neutralization Ho.: mg KOH/g (Max) 0.20
Additives: Antiwear (tricresyl phosphate), $ wt 0.5 io.i
Oxid Inhibitors, jo wt s 2.0
Pour Point Depressant, % wt None
Viscosity Improvers, $ wt Hone
Others Approval Req'd
Precipitation Wo.: 0
Water Content, $ (Max): 0.015
Corr. and Oxid.Stability: Steel ±0.20
Max wt Chg, mg/cm Magnesium Alloy ±0.20
Cad.-Plate ±0.20
Copper ±0.60
Pitting, Etch and Corr at 20X None
•f, Vise Chg at 100° F -5 to +20
Insoluble Mat'l or Gumming;
% wt None
Copper Corr: 72 hr at 212°F Slight Stain; no Pits
Rubber Swell: Type "L," Vol Chg; jo 19-26.5
(Max Parts/100 ml) 16-25 Microns 1,000
26-50 Microns 250
51-100 Microns 25
Over 100 Microns 2
Corrosivity: brass-steel, 10 days, 75°F, 50$ R.H. No Corrosion
Recommended Temperature Range, °F: < 20
NATO Symbol: None
Water Stability: 1 hr at 77°F, 50$ R.H. —
Humidity Cabinet: 8 days, 50$ R.H. —
Machine Gun Test: -75°F, 25 Rounds —
Notes: ~
Use: Guided missile hyd. systems at low temperature. Sul3stitute for MIL-H-5606B.
4-34
AMCP 706-123
MIL-H-81019(WEP):HYDRA ULICFLUID, PETRO- e. Limitations: Material qualified under MIL-H-

LEUM BASE, ULTRA - LOW 19457B(SHIPS) has a low ortho isomer content in or-
TEMPERATURE der to pass the specification toxicity requirements. The
Bureau of Medicine and Surgery has approved the ship-
(NATO Symbol: None) board use of these qualified products as a result of
a. General characteristics:This liquid is a very low
careful consideration by a committee of competent tox-
temperature, petroleum base, hydraulic fluid contain-
icologists. Containers must be properly marked with
ing specified additives. The fluid has a-90°F pour point warning labels as required by the specification.
and 12-month storage life. f. Custodian: Navy-SH
b. Usable temperature: The operating temperature
range is-90° to +210T.
c. Chemical composition: This liquid has a pe- MIL-H-8446B: HYDRAULIC FLUID, NONPETRO-
troleum base, is clear and transparent, and contains LEUM BASE, AIRCRAFT
additives to improve viscosity-temperature characteris-
tics, oxidation resistance, and antiwear properties. (NATO Symbol: None)
d. Uses: Automatic pilots, shock absorbers, air- a. General characteristics: This oil is a wide tem-
craft brakes, flap-control mechanisms, missile hydrau- perature range, nonpetroleum base, hydraulic fluid that
lic servo-controlled systems, aircraft and ordnance hy- has good oxidation stability and antiwear properties.
draulic systems, and other hydraulic systems using b. Usable temperatures: The specified operating
synthetic sealing materials. temperature range is -65° to +400°F (Type III aircraft
e. Limitations: This fluid is not compatible with hydraulic systems).
any type or grade of hydraulic fluid other than MIL-H- c. Chemical composition: This liquid is a nonpe-
5606B which is to be substituted only in emergencies. troleum synthetic base oil with additives to impart oxi-
f. Custodians: Navy-WP dation stability, antiwear properties, and viscosity-tem-
Air Force-11 perature characteristics necessary to meet the
requirements of this specification. Certain disiloxanes
MIL-H-19457B(SHIPS):HYDRA ULIC FL UID, FIRE
containing additives are satisfactory for the rubber
RESISTANT
swell requirements.
(Type I - Low Viscosity; NATO Symbol, H-580) d. Uses: This hydraulic fluid is intended for use in
(Type II - High Viscosity) high-temperature aircraft hydraulic systems (Type III
a. General characteristics: These liquids are two- aircraft hydraulic system as defined in Specification
viscosity grades of nonpetroleum base fire resistant hy- MIL-H-5440), and other systems where a high quality
draulic fluids for high pressure hydraulic systems and hydraulic fluid is required.
air compressors. e. Limitations: The fluid has good storage life and
b. Usable temperatures: The operating tempera- has satisfactory rubber swell properties for type "S"
ture range is not specified, but the liquid is intended for synthetic rubber. It is compatible with other hydraulic
low ambient temperatures (above 25°F for Type I and fluids to this specification, but not interchangeable
above 40°F for Type II), and for moderate high temper- with any others. The toxicity characteristics must
atures to roughly 200T. The minimum compression be furnished.
combustion ratio is 42.0. f. Custodians: Army-MR
c. Chemical composition: These oils are stable Navy-WP
homogeneous fluids of phosphoric acid base and such Air Force-11
other ingredients as are required for conformance with
this specification. They shall contain 10 ppm by weight
MIL-L-6085A: L UBRICA TING OIL; INSTR UMENT,
of Petrol Green D dye for identification.
AIRCRAFT, LOW VOLATILITY
d. Uses: These oils are fire-resistant fluids for hy-
draulic systems at moderate temperature ranges, and
also for use in air compressors. They may be used as (NATO Symbol: None)
lubricants for angular contact ball bearings and should a. General characteristics: This oil is a low
provide at least 50 percent as good a bearing life as volatility, nonpetroleum base lubricating oil with wide
Lubricating Oil, Military Symbol 2110H (MIL-L- temperature, corrosion, and oxidation properties.
15017). They are compatible with butyl rubber seals b. Usable temperatures: The operating tempera-
and packing. ture range is not specified.
4-35
AMCP 706-123
MIL-H-81019(WEP): HYDRAULIC FLUID, PETROLEUM BASE, ULTRA-LOW TEMPERATURE
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: Clear and Transparent

-80°F (Max) 2,500
-65°F (Max) 800
-40°F (Max) 200
130 °F (Min) 5
210°F (Min) 2.5
Additives: Antiwear (tricresyl phosphate) , % wt 0.50 i 0.1
Oxidation Inhibitor, % wt S 2.0
Corrosion Inhibitor , % wt As Req'd
Viscosity Improver , % wt S 10.0
Corr. and Oxid. Stability: Steel ± 0.20
168 hr at 250°F Aluminum Alloy ± 0.20
Max wt Chg, Magnesium Alloy * 0.20
mg/cm2 C ad.-PIate * 0.20
Copper * 0.60
# Vise Chg at 130°F -5 to +20
Increase in Neutral. No. (Max) 0.20
Shear Stability: vise. Chg at 130°F (Max) < Ref. Fluid
(30 min sonic oscil.) vise. Chg at -40°F (Max) < Ref. Fluid
Neutral. No. Chg (Max) £ + 0.20
Evaporation: 4 hr at 150°F Oily nontacky
Copper Strip. Corr.: 72 hr at 250°F (Max) No. 2 (ASTM)
Solid Particle Content: 5-15 Micron 2,500
(Max Parts/100 ml) 16-25 Micron 1,000
26-50 Micron 250
51-100 Micron 25
Over 100 Micron None
Foaming: (75°F); after 5.0 min blowing; ml (Max) 65
after 10.0 min settling; ml (Max) None
Rubber Swell: Type "L", Vol Chg, $ 19-28
Water Content: $ (Max) 0.01
Storage Stability:(-80° to 120°F) Months; (Min) 12
Recommended Temperature Range, °F: -90 to +210
Compatible Ryd Fluids; (Emergency Only) MIL-H-5606B
NATO Symbol: None
Corr. Inhib. (humidity): 20 hr at 72°F'(t>are steel) --
Corrosivity (brass and steel): 10 days at 80°F --
Wear (Steel) : Shell 4-Ball; (2 hr 167°F,
40 kg, 1,200 rpm); Scar Dia —
Notes : NR, no requirements.
Use: Auto-pilots, shock absorbers, brakes, flap-control mech., mis sie hyd. servo-control
and other systems using synthetic seals.
4-36
AMCP 706-123
MIL-H-19457B(SHIPS): HYDRAULIC FLUID, FIRE RESISTANT
Type I Type II
PROPERTIES Low Viscosity High Viscosity
Color: Green Green

Pour Point, °F (Max) : 0 25
Viscosity, cSt: 100°F 43-50 125-135
210° F (Min) 4.8 6.3
Neutrality (Qualitative): Methyl Orange Neutral (Yellow) Neutral (Yellow)
Neutralization No. (Acid): mg KOH/g (Max) 0.10 0.10
Evaporation: 22 hr at 210°F, $ wt Loss (Max) 0.30 0.30
Foaming Tendency: at 75°F No Limit No Limit
Foam Stability: 10 min after collapse, ml foam (Max) 300 300
Emulsion Test: 130°F, Settling time, min (Max) 30 30
Precipitation No.: (90-95°F), ml (Max) 0.01 0.01
Specific Gravity: No Limit (Record] No Limit (Record)
Refractive Index, % at 20°C do Limit (Record] No Limit (Record)
Corrosion: Brass ±0.2 +0.2
7 days at 13 0°F Zinc ±0.2 +0.2
Max wt chg, Steel +0.2 +0.2
mg/cm Aluminum ±0.2 +0.2
Visual Pitting or Etch. None None
Compatibility with Packings: !tny suitable Any suitable
for TCP for TCP
Butyl Rubber Swell: % vol chg ±5.0 of TCP +5.0 of TCP
Fire Resistance: CFR Compression Ratio (Min) 42:1 42;1
Viscosity Shear Stability: Vise chg at 100°F (Max) -10$ -10$
5,000 cycles, 1,000 psi Visual Separation None None
at 100°F Visual Decomposition None None
Sludging None None
Neutralization (Acid) No.:
mg KDH/g (Max) 0.5 0.5
Bearing Lub., 208 Ball Bearing: 4,600 lb & 1,750 rpm (life) £50$ Symbol £50$ Symbol 2110H
2110H
Hydrolytic Stability: Copper; wt Loss; mg/cm2 (Max) 0.3 0.3
48 hr at 200°F Copper, Visual Corr None None
and 5 rpm Water layer acidity: mg/K0H (Max) 5.0 5.0
Acid No. Chg of Fluid; mg KDH/g
fluid to.2 Max ±0.2 Ma:
Insolubles, $ (Max) 0.5 0.5
Handling Properties: Toxic * Toxic *
NATO Symbol: H-580 None
Recommended Operating Temp Range, °F ; Low- >25 > 40
High 160-210 160-210
Storage Stability: -- —
Compatibility: Other Fluids -- --
■ßase Fluid: Phosphorus Ester Phosphorus Ester
Notes: —, no information.
»Material qualified under MIL-H-19457B(SHIPS) has a low ortho isomer content in order
to pass the specification toxicity requirement. T le Bureau of Medi cine and Surgery
has approved the shipboard use of these qualified ] Products as a res ult of careful
consideration by a committee of competent toxlcolo ?ists. Container 3 must be properly
marked with warning labels as required by the spec .fication.
Use: Hydraulic systems and air compressors where fire ressistant fluid Is leeded.
4-37
AMCP 706-123
MIL-H-8446B: HYDRAULIC FLUID, NONPETROLEUM BASE, AIRCRAFT
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: NR
Autogenous Ignition Temp, °F (Min): 700
100°F Report
210° F Report
400°F (Min) 2.5
Vapor Pressure at 400°F; mm of Hg (Max) 5.0
Water Content, $ wt (Max): 0.010
Density, at 60°F, (g/cc) : Report
Specific Heat (Btu/lb °F): 100°F Report
200° F Report
300°F Report
400°F Report
Thermal Conductivity, Btu/(hr)(ft2)(ft/°F): 100°F Report
200°F Report
300°F Report
400° F Report
Low Temp Stability: 72 hr at -65°F Nongel, No Solids
Corr and Oxid Stability: Steel ±0.2
72 hr at 400°F Aluminum ±0.2
Max wt chg, Copper ±0.4
mg/cm Silver ±0.2
Pitting, Etch or Corr at 20X None
•jo Vise Chg at 210°F (Max) ±35.0
Acid Wo. mg K0H/g (Max) 1.0
Insoluble Mat'l or gumming None
Hydrolytic Stability: Copper wt chg: mg/cm (Max) +0.50
48 hr at 200°F Copper Pit or Etch None
and 5 rpm Copper Corrosion (Max) No. 1 (ASTM)
Acid No. Water; mg K0H/g (Max) 0.50
Acid No. Oil; mg K0H/g (Max) 0.50
Vise Chg of Oil at 210°F, # (Max) ±20.0:
Insoluble mat'l; % wt (Max) 0.50
Rubber Swell: 70 hr at 250°F; Type "S," $ Vol Chg +15 to +25
Foaming: Oil and foam after 5.0 min blowing, ml (Max) 60.0
(200 ml sample) Foam Collapse Time, Min (Max) 10.0
Shear Stability: Vise Decrease at 210°F £ MIL-F-5602
(5,000 cycles, 2,500 psi, 275°F) Acid No. Increase (Max) 0.50
Wear Test (200 hr, 275°F, 3,000 psi and 3,600 rpm): s MIL-H-5606B
Compatibility: All Fluid to Spec.
Storage Stability: 12 months, dark storage No Sludge or Separation
Recommended Operating Temp Range, °F: -65 to 400
NATO Symbol: None
Notes: NR, no requirements. —■ ■ —
Report, no limit, report data.

Use: High temperature aircraft hydraulic systems and othe:" systems requiring wide tempera-
ture, stable hydraulic fluid.
4-38
AMCP 706-123
1
MIL-L-6085A: LUBRICATING OIL, INSTRUMENT, AIRCRAFT, LOW VOLATILITY
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: Clear: < No. 5 (ASTM)

130°F (Min) 8.0
Additives: Oxidation Inhibitors, % wt Allowed
Corrosion Inhibitors, $ vrt Allowed
Viscosity Improvers, $ wt None
Pour Point Depressant, $ wt None
Acid or Neutralization Ho.: mg KOH/g (Max) Report
Precipitation No.: (Min) 0
Evaporation: 22 hr at 210°F, <f> vrt Loss (Max) 1.0
168 hr at 250°F Aluminum +0.2
Max wt chg, Magnesium ±0.2
mg/cm^ Cad.-Plate ±0.2
Copper ±0.2
Pitting, Etch, or Corr. at 20X None
Viscosity Chg at 130°F, # (Max) ±5.0
Neutralization No. Increase " 0.50
Low Temp Stability: 72 hr at -65°F Nongel, No Separation
Protection: 5 Bare steel panels; 100 hr at 77°F and 100$ Corr. Area < 2 mm Dia
R.H. (4 out of 5 panels must pass) £ 2 Spots 1-2 mm Dia
Corrosivity Test: (10 days, 80°F, 50$ R.H.) No Corr. on 2 Spec.
3 spec. (Brass clip and steel disc): Corr. at 10X s 3 spots under clip; 1 Spec.
Recommended Operating Temp Range, °F : -65 to 350
NATO Symbol: None
Compatibility: —
Synthetic Oil Base Carboxylic Acid Ester
Notes: —, no information.
Report, no limit, report data.
Use: Low evaporation oil for aircraft instruments, elect rical equipment and mechanical
equipment where wide temperature and oxidation an d corrosion protection are needed.
4-39
AMCP 706-123
c. Chemical composition: This oil is a synthetic c. Chemical composition: The composition of this
base oil (carboxylic acid ester) with additives to impart synthetic base oil is not limited, except that metal or-
oxidation stability and corrosion protection properties. ganic compounds of titanium are prohibited. The
It contains no pour point depressants or V.l. improvers. oil may contain tricresyl phosphate as an anti-
wear additive.
d. Limitations: The finished fluid must contain no
d. Uses: This oil has a higher viscosity than MIL-
resins, gums, rubber, fatty oils, oxidized hydrocarbons,
L-7808G and is intended for use in aircraft turboprop
or other additives not approved by the qualifying
and turboshaft engines, helicopter transmissions, and
agency. Containers for the fluid must have a warning
other systems where MIL-L-7808G has been
note that this fluid may soften paint, natural rubber,
used previously.
or neoprene. e. Limitations: Because of the higher viscosity, this
e. Custodians: Army-MR oil may not be suitable below-40°F. If tricresyl phos-
Navy-WP phate antiwear additive is used, it shall not contain
Air Force-11 more than 1.0 percent of ortho isomer. Oil container
should have the following note: "Do not mix oils other
MIL-L-7808G: LUBRICATING OIL, AIRCRAFT than MIL-L-23699 and revisions thereto".
TURBINE ENGINE, SYNTHETIC f. Custodian: Navy-WP
BASE
(NATO Symbol: 0-148) MIL-S-81087A(ASG): SILICONE FLUID, CHLO-
a. General characteristics: This oil is a nonpe- RINATED PHENYL METHYL
troleum base lubricating oil for aircraft turbine engines POLYSILOXANE
and similar equipment. It has good storage, wide tem- (NATO Symbol: None)
perature, and environment limits. a. General characteristics: This liquid is a dual
b. Usable ambient temperatures: The operating class silicone base liquid for lubrication and other ap-
temperature range is not specified, but the nominal plications over a wide temperature range. It has good
operating temperature range is -65°F to 300°F. thermal stability.
c. Chemical composition: It shall be a synthetic b. Usable ambient temperatures: Type I: In air
base fluid (carboxylic acid ester) but additives to impart (oxygen) environment this fluid is suitable for-100° to
oxidation stability, corrosion-preventive properties, 425°F usage. In an inert atmosphere this fluid is suita-
and antiwear properties are permitted. ble for -100° to 500°F conditions. Type II: This fluid
d. Uses: This oil is intended as a lubricating oil in contains an oxidation inhibitor and in both an air envi-
specific models of aircraft turbine engines, helicopter ronment and an inert atmosphere it is suitable for
transmissions, and similar equipment. -100 °F to 500°F conditions.
e. Limitations: This oil should not be mixed with c. Chemical composition: Type I fluid is a copoly-
any oils other than MIL-L-7808 oils and revisions mer containing only dimethyl siloxy and methyl chlo-
thereto. If the oil contains tricresyl phosphate additive, rophenyl siloxy units, with trimethyl siloxy terminal
the supplier must certify that it contains less than 1.0 groups. Type II fluid is a Type I fluid with the addition
percent of the ortho isomer. of an oxidation inhibitor for high temperature stability
in oxidizing atmospheres. Any other additives in either
Navy-WP
Type I or Type II requires prior approval of the qualify-
Air Force-11 ing agency.
MIL-L-23699A: LUBRICATING OIL, AIRCRAFT d. Uses: This liquid is used for lubricating, hydrau-
TURBOPROP AND TURBOSHAFT lic, damping, and related applications over a wide tem-
ENGINES, SYNTHETIC BASE perature range. Applications are: hydraulic systems
and servomechanisms; crankcases and gear boxes for
(NATO Symbol: None)
mechanical devices and compressors, engines, and
a. General characteristics: This oil is a nonpe-
pumps; ball, sleeve and pivot bearings in instruments;
troleum base oil similar to MIL-L-7808G but with
electronic equipment and electric motors, etc.; clocks
higher pour and flash points.
and timing devices; and fluid transmissions.
b. Usable ambient temperatures: The operating
temperature range is not specified, but the nominal e. Limitations: Type II fluid, when exposed to
range is -40° to +400T. temperatures above 500°F in an inert atmosphere, has
4-40
AMCP 706-123
MIL-L-7808G: LUBRICATING OIL, AIRCRAFT TURBINE ENGINE,. SYNTHETIC BASE
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: Transparent, £ No. 3 ASTM

Flash Point, °F (Min) (COC) : 400
Viscosity, cSt: 100°F (Min) 11.0
210°F (Min) 3.0
Viscosity Stability, cSt: (3 hr at -65°F) <13,000
(72 hr at -65°F) <17,000
Additives: Oxidation Inhibitor, $ wt Allowed
Corrosion Inhibitor, $ wt Allowed
Antiwear (Tricresyl Phosphate), $ wt Allowed
TCP, ortho isomer content, $ wt £1.0
Acid No.: mg KOH/g (Max) 0.30
Evaporation: wt loss, f, (Max); (6.5 hr at 400°F) 35.0
Trace Sediment: ml/200 ml (Max) 0.005
72 hr at 347°F Silver +0.2
Max wt Chg, Aluminum ±0.2
mg/cm^ Magnesium +0.2
Copper +0.4
Pitting, Etch, or Corr. at 2QX None
Vise Chg at 100°F; % -5 to +15
Acid No. Increase (Max) 2.0
Silver and Copper Corr.; (50 hr at 450°F), wt loss; mg/in? £3.0
Lead Corr.: (l.O hr at 325°F) wt loss, mg/in? £6.0
Deposition No.: Average of 4 test (Max) 3.5
Individual Test (Max) 4.25
Rubber Swell: Syn. Type H; % vol increase 12 to 15
Foaming: 75°F, 5 min blowing, ml foam (Max) 25
75°F, 3 min settling, ml foam (Max) None
200°F, 5 min blowing, ml foam (Max) 25
75°F, 5 min blowing, ml foam (Max) 25
Storage Stability: (2 days at 230°F) Lead Corr. Value, £25
mg/inf
(7 days at 230°F) Lead Corr. Value,
mg/in? £150
12 months, 75°F, dark room No Separation and Spec. Test
100-hr Engine Test: Engine rating (Min) 2.83
Filter wt increase; lb/hr (Max) 0.020
Average Oil Consumption; lb/hr (Max) 1.25
Compatibility: (Oils to this spec and others) MIL-L-25336
MIL-L-9236
MIL-C-8188
MIL-0-6081 (Grade 1010)
Load Carrying (Ryder Gear Test): % Ref Oil "B" £68.0
NATO Symbol: 0-148
Synthetic Oil Base: Carboxylic Acid Ester
Use: Specific aircraft turbine engines, helicopter transmi ssions and similar systems.
4-41
AMCP 706-123
MIL-L-23699A: LUBRICATING OIL, AIRCRAFT TURBOPROP AND TURBOSHAFT ENGINES, SYNTHETIC BASE
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: NR
100°F (Min) 25
210 °F 5.0 - 5.5
Viscosity Stability: (72 hr at -40°F, $ chg)(Max) 6.0
Neutralization or Acid No.: mg KOH/g (Max) 0.50
Fluid Composition Syn.; No Limit
Additives: Metalorganic titanium compounds None
TCP (ortho isomer cont.) fc s 1.0
Evaporation: 6.5 hr at 400°F, $ wt Loss (Max) 10.0
Trace Sediment: 7 days at 75°F, ml/200 ml (Max) 0.005
Lead Corrosion: 1.0 hr at 325°F, wt Loss, mg/in? (Max) 6.0
Rubber Swell: "H" Syn., 72 hr at 158°F, i vol 10 - 25
"F" Syn., 72 hr at 400°F, $ vol 10 - 25
Foaming: (a) 75°F, 5.0 min blowing, ml (Max) 25
75°F, 1.0 min settling, ml (Max) None
(b) 200°F, 5.0 min blowing, ml (Max) 25
200°F, 1.0 min settling, ml (Max) None
(c) Repeat Sequence (a) Same as (a)
Storage Stability: 48 hr at 230°F, mg/in? (Max) 25.0
(Lead Corr., wt Loss) 168 hr at 230°F, mg/in? (Max) 150.0
Low Temp Storage: 6 wk at 0°F Noncryst., nongel
Extended Storage: 12 month at 75°F All Spec. Tests
Thermal Stability: (24 hr at 500°F), 100°F Vise chg, $ S 5.0
Neutralization No. chg (Max): 2.0
Corr. & Oxid. Stability: Steel ±0.2/±0.2/Report
72 hr at 375°F/400OF/425°F Silver ±0.2/10.2/Report
wt chg; mg/cm^ (Max) Aluminum +0.2/+0.2/Report
Magnesium t0.Z/t0.2/Report
Copper -0.4/+O.8/Report
Viscosity chg. f -5 to 15/-5 to 25/Report
Neutralization No. chg, $ 2.0/3.0/Report
Sludge after 400°F test,
g/100 ml (Max) 1.0
Load Carrying; Ryder Gear Test: <f, Ref. Oil "B" (Min) 88.0
Bearing Test: Deposit Demerit Rating (Max) 80.0
(100 hr at 280°F) Filter Deposit, g (Max) 3.0
Viscosity chg at 100°F, f -5 to 25
Neutralization No. chg (Max) 2.0
Total Oil Consumption, ml (Max) 2,000
Shear Stability: (Sonic), 30 min at 10C°F; Vise, chg, $ (Max) -4.0
Turboprop Engine & Helicopter Trans. Test: Select by Qual. Agency
NATO Symbol: None

Report, no limits, but data reported.
Use: Aircraft turbojet engines, helicopter transmissions, and o1;her systems requiring high
performance lubricating oils.
4-42
AMCP 706-123
MIL-S-81087ACASG): SILLCONE FLUID. CHLORINATED PHENYL METHYL POLYSILOXANE
TYPE I TYPE II
PROPERTIES VALUES VALUES
Color: SGardner Std. Dark Amber or

No. 1 Brown
Specific Gravity (77°/77°F): 1.03 to 1.06 1.03 to 1.06
Pour Point, °F (Max): -100 -100
Flash and Fire Point, °F (Min) : 550 and 640 550 and 640
Viscosity, cSt: -65°F (Max) 3,500 3,500
100° F (Min) 50 50
210°F (Min) 15 15
Additives: Oxidation Inhibitor None Required
Others Approval Req'd. Approval Req'd.
Acid or Neutralization No.: mg KOH/g (Max) 0.05 0.10
Volatility: 24 hr at 302°F, <f, vt, Loss (Max) 1.0 1.0
Gel Time (Honflow): 482°F, hr (Min) 72 1,500
Lubricity (Shell 4-Ball): AISI 52100 (Grade I), 77°F,
600 rpm, 50 kg, 1.0 hr; Scar Dia., mm (Max) 0.60 0.60
Oxid. & Corr. Stability: Aluminum Alloy ±0.10 ±0.10
72 hr at 400°F (Type I) St Steel, Type 325 ±0.10 ±0.10
and 500°F (Type II): Titanium ±0.10 ±0.10
Max wt chg, mg/cm 99.9 Anode Silver to. 10 ±0.10
Mild Steel ±0.10 ±0.10
Vise chg at 100°F, $ (Max) 10 30
Acid Ho. Increase: (Max) 0.20 0.40
Solid Particle Content: Particle Size, 10-20 Micron 2,000 2,000
20 ml Sample, Max 21-40 " 300 300
number of particles 41-80 " 80 80
81-100 " 40 40
101-150 " 20 (No 20 (No
Metal) Metal)
over 150 " 0 0
Compatibility: Wo other lub. or No other lub. or
hyd. oil or hyd. oil
NATO Symbol: None None
Storage Stability: -- --
Recommended Operating Temp Range, °F: (Air) -100 to 425 -100 to 500
(inert) -100 to 500 -100 to 500
Foaming: NR NR
Rubber Swell: HR HR
Hotes; —, no information.
NR, no requirement.
Use: Lubrication, hydraulic systems, damping and transmiss ion fluid, etc., over wide
temperature range.
4-43
AMCP 706-123
a tendency for the oxidation inhibitor to separate form- MIL-H-5559A(WEPS): HYDRAULIC FLUID, AR-
ing a soft gelatinous sludge or precipitate which will not RESTING GEAR
decrease lubricity, but may cause a pressure drop in
(NATO Symbol: None)
systems having filters or small orifices. Type II should
be reserved for severe and relatively continuous oxidiz-
ers the requirement for one type and one grade of non-
ing environments. Neither type should be mixed with
petroleum base hydraulic fluid containing two corro-
any other lubricating oil or hydraulic fluid. When re-
sion inhibitors.
placing another oil with this fluid, parts must be disas-
b. Usable temperatures: As an undiluted liquid,
sembled and cleaned with solvents,
f. Custodian: Navy-WP this fluid has ambient temperature limits from 0°F
(freezing point) to approximately 329°F (boiling point).
Lower freezing point temperatures may be obtained by
VV-D-001078(GSA-FSS): DAMPING FLUID, SILI-
the addition of water.
CONE BASE (DIMETHYL
c. Chemical composition: This liquid has an ethyl-
POLYSILOXANE)
ene glycol base and contains two corrosion inhibitors-
TO Symbol: Grade (cSt) triethanolamine phosphate and sodium mercaptoben-
S-1714 10 zothiozole.
S-1718 50 d. Uses: This liquid is intended primarily for use in
S-1720 100 aircraft arresting gear and similar hydraulic systems.
S-1724 7,500 e. Limitations: This liquid is not interchangeable
S-1726 20,000 with any other type or grade of hydraulic fluid. Care
S-1728 100,000 may be required in packaging to prevent deterioration
S-1732 200,000 or damage during shipment or storage under normal
a. General characteristics: This specification in- environmental conditions since undiluted fluid will
cludes dimethyl polysiloxane base damping fluids hav- freeze at about 0°F.
ing a wide range of viscosities-from 0.65 through 200,- f. Custodians: Navy-WP
000 cSt at 77°F. The wide viscosity range of these fluids Air Force-11
permits them to have many applications. This specifi-
cation supersedes MIL-S-21568A which covered a MIL-P-46046A(MR): PRESERVATIVE FLUID, AU-
similar class of damping fluids. TOMOTIVE BRAKE SYSTEM
b. Usable temperatures: These fluids are usable AND COMPONENTS
from-65° to 600°F depending on the pour and flash (NATO Symbol: None)
points, and upon the viscosity grade selected. a. General characteristics: This specification cov-
c. Chemical composition: These silicone fluids- ers one type, one grade, and three compositions of a
based on dimethyl polysiloxane-must be of high qual- castor oil base preservative hydraulic fluid.
ity, meet the requirements of this specification, be free b. Usable ambient temperatures: Temperature li-
of suspended matter and water or sediment, and con- mits as a preservative fluid are not specified, but as a
tain no admixture of other fluids which are not ap- limited usage heavy duty brake fluid, it should be lim-
proved. ited to temperatures above 0°F and to moderate cli-
d. Uses: These multi-grade fluids are intended for mates.
many uses such as damping fluids, transducer fluids, c. Chemical composition: This castor oil base hy-
lubricants, heat transfer fluids, dielectric fluids, mold draulic fluid is prepared in three compositions contain-
release agents, water repellents, hydraulic fluids, pro- ing different additives. Composition 1 contains a dilu-
tective dressings, and impregnants. tent (3-methoxy butanol-1), borax-glycol condensate,
e. Limitations: These fluids should not be mixed and an approved antioxidant. Composition 2 contains
with any other type of lubricating oil or hydraulic fluid. a dilutent (ß, ß'-methoxy-methoxy ethanol), borax-
When replacing another oil with this fluid, parts must glycol condensate, and an approved antioxidant. Com-
be disassembled and thoroughly cleaned with fresh sol- position 3 contains dilutents (diethylene glycol mono-
vent. Consideration must be given to the type of elas- methyl ether and ethylene glycol monobutyl ether),
tomer used in contact with the fluids because they tend borax-glycol condensate, di-t-butyl-p-cresol, and m-
to cause certain elastomers to shrink and harden. This cresol.
is particularly true of the lower viscosity fluids. d. Uses: This fluid is intended for preserving au-
f. Custodian: Navy-WP tomotive hydraulic brake systems of vehicles in storage.
4-44
W-D-00107S(GSA-FSS):
DAMPING FLUID, SILICONS BASE (DIMETHYL POLYS ILOXANE)
Viscosity Grades,
cSt,
at 25° C (77°F) Test Method
Viscosity-
210° F
temperature (VTC)
coefficient t0.02 0.58 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.61 100° F
Specific gravity
+0.004 at
77°F/77°F 0.761 0.976 ASTM D 1298
Refractive index
io.002 at 77° F 1.402 1.4035 1.4035 1.4035 ASTM D 1747
Pour Point, Fed. Test Method

'F, Max Std. No. 791a;
Method No. 201
Dielectric constant
+0.03 at 100 cycles
anä 73°F ASTM D 150
Flash point, °F, Fed. Test Method

Min 325 535 Std. No. 791a;
Method No. 1103
Volatility, Wt loss; 24 hr
%, Max 2.0 2.0 at 302°F
Neutralization
No., mg KOH/g
NATO Symbol -- S-1714 S-1718 S-1724 S-1724 S-1725 S-1728 S-1732
Storage Properties --
Recommended
Operating Temp , °F Ref. Pour Point (Max) and Flash Point (Mi
Foaming
o
TJ
no information.
o
I
t is»
w
AMCP 706-123
MIL-H-5559A(WEPS): HYDRAULIC FLUID, ARRESTING GEAR
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: NR
Specific Gravity, 60°/60°F :(undiluted) 1.111 to 1.123
Freezing Point, °F: (Undiluted) ~ 0
Boiling Point, °F (Min) :(Undiluted) 329
Composition: Ethylene Glycol, % wt (Min) 93.95
Water, # wt 2.5 to 3.0
Triethanolamine Phosphate, $ wt 2.25 to 2.75
Sodium Mercaptobenzothiazole, $ wt 0.2 to 0.3
Phosphate Content (calculated as H3PO4), $ wt (Min) 0.56
Ash, $ wt (Max) : 0.52
Viscosity, cSt: 100°F (Min) 9.0
pH Value (50$ aqueous sol.), 77°F : 7.2 to 7.8
Suspended Matter: None
Storage Stability: HR
Recommended Operating Temp Range, °F : 0 - 329
Foaming: KR
Oxd. and Corr. Stability: NR
NATO Symbol: None
Compatibility: No other type or grade
Rubber Swell: NR
Use: Aircraft arresting gear and similar hydraulic systems.
4-46
AMCP 706-123
MIL-P-46046A(MR) : PRESERVATIVE FLUID, AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS
VALUES
PROPERTIES
Comp. I Comp. II Comp. Ill
Color: NR NR NR
Specific Gravity; 68°/68°F: 0.9380- 1.009- 0.9620-
0.9420 1.015 0.9680
Pour Point, °F (Max): NR NR NR
Flash Point, °F (Min): NR NR NR
Boiling Point, °F (760 mm): 315-324 320-332 332-367
Composition: Castor Oil, $ wt 40.3 +1.0 37.5 +1.C 38.7 +1.C
3-Methoxy Butanol-1, $ wt 58.1 +1.0
B,B'-Methoxy-methoxyethanol, $ wt 60.9 +1.C
Diethylene Glycol Monomethyl Ether, $ wt -- 31.4 +0.5
Borax-Giycol Condensate, ^ wt 1.4 +0.1 1.4 +0.1 2.1 ±0.2
Di-t-Butyl-p_-Cresol, ^ wt -- 0.475
+0.050
m-Cresol, $ wt -- 0.025
+0.005
Ethylene Glycol Monobutyl Ether, $ wt -- -- 27.3
+0.5
Antioxidant (Min) 0.2 0.2 —
pH Value: 10.2-11.0 8.8-9.6 9.9-
10.7
Corrosiveness: Steel and Tinned Iron 0.1 0.1 0.1
120 hr at 210 °F Aluminum Alloy 0.1 0.1 0.1
Max wt Loss, Cast Iron 0.1 0.1 0.1
mg/cm2 Brass 0.3 0.3 0.3
Copper 0.3 0.3 0.3
Pit & Etch of Metal Strips None None None
Rubber Cups (Natural); Appearance No Carbon No Carbon No. Carbon
Black Black Black
Surface Condition No No No
Tackiness Tackiness Tackiness
Swelling/in. 0.002- 0.020- 0.040-
0.015 0.032 0.050
pH of Test Fluid (Min) 7.0 7.0 7.0
Condition of Test Fluid No Gel/ No Gel/ No Gel/
Sediment Sediment Sediment
Stability: Aluminum Alloy 0.05 0.05 0.05
72 hr at RT & 168 hr at 158°F Cast Iron 0.10 0.10 0.10
wt Loss, mg/cm2 (Max) Metal Pit or Etch None None None
Excessive Gum Deposit None None None
Storage Stability: — __ __
NATO Symbol: None None None
Foaming: — __
Compatibility: -- __ __
Viscosity, cSt: NR NR NR
Recommended Operating Temp Range, °F: > 0; NR > 0; NR >0; NR
Notes: KR5 no requirements. RT, room temperature

--, no information.
Use: Principal use preservative fluid for automotive hydr aulic brake sy stems during storage
and as packaging fluid.
4-47
AMCP 706-123
It is also a packaging fluid for both wheel and master e. Limitations: It should not be used in preserving
cylinder assemblies. The fluid may also be used as an hydraulic brake parts and components in ware-
actuating fluid in test stands in checking hydraulic house storage.
brake parts for flaws and defects. It may be used f. Custodian: Army-MR
in vehicles in limited operation in moderate and
warm climates.
e. Limitations: Avoid prolonged breathing of va- VV-B-680a: BRAKE FLUID, AUTOMOTIVE
pors from these fluids and use with adequate ventila-
(NATO Symbol: H-542; Military Symbol: HB)
tion. Also avoid repeated or prolonged contact
with skin.
ers one grade and type of hydraulic brake fluid.
f. Custodian: Army-MR
b. Usable temperatures: Usable ambient tempera-
ture range of -40° to +13TF and usable operating liq-
JAN-F-461: FLUID, SHOCK ABSORBER, HEAVY uid temperatures from-40° to +374°F. In practice, a
low operating limit of-31°F is recommended. The vis-
(NATO Symbol: None; Military Symbol: SAH) cosity at-31°F will be about 900 cSt.
a. General characteristics: This specification cov- c. Chemical composition: Composition of this fluid
ers a chemically treated, castor oil base liquid for rotary is not limited; however, to meet the specification re-
type hydraulic shock absorbers. quirements it will probably be necessary to employ a
b. Usable temperatures: The specific temperature glycol or castor oil and glycol base fluid and approved
limits for this liquid are not specified but the pour point additives.
(maximum) is-25°F and the flash point (minimum) is d. Uses: This brake fluid is intended for use as an
400°F. Because of viscosity characteristics, the liquid operating fluid in automotive hydraulic brake sys-
will function best at temperatures above 0° and be - tems within the specified ambient or fluid tempera-
low 200°F. ture limits.
c. Chemical composition: This liquid is a castor oil e. Limitations: This fluid is not to be used for pre-
chemically treated to produce proper characteristics. serving hydraulic brake system parts and components
The liquid shall be free of acid, alkali, moisture, tarry in storage, nor as an operating fluid in vehicle brake
or suspended matter, and other foreign matter. It may systems when the vehicle may be subject to prolonged
not contain any rosin or cottonseed oil. standby storage.
d. Uses: This liquid is specifically intended for use f. Custodians: Army-MR
as a heavy shock absorber fluid in Houdaille rotary- Navy-YD
type shock absorbers. It also may have some usage as Air Force-67
a damping or hydraulic actuating fluid.
e. Limitations:This liquid is not recommended for
low temperature applications. MIL-H-22072A(WP): HYDRA ULICFL UID, CA TA-
f. Custodians: Army-MR PULT
Navy-SH (NATO Symbol: None)
ers a fire-resistant water base hydraulic fluid containing
MIL-H-13910B: HYDRAULIC FLUID, POLAR-
additives for lubricity, corrosion prevention, and vis-
TYPE AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE, cosity-temperature characteristics.
ALL-WEATHER
b. Usable ambient temperatures: Specification does
(NATO Symbol: None) not limit temperature range of this hydraulic fluid but,
a. General characteristics: This specification cov- because of the high water content, it should be used for
ers one type and one grade of automotive hydraulic moderate ambient temperatures within the low temper-
brake fluid for low temperature applications. ature crystallization ( + 10°F) and the high temperature
b. Usable temperatures:-^!0 to +131°F ambient. stability ( + 158°F) range.
c. Chemical composition: This specification does c. Chemical composition: This specification does
not limit the composition of this hydraulic fluid. not limit the composition of this hydraulic fluid other
d. Uses: This liquid is recommended as an all- than that it must contain 50 percent water and addi-
weather automotive hydraulic brake system fluid for tives for lubricity, corrosion, and viscosity-temperature
ambient temperatures ranging from-67° to + 131°F. characteristics tp meet the specification requirements.
4-48
AMCP 706-123
JAN-F-461: FLUID, SHOCK ABSORBER, HEAVY
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: NR
Specific Gravity: HR
Base Fluid: Castor Oil
Additives: Acids Hone
Alkali None
Moisture None
Suspended Matter None
Thickeners None
Rosin None
Cottonseed Oil None
Pour Point, °F: (Max) -25
Flash Point, °F: (Min) 400
Viscosity, SUS: 100°F (Max) 1,500
210° F 140-150
Copper Strip Corr.: 3 hr at 212°F No Corrosion
Reaction: Neutrality (Qualitative) Neutral (Yellow)
Storage Stability:
Compatibility:
Recommended Ambient Temp Range, °F:
Rubber Swell:
Foaming:
NATO Symbol: None
Military Symbol: SAH
Notes: NH, no requirements.

--, no information.
Use: Rotary type (Houdaille) shock absorbers and as a damping or hydraulic fluid.
4-49
AMCP 706-123
MIL-H-13910B: HYDRAULIC FLUID, POLAR-TYPE AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE, ALL WEATHER
PROPERTIES VALUES
Solor: HR
Pour Point, °F : <-67
Boiling Point, °F (Min): 309
Boiling Point Change, °F (Max): +5
122°F (Min) 3.5
212°F (Min) 1.3
pH Value: (fluid-water-alcohol mixture) 8.0-11.0
Evaporation: (7 day, 212°F cycle) $ wt Loss (Max) 80
Residue, Quality Fluid & Oily
Precipitated Matter Slight, Nongritty
Residue Properties, Pour Point, °F (Max) 27
Viscosity, cSt: 0°F (Max) 2,100
122°F (Min) 35
212°F (Min) 9
Low Temperature, Appearance : Transparent
(144 hr at -67°F) Bubble Rise Time, sec (Max) 10.0
Fluid-Water Mixture: (24 hr at -67°F) Bubble Rise, sec (Max 1 5.0
(24 hr at 140°F) Appearance No Separation or Sediment
Rubber Swell: (120 hr at 158°F), Cup dia increase; in. 0.015 to 0.050
Hardness chg (durometer): points -10 to +0
Rubber Condition Ho Disintegration
Corrosiveness: Tinned Iron 0.2
120 hr at 212°F Carbon Steel 0.2
Max wt chg, Aluminum Alloy 0.1
mg/cm Cast Iron 0.2
Brass 0.4
Copper 0.4
Pit. & Etch, on Metal Strips Hone
Rubber Cup Condition Ho Disintegration
Max Cup dia increase, in. 0.050
Rubber hardness chg (durometer) points <-15
pH Value (Test Fluid) 8.0 to 11.0
Precipitated Matter, $ vol (Max) 0.05
Simulated Service: Metal Pit Etch & Galling Slight
232,500 stroking cycles Piston or Cyl Dia chg (in.) SO.005
Temp -67° to +158°F Rubber Cup Dia chg (in.) £+0.035
Rubber Cup Lip Interference, % £65
Rubber Hardness chg (durometer)
Points S10.0
Rubber Cup Swell, Scuffing,
Crack, etc. Moderate
Max Pressure chg in 12 hr
period, psi +35 to -50
Fluid, Vol Loss 24 hr (ml/l,000
Strokes) si.5
Fluid Leakage; 100 cycles at
500 psi; ml (Max) 36.0
Fluid Sediment, % vol (Max) 1.0
Compatibility: All Spec. Fluids
(cont'd next page)
4-50
AMCP 706-123
MIL-H-L59IOB: HYDRAULIC FLUID, POLAR-TYPE AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE, ALL WEATHER (cont'd)
PROPERTIES VALUES
Stability: Aluminum Alloy 0.05

72 hr at 77°F and 168 hr at 158°F Cast Iron 0.3
Max vt Loss, mg/cm? Pit or Etch Moderate
Gum Deposit Moderate
NATO Symbol: None
Recommended Operating Temp Range, °F: -67 to +131
Foaming:
Notes : NR, no requirements.

--, no information.
Use: Automotive hydraulic brake systems. Not recommended as preservative fluid for storage.
4-51
AMCP 706-123
W-B-680a: BRAKE FLUID, AUTOMOTIVE
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: HR; Transparent

Pour Point, °F (Max): <-58
Boiling Point, °F (Min): 374
Boiling Point Change, °F (Max) : ±5.4
Boiling Point Compatibility, °F (Max): ±9.0
Flash Point, °F (Min): 179.6
122°F (Min) 3.5
212°F (Min) 1.3
pH Value:(fluid-water-alcohol mixture) 7.0 to 11.0
Evaporation: (7 days at 212°F cycle), # wt Loss (Max) 80
Residue, Quality Fluid & Oily
Precipitated Matter Slight; Non-gritty
Residue Properties, Pour Point, °F (Max) <23
122°F (Min) 35
212°F (Min) 10
Low Temp Properties: Appearance Transparent
6 hr at -58°F, Bubble Rise Time, sec
(Max) 35
2 hr at -40°F, Bubble Rise Time, sec
(Max) 10
Fluid-Water Mixture: 24 hr at -40°F, Bubble Rise, sec (Max) 10
24 hr at 140°F, appearance No Stratification
Rubber Swell: (120 hr at 158°F), Cup dia increase (in.) 0.006 to 0.050
Burometer chg, at 158°F, points S-10 to +0
Durometer chg, at 248°F, points £-10 to +0
Rubber Condition No Disintegration
Corrosiveness: Tinned Iron 0.2
120 hr at 212°F Carbon Steel 0.2
Max wt chg, mg/cm Aluminum Alloy 0.1
Cast Iron 0.2
Brass 0.4
Copper 0.4
Pit or Etch of Metal Strips None
Rubber Cup Condition No Disintegration
Max Cup dia increase, in. 0.05
Rubber Hardness chg (durometer)
Points <-15
pH Value (Test Fluid) 7.0 to 11.0
Precipitated Matter, $ vol (Max) 0.05
Simulated Service Test: Metal Pit., Etch, or Galling None
300,000 Stroke Cycles Piston or Cyl. dia chg (in.) SO.005
Temp from 77° to 248°F Rubber Cup dia chg (in.) s+0.035
Pressure 500-1,000 psi Cup Lip Intef., # S65.0
Rubber Cup Durometer chg
(Points) S15.0
Rubber Cup Swell, Scoring,
Crack, etc. Moderate
M&x Pressure chg in 12 hr, psi +35 to -50
Fluid Loss in 24,000 cycles,
ml (Max) 36.0
(cont'd next page) Fluid Sediment, $> vol (Max) 1.5
4-52
AMCP 706-123
VV-B-680a: BRAKE FLUID, AUTOMOTIVE (cont'd)
PROPERTIES VAEUES

Stability: Aluminum Alloy 0.05
72 hr at 77°F and 168 hr Cast Iron 0.3
at 158°F, Max wt Loss, Metal Pit or Etch Hone
mg/cm Gum Deposit None
NATO Symbol: H-542
Military Symbol: HB
Recommended Ambient Temp Range, °F : -31 to 131
Recommended Fluid Temp Range, °F : -31 to 374
Foaming:
Storage Stability: KB
Notes: NH, no requirements.

--, no information.
Use: Operating hydraulic fluid for automotive brake systems and similar systems. Not
recommended for storage or stationary systems.
4-53
AMCP 706-123
MIL-H-22072A(WP): HYDRAULIC FLUID. CATAPULT
PEOEEETIES VALUES
Color: Red
Specific Gravity: 68°F 1.04 to 1.06
Pour Point, °F (Max): NR
Flash Point, °F (Min): NR
Cloud Point, °F (Min): 210
Compression Ignition: 140°F at 4,000 psi None
100° F 40.72 to 45.0
130°F (Min) 21.7
Evaporation: 4 hr at 158°F Not Hard or Resinous
Volatility: 30 min at 70-80°F, $ wt Loss (Max) 10.0
Composition: Not Limited (Fire Resist.)
Water Content, $ wt 50 ± 1.5
Lubricity Additive, <f> wt Permitted
Corrosion Inhibitor, $ wt Permitted
Viscosity-Temperature Improver, <f> wt Permitted
Foaming: 5 min blowing at 75°F, ml (Max) No Limit - Report
10 min settling at 75°F, ml (Max) 10.0
pH Value:(fluid-water mixture) 8.8 to 9.2
High Temp Stability: 168 hr at 158°F No Chemical Change
Low Temp Stability: 6 hr at 10°F No Crystallization
Effect on Packings: 0-Ring, 168 hr at 158°F; % vol chg -5.0 to +10.0
Effect on Other Elastomerics: Std. Cond. Negligible
Corrosion (Static) : Steel 0.4
720 hr at 158°F Naval Brass 0.4
Max wt Loss, mg/cnr Manganese Bronze 0.4
Copper 0.4
Pit or Etch (Max) Slight
Fluid Color chg None
Separation or Sludge None
Corrosion (Stirring) : Steel 0.7
336 hr at 158°F Copper 0.7
Max wt Loss, mg/cmS Pit or Etch (Max) Slight
Fluid Color chg None
Separation or Sludge None
Storage Stability: 12 month at 77°F Satisfactory
Pump Test: 500 hr, Mod. Vickers Satisfactory
Toxicity: No Special Handling
NATO Symbol: None
Recommended Ambient Temp Range, °F:
- __ .
Report, no limits, but report data.
Use: Fire resistant fluid for power transmission for hydraul Lc systems such as aircraft
catapults.
4-54
AMCP 706-123
d. Uses: A fire resistant water base liquid intended used to generate the graphs. These graphs are included
as a power transmission media for hydraulically in Figs. 4-1 through 4-10. When manufacturers' data
actuated systems such as catapults for launching were not available, the graphs show the specification
Naval aircraft. requirements. These graphs are included in Figs. 4-11
e. Limitations: Not recommended for either low or through 4-13.
high temperature applications. Liquid will soften most Liquids not identified with a chemical designation
commonly used paints. No special handling procedure are petroleum or petroleum-base liquids.
is required. Graphs of the following liquids are not included be-
f. Custodian: Navy-WP cause commercial data were not available and/or
specification requirements were not sufficient to plot a
curve (i.e., viscosity was limited at only one tempera-
ture or the specification was for a family of liquids of
4-7 VISCOSITY-TEMPERATURE various viscosities):
GRAPHS MIL-H-46001A
MIL-L-17331D
The pages which follow present ASTM Viscosity- VV-D-001078
Temperature graphs of the hydraulic fluids discussed in MIL-H-5559A
the preceding paragraphs. Where possible, data of typi- MIL-P-46046A
cal liquids produced by various manufacturers were JAN-F-461
4-55
AMCP 706-123
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4-56
AMCP 706-123
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4-57
AMCP 706-123
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4-58
AMCP 706-123
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4-59
AMCP 706-123
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4-60
AMCP 706-123

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4-61
AMCP 706-123
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4-62
AMCP 706-123

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4-63
AMCP 706-123
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4-64
AMCP 706-123

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4-65
AMCP 706-123

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4-66
AMCP 706-123

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4-67
AMCP 706-123

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4-68
AMCP 706-123

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4-69
AMCP 706-123
CHAPTER 5
ADDITIVES
5-1 GENERAL limits its useful life as well as its upper temperature
limitation. Therefore, additives or inhibitors that in-
Formally defined, an additive for hydraulic fluids crease the resistance of the fluid to the chemical
and lubricants is a compound or component that en- changes associated with oxidation are very important.
hances some property of, or imparts some new property Ultimate changes that may be encountered as a result
to, the base fluid. A base stock hydraulic fluid that of oxidative deterioration include changes in viscosity;
cannot meet requirements for operation in a given hy- the precipitation of insolubles, including lacquers and
draulic system frequently can be modified through the varnish; and an increase in acidity and corrosiveness.
use of additives in such a way that the range of satisfac- In a consideration of the oxidative stability of a hydrau-
tory operation of the base liquid can be extended to lic fluid, accompanying corrosion effects should not,
meet more severe requirements. In the formulation of and usually are not, be considered independent of oxi-
a hydraulic fluid, additive components may constitute dation. For this reason, laboratory screening of oxida-
from less than one to as much as 20 percent of the final tion inhibitors usually also considers changes in acidity
liquid composition. The more important classes of ad- of the hydraulic fluid and the corrosion of metal sam-
ditives include oxidation inhibitors, corrosion inhibi- ples in contact with the fluid.
tors, viscosity index improvers, foam inhibitors, and
lubricity additives. 5-2.1 MODE OF ACTION OF ANTIOXIDANTS
In the selection of additives and formulation of a
fluid, each additive must be compatible with the base In order to properly consider the mode of action of
stock, other additives, and system components. Exam- antioxidants, some knowledge of the mechanism of ox-
ples of problems of compatibility that can be encoun- idative degradation is necessary. Liquid phase oxida-
tered are cited throughout this chapter. Solubility of tion is considered a free radical process undergoing the
additives in the base stock is an important limitation in usual steps of initiation, propagation, and termination.
the use of some additives at low temperatures. Schematically, after the process has been initiated, the
Although general theories can be developed for the course of oxidation in petroleum oils can be represented
mode of action of different kinds of additives, an effec- as follows:
tive additive in one hydraulic fluid may not be equally RH -* R- + H«
| Initiation
Initiati H = hydrogen
effective in another. The range of conditions that a RH + 02 -* R« + HOO'
hydraulic fluid may encounter during storage and use O = oxygen
u
R • + 02 -»■ ROO • 1 Pro
_ a atlon
.
will determine the selection of additives. Therefore, the ROO- +' RH - ROOH + R- / P S R = a portion of
formulation of a hydraulic fluid must take into account lubricant
a wide variety of factors, and the effectiveness of each molecule
2ROO •-+ Inactive Products Termination •= an electron
additive must be verified experimentally. Several of the
common hydraulic fluid shortcomings, and the tech- Initiation reactions in lubricants are most often ther-
nology and additives developed to compensate for them mally activated but may also be induced by light, ioniz-
are discussed in the remainder of this chapter. ing radiation, or other means. Since the propagating
species (R-) can be continuously regenerated, the proc-
ess is a chain reaction. Termination occurs with
5-2 OXIDATION INHIBITORS the formation of nonradicals such as alcohols, alde-
In environments that contain even small amounts of hydes, ketones, and olefins, which are also suscep-
oxygen, the oxidation stability of a hydraulic fluid tible to oxidation and may produce acids, sludge,
5-1
AMCP 706-123
and varnish. At elevated temperatures, the inter- Hindered phenols-such as 2,6-ditertiary-butyl-4-meth-

mediate hydroperoxide can decompose and produce ylphenol and aromatic amines such as phenyl- 1-naph-
additional radicals: thylamine-are very effective.
ROOH ► RO + HO
2 ROOH RO + ROO- + H20
5-2.2.3 Hydroperoxide Destroyers
Since the concentration of radicals present can increase
with time, oxidation is autocatalytic. Also, when acidic A variety of sulfur, selenium, and phosphorus-con-
materials are formed in a hydraulic fluid which is in taining compounds can function as hydroperoxide de-
contact with metals as a consequence of oxidation, stroyers. Effective materials include phenothiazine,
metal corrosion can occur with the formation of metal phosphorus pentasulfide-olefin reaction products, zinc
ions, which can become soluble in the fluid. These dialkyldithiophosphates, sulfurized olefins, alkyl poly-
metal ions-particularly those of iron, lead, and copper- sulfides, dialkylphosphonates, trialkyl phosphites, zinc
are catalysts in the oxidation process. The stable shelf dialkyl dithiocarbamates, alkyl trithiocarbamates, and
life under oxidative conditions of di-2-ethylhexyl seba- alkyl selenides. Phenothiazine is particularly useful at
cate at 347T (175°C) in the presence of various metals higher temperatures.
illustrates this catalytic effect: no catalyst, 125 hr; cop-
per, 20 hr; copper-beryllium, 30 hr; steel, 115 hr; and
5-2.2.4 Synergism
aluminum, 120 hr (Ref. 1).
Although metal ions are pro-oxidants at lower tem-
peratures in hydrocarbon liquids, they can function as The combined effect of two or more inhibitors is
antioxidants in higher temperature fluids such as sili- often greater than the sum of the effects of the in-
cones, phenyl ethers, and fluoroesters (Ref. 2). At dividual inhibitors. This synergistic effect has led to the
higher temperatures in these fluids, the metal ions pre- common practice of employing two or more oxidation
sumably alter the course of the hydroperoxide reactions inhibitors. Not only can synergism occur through the
and produce nonradical products. reinforcement of inhibitors through their effectiveness
in different phases of the oxidation mechanism, but also
by the second inhibitor regenerating the first. For ex-
5-2.2 CLASSES OF ANTIOXIDANTS AND ample, synergistic effects observed at 150°C when dial-
SYNERGISM kyl phosphonates are used with sterically hindered al-
kyl phenols are attributed to the phosphonates
Antioxidants are effective in one of three ways-(l) transferring hydrogen to the oxidized phenols (Ref. 3).
metal deactivators minimize the catalytic effect of trace
amounts of metal ions in the fluid; (2) free radical
acceptors break the chain reaction in the propagation 5-2.3 EXAMPLES OF THE USE OF
step; and (3) hydroperoxide destroyers inhibit the for- INHIBITORS IN VARIOUS FLUID
mation of free radicals in the hydroperoxide decompo- LUBRICANTS
sitions. A combination of antioxidants that may serve
several of these purposes may be used. The effectiveness of various classes of materials as
oxidation inhibitors in different kinds of hydraulic
fluids and certain problems attendant with their use
5-2.2.1 Metal Deactivators can be illustrated by the results of recent research.
Since oxidation rates increase rapidly with tempera-
The metal deactivators most commonly used are se- ture, inhibitors useful at higher temperature have
questering or chelating agents. These include N,N- received considerable attention.
disalicylidene diamine, mercaptothiadiazole, quiniza-
rin, and alizarin.
5-2.3.1 Esters
5-2.2.2 Free Radical Acceptors Ester fluids can be inhibited against oxidation to at
least 212°F (100°C) with 0.1 to 0.2 percent of the usual
Amines and phenols are most commonly used as free phenolic and aromatic amine antioxidants (Ref. 4)
radical acceptors and are effective in many base stocks. which are also commonly used in petroleum oils.
5-2
AMCP 706-123
A number of inhibitors have been examined for use 5-2.3.3 Silicon-containing Fluids
with esters at higher temperatures. Phenothiazine and
its derivatives are usually effective to 350T (175°C) but Diarylamines are effective antioxidants in siloxanes
lacquer formation has been observed at 325°F(163°C). at 400°F (205°C) but cause sludging. At that tempera-
Phenyl-1-naphthylamine is the most effective of the ture, phenolic antioxidants are ineffective and selenides
aromatic amines and has an upper temperature limit cause severe copper corrosion. When a sufficiently high
of 325°F (163°C). n-alkyl selenides are effective at degree of nuclear alkylation is introduced into the
325T (163°C), but the analogous sulfur compounds structure of the diarylamines, sludge formation can be
have an upper temperature limit of 257°F (125°C). avoided (Ref. 9).
Phosphites, which are effective to 212°-257°F(100°- Chlorophenylsilicones have been reported to be ade-
125°C), are limited by their hydrolytic susceptibility quately stabilized at 500°F (260°C) against oxidation
and volatility. Except for serious copper corrosion at with iron octoate (Ref. 10). Aromatic compounds con-
325°F (163°C), 4-terf-butylphenyl-2-mercaptothiazole taining three or more ring systems, for example 1,2-
provides adequate inhibition. The zinc complex of di- benzanthracene and pyrene, are also effective in retard-
butyldithiocarbamate and dibutylamine functions satis- ing the oxidation of a chlorophenylsilicone (Ref. 11).
factorily at 302 °F (150°C) (Ref. 5). Silane fluids have been found to be not susceptible to
improvement with oxidation inhibitors (Ref. 11).
Phenothiazine substantially extends the induction The presence of trace metals can have a profound
period at 350°-400°F (175°-205°C) and reduces the rate effect on the oxidative stability of polydimethylsilox-
of oxidation at 500°F (375°C). However, at the higher anes and polymethylphenylsiloxanes (Refs. 12, 13). At
temperature, phenothiazine, as well as other amine in- 392°F (200°C) lead selenium and tellurium accelerate
hibitors, causes darkening and the formation of trace oxidation. Organic selenides, aromatic amines, and
dirtiness in the liquids (Ref. 1). phenothiazine prolong the life of silicone oils two to
five times, but the life of the oils can be extended to
At 425° and 500°F (218° and 260°C), the most effec- eight times with the use of iron or copper chelates of
tive selenides for inhibiting oxidation are />-amino- disalicylalethylenediamine or disalicylalpropylenedia-
phenyl phenyl selenide, 5-dimethylaminobenzo(2,l,3) mine, the solubilized metal acting as an inhibitor. The
selenadiazole, and diphenyl diselenide. The selenides use of this inhibitor in poorly ventilated systems under
have been found to be corrosive to copper, silver, oxygen-deficient conditions, however, leads to the
magnesium, and aluminum at selenium concentrations precipitation of the metal as the reduced metal oxide.
of 0.5 percent (Ref. 6). Cerium complexes have been found not to be subject to
5- ethyl-10,10- diphenylphenazasiline (5-10-10) is this limitation (Ref. 14). New processes have been
useful in inhibiting ester base stocks at 400°-500°F developed for modifying silicone oils with cerium com-
(205°-260°C). Since a certain thermal level is required plexes that raise the stabilization temperature from 617°
to activate 5-10-10 as an antioxidant, it is best used in to 752°F (325° to 400°C) (Ref. 15).
combination with a low temperature antioxidant. Mix-
tures of 5-10-10 and phenyl- 1-naphthylamine are effec-
tive (Ref. 7). 5-2.3.4 Ethers
Tetraphenyltin and bis(p-phenoxyphenyl)diphenyltin

5-2.3.2 Highly Refined Mineral Oils perform well as antioxidants for poly(phenyl ethers) at
600°-650°F./j-bis(triphenylstannoxy)benzene, metal salts
of N,N-diphertyldithiocarbamic acid, triphenylbismuth,
Natural inhibitors in mineral oils are removed when copper oxides, metal acetylacetonates, metal dithi-
mineral oils are exhaustively hydrogenated or super- ocarbamates, and the nickel and cobalt chelates of
refined, and the oils become even more susceptible to N-phenyl-5-nitrosalicylimines were also effective in
oxidative deterioration. On the other hand, the highly poly(phenyl ether) systems (Refs. 16-18).
refined mineral oils show a better response to additive Tris(pentafluorophenyl)phosphine, tris(pentafluoro-
modification than the less highly purified oils. Satisfac- phenyl)-phosphine oxide, tris(4-heptafluorotolyl)phos-
tory inhibitors at 347°F (175°C) are phenothiazine, phe- phine, and tris[4-(pentafluorophenoxy)tetrafluoro-
nyl-1-naphthylamine, and cadmium diamyldithiocar- phenyljphosphine are effective in eliminating the
bamate (Ref. 8). oxidative deterioration that occurs above 500°F
5-3
AMCP 706-123
(260°C) in fluorocarbon polyether liquids but lead to compounds are less soluble in oils but have a greater
corrosion of ferrous and titanium alloys. Solubility and tendency to adsorb on a metal surface and are, there-
volatility remain problems in the use of these additives fore, more effective as rust inhibitors. These closely
(Refs. 19-21). packed films prevent the penetration of water.
Salts or soaps of high molecular weight carboxylic
acids-such as naphthenates or sulfonic acids, particu-
5-3 CORROSION INHIBITORS larly the petroleum mahogany sulfonic acids-are useful
and inexpensive additives for lubricant compositions.
These soaps, dispersed in nonpolar solvents, form col-
5-3.1 DEFINITIONS loidal systems. The soaps are adsorbed on the metal
surfaces and are in equilibrium with low concentrations
Corrosion is the deterioration through chemical of soaps in solution, which, in turn are in equilibrium
change of a metal into one or more of its oxides, hy- with the soaps in the colloidal micelle. Although the
drated oxides, carboxylates, fluorides, carbonates, or complex equilibria are not fully understood, considera-
other compounds. The special case of the deterioration tion of the system as one in equilibrium allows the
of iron or steel by moist air (oxygen) is called rusting. explanation of some of the phenomena associated with
Rusting cannot occur in systems from which oxygen is the use of these rust inhibitors. These effects include
rigorously excluded. Corrosion of metal components in temperature range limitations in the use of the inhibi-
contact with a hydraulic fluid may occur through the tors, mechanical removal and rehealing of coated sur-
action of water and air present in the system, through faces, leaching of the inhibitor from solution with wa-
the action of lubricant decomposition products, or by ter, and depletion of the adsorbed layers by dilution
direct chemical action of the fluid on the metal surface. with hydraulic fluids not containing the inhibitor.
A corrosion inhibitor is an additive that prevents or The colloid soap micelle also serves as a "sink" for
decreases corrosive attack on metals. Although its corrosive acids that are formed as products of oxida-
function may be one of directly protecting the metal tion. Sequestration of corrosive acids by the soap mi-
surface, an additive may function as a corrosion inhibi- celles offers an explanation why the soaps are better
tor if it interferes with any of the processes that ulti- inhibitors than the corresponding acids. The combina-
mately culminate in corrosion. For this reason, the tion of the soap micelle with the corrosive acids may
processes of inhibiting corrosion and oxidation are inti- occur through cooperative micelle formation or
mately related. through hydrogen bonding.
Not only do oxidation products cause corrosion, but
corrosion products may promote oxidation. The inter-
dependence of oxidation and corrosion inhibitors can 5-3.3 LIMITATIONS IN THE USE OF RUST
be illustrated as follows. An antioxidant that retards INHIBITORS
the auto-oxidation of a fluid will prevent the formation Since the most effective rust inhibitors have low
of corrosive acids. Amine antioxidants can react with solubilities in the base oils, precipitation during storage
and neutralize certain acidic materials, but aromatic may occur when inhibitor concentrations exceed 0.5 to
amines do not effectively neutralize carboxylic acid, a 1.0 percent. Precipitation will be accelerated at low
common corrosive oxidation product. In many screen- temperatures because inhibitor solubility decreases
ing tests for hydraulic fluids and lubricants, oxidation with decreasing temperature. Compounded lubricants
and corrosion are considered concurrently. may suffer significant losses in their ability to inhibit
rusting after six months' storage because of the precipi-
tation of the inhibitor. Inhibitor insolubility is fre-
5-3.2 MODE OF ACTION OF RUST quently evident by the development of a haze in
INHIBITORS the oils.
The varying solubility of an inhibitor in different
Rust inhibitors are effective through the formation of base fluids results in corresponding differences in in-
closely packed hydrophobic monomolecular layers on hibitor effectiveness. For example, the minimum con-
the surface of the ferrous metal to be protected (Refs. centration of undecyclic acid required for inhibiting a
22-27). Most organic molecules with an adsorbable po- petroleum fluid is 0.20 percent, while 0.75 percent of
lar group attached to a hydrophobic chain are effective the same acid is required for di-2-ethylhexyl sebacate,
rust inhibitors. The higher molecular weight polar 1.00 percent for a polyalkylene glycol, and 0.20 and
5-4
AMCP 706-123
0.50 percent for two silicone fluids (Ref. 22). When with maleic anhydride-are also effective rust preven-
large concentrations of an additive are required, less tive additives (Ref. 30).
soluble inhibitors should be sought in order to reduce Impurities present in an additive may have an ad-
the concentration required for minimum protection. verse effect on a hydraulic system. When concentra-
Because molecular agitation in a liquid increases as tions of inorganic salts such as calcium chloride or
temperature increases, the solubility of the additive calcium sulfate are present in concentrations as great as
and, therefore, its tendency for desorption from the 0.12 percent in a mahogany sulfonate, corrosion due to
metal surface will be increased with temperature. galvanic action may occur (Ref. 31).
Stated differently, raising the temperature of the oil When inhibitors are selected to prevent corrosion,
increases the minimum concentration of the additive the identity of the specific metal-liquid system must be
necessary to achieve adequate protection. Usually, a considered since an additive that protects iron may
temperature is reached above which a rust inhibiting itself corrode copper or silver. An example of the need
additive is not effective at any concentration. The max- for a specific inhibitor for a particular system is evident
imum temperature for the complete inhibition of rust- in recent work with fluorocarbon polyether fluids
ing for several acids in a petroleum oil increases in the which have proved corrosive to ferrous and titanium
following order: linoleic, 115°F; undecylic, 140°F; my- alloys in oxidizing atmospheres at 500°F. Per-
ristic, 165°F; and stearic, 190°F (Ref. 22). The solubili- fluoroarylphosphines and phosphine oxides used as ad-
ties of the additives in the oil decrease in the ditives prevent degradation of the fluorocarbon fluids
same order. and the consequent metal corrosion under these condi-
The adsorbed monolayers can be ruptured by abra- tions up to 650°F (Refs. 20, 21).
sion or wear and leave areas vulnerable to corrosion. If Different classes of inhibitors must be used in polar
sufficient inhibitor is present in the hydraulic fluid, it fluids in which water is either a part of the composition
will be readsorbed in the scuffed location. The rate of or soluble to some extent in the fluid. For example, 0.2
repair will be greater the less viscous the oil. percent of sodium nitrite and 0.8 percent of disodium
The presence of water as a contaminant in a hydrau- phosphate dodecahydrate function as corrosion inhibi-
lic system may result in the leaching of the tors in glycerol-water hydraulic fluids containing 40
monomolecular layer from the surface of the metal or percent glycerol (Ref. 32).
the inhibitor from the hydraulic fluid. The polar nature For inhibiting corrosion of tin, steel, aluminum, cast
of most inhibitors allows some solubility in water, iron, brass, and cppper-in contact with ethylene glycol
which results in the leaching, even though the solubility and 1,2-propylene glycol-the following combinations
may be small. have proved satisfactory: 0.5 percent borax and 0.5
Since the adsorbed monolayer is in equilibrium with percent hydroquinone; 0.5 percent triethanolamine and
the inhibitor in solution, addition of make-up fluid con- 0.5 percent potassium hydroxide; and 0.5 percent 1,5-
taining no inhibitor to a hydraulic fluid system may dihydroxynapththalene and 0.5 percent potassium hy-
ultimately result in the desorption of the monolayer droxide. The most satisfactory inhibitors for systems
and loss of rust inhibiting properties. Monolayers of containing n-butanol are 0.5 percent hydroquinone
compounds, having rust inhibiting properties, on met- with 0.5 percent potassium mercaptobenzothiazole
als can usually be removed by exhaustively washing the (Ref. 33).
surfaces with solvents.
5-3.5 VOLATILE CORROSION INHIBITORS
5-3.4 EXAMPLES OF RUST AND
CORROSION INHIBITORS The polar rust inhibiting compounds described in
par. 5-3.4 are effective only on ferrous surfaces con-
Many classes of compounds are effective as rust in- tacted by the hydraulic fluid. Corrosion and rust in
hibitors, namely: sodium and barium mahogany sul- other parts of the system can be inhibited through the
fonates; carboxylates, including sorbitan mono-oleate; use of volatile corrosion inhibitors which readily sub-
and a variety of other compounds (Ref. 22). Hydrox- lime at ordinary temperatures and deposit a monolayer
yarylstearic acids have been found to function both as on exposed metal surfaces. These inhibitors are often
oxidation and rust inhibitors (Refs. 28, 29). Nitrogen water soluble and can be washed from the surface with
compounds-such as amines or amides, certain phos- water. Although this technique of corrosion inhibition
phorus compounds (especially esters of phosphorus is most frequently used in connection with packaging
acids) and dicarboxylic acids made by reacting olefins (Ref. 34), aqueous hydraulic fluids can be inhibited in
5-5
AMCP 706-123
both the liquid and vapor phase with diisopropylam- loss", has been offered in order to differentiate the
monium nitrite (Ref. 35). effect from the same effect which may result from
"thixotropic viscosity loss" of mineral oils below their
cloud point (Ref. 37). Also, under high shear stress the
5-4 VISCOSITY INDEX IMPROVERS polymer chains may be ruptured with a consequent
permanent loss in viscosity of polymer-thickened oils.
This change, which is not a depolymerization, is more
5-4.1 MODE OF ACTION pronounced in blends that contain high molecular
weight, or more viscous polymers. Lower molecular
The addition of certain polymers to a hydraulic oil weight polymers are less susceptible to "permanent vis-
will increase the viscosity of the oil throughout its use- cosity loss".
ful temperature range and improve its viscosity-tem- The term "shear stability", encompasses both effects,
perature relationship. The contribution of a polymer to temporary and permanent viscosity loss. Laboratory
the viscosity of a polymer-oil blend is related directly methods for producing accelerated shearing of polymer-
to the effective hydrodynamic volume of the polymer. thickened oils have included a mechanical pump
The hydrodynamic volume of the polymer, in turn, is loop in which a pump recycles the fluid through an
related to the degree of solvation of the polymer by the orifice, and a sonic oscillator test method. Since the
base oil (Ref. 36). Higher temperatures favor better latter technique offers some advantages over pump
solubility of the polymer in the oil hence better solva- loop tests, an ASTM Sonic Shear Method has been
tion and an "expanded" macromolecule. Lower tem- proposed (Ref. 39). In studies of the sonic shear test, it
peratures favor contraction of the macromolecule, or has been found that shear breakdown of the polyisobu-
stated differently, the formation of a convoluted spe- tylenes could be blocked by water contamination, but
cies. In this way, the effective contribution of the that the shear stability of polymethacrylates was not
polymer to the viscosity of the polymer-oil blend is significantly affected under similar conditions (Ref.
greater at higher temperatures. Not all polymers differ 40). The shear stability of polymethacrylates and
in their contribution to viscosity at different tempera- polyisobutylenes varies inversely with their ability to
tures, but nonetheless they may be referred to as V.l. improve the viscosity index (Ref. 41). The ability of an
improvers owing to the inconsistencies of the Dean and additive to improve the viscosity index decreases with
Davis viscosity-index system (Ref. 37). applied shear stress (Ref. 42).
The thickening power of a polymer increases as the
molecular weight increases and, consequently, as its Sources of high energy other than shear can also
effective hydrodynamic volume increases. The thicken- induce degradation of polymer thickeners. These
ing power is usually proportional to the molecular sources include high temperatures, ultrasonic degrada-
weight to the 0.5 to 0.8 power (Ref. 38). tion, and gamma irradiation (Ref. 43).
A final limitation in the use of polymeric materials
is their solubility in the base fluid and the compatibility
5-4.2 LIMITATIONS
of compounded fluids with possible contaminants.
Thus, the polymethacrylates have an advantage
In order to maintain a specified viscosity in a hydrau-
as V. I. improvers in diester fluids in that the
lic fluid at a given temperature, a lower viscosity and
additives are not precipitated when the hydraulic fluid
therefore more volatile base fluid must be compounded
is accidentally contaminated by petroleum oils or the
with a polymer thickener because the effect of the addi-
common volatile solvents used to clean hydraulic sys-
tive is to increase the viscosity at all temperatures. In
tems (Ref. 4).
applications where low volatility and low viscosity are
required, the use of polymer thickeners will be limited.
A second limitation in the use of V.l. improvers is 5-4.3 EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE POLYMERS
their susceptibility to shear. In a hydraulic fluid-
polymer blend, the extended polymer coil may become The two classes of polymeric thickeners that have
oriented under high shear stress with a consequent loss achieved the greatest commercial importance are the
in viscosity. Since the original polymer configuration polyisobutylenes and the polymethacrylate esters (Ref.
reforms when the shear force is removed, the term 30). The effectiveness of each depends both on the na-
"temporary viscosity loss" has been applied to this phe- ture of the base fluid, and the particular composition
nomenon. An alternate term, "orientation viscosity and molecular weight of the polymer. Another class of
5-6
AMCP 706-123
useful polymers is that of various paraffinic resins (Ref. Synthetic fluids that are a single chemical compound
44). Many classes of polymers-including cellulose es- cannot foam because no impurities are present; how-
ters and ethers, polyvinyl alcohols, polyvinyl acetate, ever, even highly refined petroleum fluids have the in-
polyvinyl acetal, coumarone-indene resins, polysty- herent capability of foaming because they are mixtures.
renes, polybutenes, and polyacrylic esters-have been Problems with foam are more likely to arise when polar
examined as potential V.l. improvers and have been impurities are present. In addition to direct contamina-
found effective. tion, these polar impurities can come from any of sev-
In synthetic base stocks, a particular thickener must eral sources. Accumulated acidic oxidation products or
be sought which is effective with the system. The the addition of additives may cause foaming. For exam-
polymethacrylate esters are most effective with diester ple, rust inhibitors frequently contain polar groups and
fluids (Ref. 4); various polydimethylsiloxanes and are potential foam stabilizers. A secondary effect is that
polymethylphenylsiloxanes have been examined for use the possibility of inhibiting foaming may be diminished
with silicate and disiloxane fluids (Refs. 9, 45, 46); and by the presence of other additives. Thus, an antifoam
polyaryl ethers have been considered as V.l. improvers additive is less effective in a polymer-containing liquid
for aryl ether fluids, but they increase the already mar- than in one that does not contain a polymeric additive
ginally acceptable pour points (Ref. 47). (Ref. 51).
The amount of a polymer required to blend fluids of The foaming characteristics of a liquid can depend
a required viscosity, viscosity index, and mechanical on a number of operating characteristics, as well as the
stability from a particular base stock is related to the system design. Temperature, primarily because of its
polymer molecular weight (Ref. 48). Blending charts effect on viscosity, is also an important factor in foam
have been developed that allow the prediction of the stability. Since the collapse of the entrained air can
viscosity of an oil-polymer blend from the polymer depend in part on the ability of the liquid to flow into
molecular weight, polymer concentration, and the vis- the void, a lower viscosity would favor control of foam.
cosity of the base oil (Ref. 49). Although liquids decrease in viscosity with increases in
temperature, foaming at higher temperature can be a
serious problem because of the large coefficient of ther-
5-5 FOAM INHIBITORS, mal expansion of vapors relative to liquids. Thus, it is
reported that, at higher temperatures, foams are more
EMULSIFIERS, AND
difficult to control in lower-viscosity mineral oils and
DEMULSIFIERS synthetic hydrocarbons than in high-viscosity materi-
als (Ref. 1).
Additives useful as foam inhibitors, emulsifiers, and Several side effects can be observed in connection
demulsifiers have in common their ability to modify with foaming. Foaming of an oxidation-susceptible
(increase or decrease) the stability of an interface be- material at a high temperature increases the gas-liquid
tween two phases in a fluid system. Foaming results contact area and time, and consequently the rate at
from the formation of stable gas bubbles in the liquid which oxidation occurs. Although foaming is usually
phase; emulsion occurs with the formation of two sta- associated with air, it may also occur when impurities
ble liquid phases, one dispersed in the other. Foams and are present and the gas phase is the vapor of the fluid,
emulsions are stabilized by the presence of an adsorbed and particularly in regions of a system where the local
film at the interface between the two phases. pressure drops to the vapor pressure of the lubricant.
Since these are the same conditions that lead to cavita-
tion, the two phenomena are related, and a foam inhibi-
tor may well serve as a cavitation inhibitor.
5-5.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF FOAMS AND
THE MODE OF FOAM INHIBITION
5-5.2 EXAMPLES OF FOAM INHIBITORS
The mechanism of foam inhibition is frequently
thought to involve changes in the interfacial tension
between the liquid and vapor through changing the Methyl silicone oils, for example those with viscosi-
concentration of polar impurities in the region of the ties in the range of 50,000 cSt at 100°F (37°C), are
vapor bubble. A number of other theories on the stabil- effective foam inhibitors at the remarkably low concen-
ity of foams and the inhibition of foams have been trations of 10 ppm. They are generally considered as
reviewed by Zuidema (Ref. 50). "insoluble" inhibitors since they must be present in an
5-7
AMCP 706-123
amount that exceeds their solubility to be effective. If 5-6 LUBRICITY

the silicones are present in an amount that does not
exceed the solubility, or if the insoluble particles are
greater in size than 100 microns, they promote foaming 5-6.1 HYDRODYNAMIC VS BOUNDARY
(Ref. 52). Other defoamers that have been claimed in LUBRICATION
the patent literature include the calcium soaps of wool
olein, sodium alkyl esters of sulfuric acid, potassium Lubricity is a measure of the ability of a lubricant to
oleate, and esters of sulfonated ricinoleic acid (Ref. 50). reduce the friction or wear between two solid surfaces
Other reportedly useful additives are halogenated com- in contact with each other. The lubricant may be called
pounds, organic sulfates, polyesters, polyhydroxy es- upon to reduce friction in one of several ways, depend-
ters, polyhydroxy alcohols, and hydroxyamines ing on the film thickness and the particular conditions
(Ref. 51). under which the system is operating. Two important
variables are temperature and pressure, which in turn
will influence the film thickness of the lubricant be-
tween the two surfaces being lubricated.
5-5.3 EMULSIFIERS AND DEMULSIFIERS When the film thickness is greater than about 25
millionths of an inch, the mode of lubrication is hydro-
dynamic. Under these conditions, the moving surfaces
Emulsions consist of two immiscible or partly misci- never come in contact with each other and the friction
ble liquid phases, a dispersed phase of small particles is largely determined by the viscosity of the lubricating
in a continuous phase. Since the lubricating properties fluid. The only additives of importance in hydrody-
of an emulsion will approximate the lubricating proper- namic lubrication are polymer additives because they
ties of the continuous phase, certain water-in-oil emul- increase the viscosity of the fluid.
sions have received attention as fire-resistant hydraulic As the pressure or temperature between the lu-
fluids (Ref. 53). These emulsions, which usually con- bricated surfaces is increased, the lubricating film can
tain about 40 percent water, are stabilized by emulsify- become sufficiently thin that metal-to-metal contact
ing agents that are characterized as molecules having occurs and boundary lubrication develops. Under these
one group of atoms that is hydrophilic and a second conditions the fluid serves as a carrier for boundary or
group of atoms that is oleophilic. A molecule so con- extreme pressure additives and as a coolant.
structed is capable of orienting itself at an oil-water
interface, decreasing the interfacial tension, and stabil-
izing the emulsion. These additives, which may fre- 5-6.2 OILINESS, ANTIWEAR, AND
quently be organic acids or soaps, can be selected from EXTREME-PRESSURE ADDITIVES
known classes of nonionic, anionic, or cationic surface
active agents. Additives for boundary lubrication are divided into
three somewhat indefinite classes-oiliness agents, an-
More often in hydraulic systems, additives that in-
tiwear additives, and extreme pressure additives-the
duce demulsification are required. Impurities that
classification being made on the basis of the stringency
cause foaming can also cause emulsions if water hap-
of the temperature and pressure requirements-temper-
pens to be present in the system. If the water is emulsi-
ature being the more important of the contributing
fied and cannot be readily removed through drainage,
factors. Each of the three classes of additives is effective
lubricated parts can be damaged. Polar impurities can
insofar as it modifies a lubricated surface, reduces the
influence the development of either water-in-oil or oil-
in-water emulsions. friction, or protects the surface from damage.
The selection of a suitable demulsifying agent will

depend in part on whether an oil-in-water or a water- 5-6.2.1 Oiliness Additives
in-oil emulsion must be counteracted. An additive that
stabilizes an oil-in-water emulsion will generally de- Oiliness additives, which are usually effective at low
stroy a water-in-oil emulsion, and vice versa. Thus, temperatures and pressures, are polar molecules that
most demulsifiers are also surface active agents. Some can form monomolecular films on a lubricated surface.
examples of specific additives are petroleum sulfonic The most frequently cited example is oleic acid. Oleic
acids, or salts; dimerized, unsaturated, aliphatic mono- acid forms an oriented film that has a relatively high
carboxylic acids; and sulfonated castor oil (Ref. 8). energy of displacement at the interface of the lubricant
5-8
AMCP 706-123
and the metal by adsorption of the acid portion of the materials. Phosphates and phosphites, particularly
molecule on the metal surface. tricresyl phosphate, have received considerable atten-
tion as additives (Ref. 1). Acid phosphates and even
phosphoric acid show antiwear properties in the proper
5-6.2.2 Antiwear Additives concentration, but too large a concentration of phos-
phoric acid can lead to chemical erosion (Ref. 1). Phos-
Phosphorus-containing additives are usually classed phates and phosphonates containing long alkyl chains
as antiwear additives. Under higher pressures and tem- provide good lubricity and, in addition, function as
peratures, these additives are thought to be effective in antioxidants (Ref. 58). The effectiveness of tricresyl
reducing wear through their ability to form iron (II) phosphate is reduced in the presence of polar com-
phosphate and its hydrate on the metal surface (Ref. pounds such as petroleum sulfonates, which have a
54). The formation of the iron (II) phosphates has been greater affinity for metal surfaces than does tricresyl
attributed to the presence of polar impurities, perhaps phosphate (Ref. 1). Metal dithiocarbamates function as
acidic hydrolysis products, of the phosphate (Refs. 55- antiwear additives in ester fluids, but not in mineral
57). The most common example of this type of additive oils. Fluorinated esters have been found to be as suscep-
is tricresyl phosphate which is frequently used in con- tible to antiwear additives as nonfluorinated esters
junction with an oiliness agent. (Ref. 59), but many additives are not sufficiently solu-
ble to be used in the fluorinated esters.
5-6.2.3 Extreme-pressure Additives
Extreme-pressure additives are used under the most 5-6.3.2 Additives for Silicon-containing Fluids
severe conditions and are usually sulfurized or chlori-
nated organic materials. Compounds containing benzy- A great many additives that are effective in mineral
lic sulfur are particularly effective. Under conditions of oil and ester fluids are ineffective in silicones, silicates,
extreme pressure or temperature, welding of the two and siloxanes. Silicones show especially poor additive
mating surfaces can occur with consequent seizure, susceptibility for lubricating steel-on-steel. The wear
galling, or scuffing. In a lubricant containing an ex- properties can be improved in ester-silicone blends, but
treme pressure additive, when high temperatures that such a high proportion of ester is required that the good
can produce welding are approached, the additive pre- high-temperature properties of the silicones are lost
sumably undergoes a chemical reaction with the metal (Ref. 1).
surface to form a metal chloride or sulfide film that Silicon-containing liquids are usually not susceptible
protects the surface. The sulfur-containing additives to modification by antiwear additives. There is evi-
may be used with lead naphthenate to obtain a protec- dence that the silicon reacts preferentially with the
tive lead-sulfide coating. metal to be lubricated, forming a coating on the metal
that is no longer reactive with the antiwear additive.
Silicones and silicates themselves can be used as addi-
5-6.3 CLASSES OF LUBRICITY ADDITIVES
tives in esters and mineral oils to obtain antiwear prop-
Lubricity additives function through their action at erties, a fact which suggests that a soft, inert silicon-
the surface of the metal to be lubricated; therefore, iron alloy is formed (Ref. 1). Some attempts have been
lubrication of different metal combinations may re- made to modify the chemical structures of silicones to
quire the use of different additives. All base stocks are improve their wear properties. Friction and wear
not equally susceptible to additive modification, and studies of chlorinated methylphenyl silicones show an
the effectiveness of antiwear additives can be modified improvement over nonhalogenated methylphenylsili-
by the presence of other additives. For these reasons, cones, but high friction and wear are still observed with
a very large number of compounds and materials have hard steel on soft steel and soft steel on soft steel (Ref.
been investigated as potential boundary lubricants in 60). In addition, the chlorine-modified silicones suffer
hydraulic fluids. a second limitation in being poorer lubricants for steel
on copper above 400°F than are unmodified silicones
(Ref. 60). A great improvement in the lubricity of chlo-
5-6.3.1 Additives for Mineral Oils and Esters rinated phenylmethylsilicone was found when the liq-
Ester-based fluids and mineral oils are readily sus- uid was cooked with tin tetrachloride (Ref. 10).
ceptible to additive modification with a variety of- Fluorosilicone fluids are reported to have at least
5-9
AMCP 706-123
equivalent wear performance on the Shell 4-Ball a hydraulic fluid in order to more effectively seal the
Extreme Pressure Tester to di-2-ethylhexyl sebacate system. Certain fluids, however, notably the silicates
(Ref. 61). and siloxanes, are poor rubber solvents but good sol-
A final class of silicon-containing fluids, the tetraalk- vents for rubber plasticizer. The result is that the plasti-
ylsilanes, have better additive susceptibility than the cizer can be extracted from the rubber with consequent
silicones, silicates, or siloxanes. Although tetraalkylsi- shrinking and hardening.
lane base fluids exceed target wear limits, their wear The approach to solving this problem is the addition
properties can be improved with phosphates, phosph- of 5 to 15 percent of compounds to the fluids that can
ites, phosphonates, phosphorothioates, and sulfonated act as rubber plasticizers (Refs. 9, 46, 67). Esters such
petroleum derivatives (Ref. 62). as butyl oleate, di-2-ethylhexyl sebacate, and dibutyl
phthalate, and certain aromatic compounds have been
5-6.3.3 Additives for Aryl Ether Fluids most commonly used in this application. With such
large quantities, the function of the added material is
A variety of additives have proved effective in im- not so much an additive as a modification of the base
parting improved wear properties to poly(phenyl liquid through blending. In so modifying a liquid, spe-
ethers) (Ref. 16). These additives include bis(cyclopen- cial attention must be given to changes in the physi-
tadienyl)titanium bis(trichloroacetate) and its polysul-
cal properties.
fide derivative, diphenyltin bis(trichloroacetate), bis(-
triphenylphosphine) nickel dichloride, and particularly,
trichloroacetic acid. Tricresyl phosphate at the 5 per-
cent level is also effective in aryl ethers (Ref. 63). 5-9 HYDROLYTIC INHIBITORS
Silicate esters undergo hydrolytic degradation to

5-7 POUR POINT DEPRESSANTS produce products that are both corrosive and insoluble;
An oil that does not readily crystallize may be cooled carbocylate and phosphate esters seldom yield insolu-
to a temperature at which the viscosity becomes so ble products on hydrolysis. Chief interest in finding
great that it will not flow under the conditions of the additives that will correct these undesirable properties
pour point test. This viscosity or glassy pour point is has been in connection with silicate and disiloxane
inherent in the chemical nature of the oil and can be based fluids, although phosphates, phosphonates, and
modified only through the blending of oils or mixing carbocylates have received some attention. Properly
the oils with light diluents. inhibited, silicate fluids have been shown to have ac-
Petroleum oils that contain a small percentage of ceptable hydrolytic stabilities (Ref. 67). In designing a
wax may cease to flow at a much higher temperature hydraulic fluid, it is often preferable to modify the
owing to the formation of a network of wax crystals. chemical structure to obtain hydrolytic stability rather
Such a "waxy" pour point may be lowered through the than to use inhibitors.
use of additives. A number of explanations have been Without inhibitors, many silicates tarnish copper
offered for the mode of action of these additives, but and deposit some silica under conditions of hydrolysis
their effect is thought to depend on the additive's ability at 200T, but additives such as metal phenates,
to modify the crystallization process so that more and phenyl - a - naphthylamine (Refs. 45, 68),
smaller crystals with a higher volume-to-surface area N, N'- dibutyl - p- phenylenediamine (Ref. 9), and
ratio are obtained. The modified crystals do not form /^dioctyldiphenylamine (Ref. 46) are effective at a
networks so easily (Refs. 64-65). concentration of 0.1 percent in stabilizing the fluid.
Materials that are used as commercial additives in- Since the aromatic amines are effective inhibitors in
clude the polyalkylnaphthalenes, polymethacrylates, concentrations less than those required for their use as
and alkylated polystyrenes. Other polymeric additives antioxidants, the additive can serve a dual purpose.
are also effective (Ref. 66). Diphenylamine and phenothiazine are less effective,
and phenolic inhibitors are ineffective (Ref. 68).
5-8 SEAL DEGRADATION The inhibitors lose their effectiveness after a com-
pounded hydraulic fluid is exposed to the rubber swell
RETARDANTS test, presumably as a result of the leaching of the plasti-
It is desirable that elastomeric seals swell to some cizer from the rubber (Ref. 9). The additives are not
extent (about 5 percent) when they are in contact with effective in 400°F hydrolytic stability tests (Ref. 46).
5-10
AMCP 706-123
5-10 CAVITATION INHIBITORS hydraulic fluids. In general, hydraulic fluid specifica-

tions contain no requirements on inhibiting microbial
Cavitation is a poorly understood phenomenon. growth. But microbial deterioration of hydraulic fluids
There are few data available in the literature on the use can be a real problem and should be considered in the
of additives to change the cavitation resistance of hy- selection of a suitable liquid. In some instances, it will
draulic fluids. The usual procedure to avoid damage to be necessary to add an inhibitor or a biocide to pre-
structural parts of the hydraulic system from cavitation vent growth.
in the hydraulic fluid is to use materials that are resist- For a biocide to be successful and desirable, it must:
ant. Softer metals are plastically deformed; hard brittle (a) have low toxicity to the skin or upon inhalation, (b)
metals are pitted. Hard, tough metals, such as cobalt be soluble in hydraulic fluids and their additives, (c) be
chromium alloys, are very resistant to damage noncorrosive to metals, (d) be economically suitable
(Ref. 69). (inexpensive or effective in very low concentration),
There has been some development work, however, and (e) have no degrading effect on other properties of
on cavitation inhibiting additives. Studies in the litera- the liquid such as viscosity, stability, fire resistance, etc.
ture suggest that if the cavities consist of a vacuum or Although there are numerous effective inhibitors avail-
the vapor of the liquid, they will collapse with more able, none satisfy all of the above requirements. Many
energy release than if they contain some foreign gas, potential inhibitors are toxic to humans and many that
such as air (Ref. 69). The work that has been done on are effective are too expensive or require such large
cavitation inhibitors has been directed toward "filling" concentrations that they change the properties of
the cavities with a "foreign gas". the liquid.
One of the most successful cavitation inhibitors is Because many liquids used as hydraulic fluids and all
water. Although reports are contradictory as to the jet fuels are hydrocarbons, the biocide research results
performance of water, it was used in one study at a ratio for jet fuels are, in general, applicable to hydrocarbon
of 1:200 in a hydraulic fluid to reduce cavitation ero- hydraulic fluids. Ethylene glycol monomethyl ether
sion in control valves (Ref. 70). The hydraulic fluid was (EGME) and glycerol is a water soluble additive that
a commercial phosphate ester liquid. Results indicated is effective as a biocide in jet fuel. It has been reported
almost complete elimination of the cavitation damage that as little as 0.05 percent by volume keeps micro-
that had been occurring with the "unwatered" hydrau- organism growth to a minimum (Ref. 73). Quaternary
lic fluid. Theoretical work on the use of water in a ammonium acetate, ethylidene diacetate, and
phosphate ester indicated that 0.5 percent water would tri-«-butyl borate are other inhibitors recommended for
increase the vapor pressure and reduce the cavity col- use in jet fuel in bulk storage tanks (Ref. 74). In some
lapse pressure (Ref. 69). instances, other additives such as antioxidants or anti-
Several reports summarized in Ref. 69 have shown icing compounds have been found to have a secondary
that some additives, as well as some contaminants, in- effect as biocides (Ref. 75).
crease the actual damage from cavitation. The consen-
sus expressed in the literature is that every property of REFERENCES
a liquid has a two-fold and opposing effect on cavita- 1. M. R. Fenske et al., Fluids, Lubricants, Fuels
tion and the resultant damage. The various effects are and Related Materials, WADC-TR-55-30,
often interacting and complex. The limited data availa- Parts I through VIII.
ble suggest that many of the candidate additives for 2. H. Ravner, E. R. Russ, and C. O. Timmons,
cavitation inhibition may reduce the total amount of "Antioxidant Action of Metals and Metal-
cavitation present but increase the resulting cavita- Organic Salts in Fluoroesters and Polyphenyls
tion damage. Ethers", J. Chem. Eng. Data 8, 591 (1963).
3. G. G. Kanpp and H. D. Orloff, "Improved Lu-
5-11 BIOCIDES bricating Oil Antioxidants", Ind. Eng. Chem.
53, 65 (1961).
Biocides are additives designed to inhibit the growth 4. D. C. Atkins et al., "Synthetic Lubricant Fluids
of micro-organisms in liquids. The Air Force, Army, From Branched-Chain Diesters - Part II", Ind.
and many petroleum companies have sponsored re- Eng. Chem. 39, 484 (1947).
search concerning microbial attack and growth in pe- 5. Cohen, Murphy, O'Rear, Ravner, and Zisman,
troleum products used as fuels (Refs. 71, 72). However, "Esters as Tailor-Made Lubricants", Ind. Eng.
there has been almost no work on micro-organisms in Chem. 45, 1766 (1953).
5-11
AMCP 706-123
6. Dueltgen, Lugasch, and Cosgrove, "Or- 20. R. E. Dolle, High Temperature Corrosion Pre-
ganosilenium Compounds as High-Tempera- ventive Additives for Fluorocarbon Polyether
ture Antioxidants", Lubrication Engr. 18, 218 Fluids, AFML-TR-67-210 (1967).
(1962). 21. R. L. Adamczak, R. J. Benzing, and H.
7. H. W. Adams, "Additive Studies in Research Schwenker, Proceedings of the AFML Hydraulic
on High-Temperature Gas-Turbine Lubri- Fluids Conference, AFML-TR-67-369, Decem-
cants", Sei. Lubrication (London) 12, No. 8, 16 ber 1967.
(1960). 22. H. R. Baker and W. A. Zisman, "Polar-Type
8. Klaus, Tewksbury, and Fenske, "Preparation, Rust Inhibitor - Part I", Ind. Eng. Chem.
Properties, and Some Applications of Super- 40, 2338 (1948).
Refined Mineral Oils", ASLE Trans. 5, 115 23. Baker, Jones, and Zisman, "Polar-Type Rust
(1962). Inhibitors - Part II", Ind. Eng. Chem. 41, 137
9. N. W. Furby et al., The Development of High (1949).
Temperature Aircraft Hydraulic Fluids, 24. H. R. Baker and W. A. Zisman, "Liquid and
WADC-TR-54-191 (1954). Vapor Corrosion Inhibitors", Lub. Eng. 7, 117
10. Brown, Holdslock, and McGuire, Silicone Fluid (1951).
Research for the Development ofHigh-Tempera- 25. C. R. Singleterry and E. M. Solomon, "Neutral
ture Hydraulic Fluids and Engine Oils, WADC- and Basic Sulfonates", Ind. Eng. Chem. 46,
TR-56-25, Parts I, II, and III (1956). 1035 (1954).
26. S. Kaufman and C. R. Singleterry, "Micelle
11. R. M. Silverstein, Synthesis and Evaluation of
Formation by Sulfonates in a Nonpolar Sol-
High-Temperature Antioxidants for Synthetic
vent", J. Colloid Chem. 10, 139 (1955).
Hydraulic Fluids and Lubricants, WADC-TR-
27. W. D. Bascom, S. Kaufman, and C. R. Single-
58-335, Parts I and II (1958).
terry, Colloid Aspects of the Performance of Oil-
12. Murphy, Saunders, and Smith, "Thermal and Soluble Soaps as Lubricant Additives, 1959,
Oxidation Stability of Polymethylphenylsilox- Fifth World Petroleum Congress, Section VI,
anes", Ind. Eng. Chem. 42, 2462 (1950). Paper 18, New York (1959).
13. Atkins, Murphy, and Saunders, "Polymethyl- 28. Gisser, Messina, and Snead, "Hydroxyaryl-
siloxanes-Thermal and Oxidation Stabilities", stearic Acids as Oxidation and Rust Inhibitors
Ind. Eng. Chem. 39, 1395 (1947). in Lubricants", Ind. Eng. Chem. 48, 2001
14. H. R. Baker and C. R. Singleterry, "Stabiliza- (1956).
tion of Silicon Lubricating Fluids above 200°C 29. Snead, Messina, and Gisser, "Structural Effects
by Iron, Copper, Cerium, and Other Metal of Arylstearic Acids as Combination Oxidation
Compounds", J. Eng. Chem. Data 6, 146 and Rust Inhibitors", Ind. Eng. Chem., Prod.
(1961). Res. Dev. 5, 222 (1966).
15. Baker, Kagarise, O'Rear, and Sniegoski, "Sta- 30. R. Hatton, Introduction to Hydraulic Fluids,
bilization of Silicone Lubricating Fluids at 300° Reinhold Publishing Corp., N.Y., 1962.
to 400°C by Soluble Cerium Complexes ", J. 31. J. Messina and A. Mertwoy, "Inorganic Salts in
Chem. Eng. Data 11, 110 (1965). Mahogony Sulfates and Their Effect on Pe-
troleum Hydraulic Fluids", Lub. Eng. 23, 46
16. Brown et al., Research and Development on
(1967).
High-Temperature Additives for Lubricants and
32. D. Wyllie and A. W. Morgan, "Prevention of
Hydraulic Fluids, WADC-TR-59-191, Parts
Corrosion in Glycerol-Water Hydraulic
I-IV (1959).
Fluids", J. Appl. Chem. (London) 15, 289
17. Smith et al., Research on High- Temperature Ad- (1965); C. A. 63, 9552 (1965).
ditives for Lubricants, Office Tech. Serv. Report 33. C. B. Jordan, Study of Corrosion Inhibitors and
AD281, U. S. Dept. Com., 831 (1962). Antioxidants for Alcohols Found in Hydraulic
18. J. R. Stemniski et al., "Antioxidants for High- Brake Fluids, Ordnance Project TB5-5010F, D.
Temperature Lubricants", ASLE Trans. 7, 43 A. Project No. 593-21-054, Engineering
(1964). Laboratories Report No. 28, Aberdeen Proving
19. R. E. Dolle and F. J. Harsacky, New High Tem- Ground, Maryland (1955).
perature Additive Systems for PR-143 Fluids, 34. H. R. Baker, "Volatile Rust Inhibitors", Ind.
AFML-TR-65-349, January 1966. Eng. Chem. 46, 2592 (1954).
5-12
AMCP 706-1 23
35. J. E. Brophy et al., "Aqueous Nonflammable Chem. Soc, Div. Petroleum Chem. Preprints 7,
Hydraulic Fluids", Ind. Eng. Chem. 43, 884 B-103 (1962).
(1961). 49. W. A. Wright and W. W. Crouse, "General
36. T. W. Selby, "Non-Newtonian Characteristics Relationships for Polymer-Petroleum Oil
of Lubricating Oils", ASLE Trans. 1, 68 (1958). Blends", Ind. Eng. Chem. Prod. Res. and Dev.
37. T. W. Selby, The Low Temperature Viscometry 3, 153 (1964).
of Oils Containing Polyisobutylene and Poly(al- 50. H. H. Zuidema, The Performance of Lubricat-
kyl methacrylate) as Viscosity Index Improvers, ing Oil, Reinhold Publishing Corp., N.Y., 1959.
Am. Chem. Soc, Div. Petrol. Chem., Preprints 51. Foaming Characteristics of Hydraulic Fluids
2, 89 (1957); C. A. 55, 8834 (1961). and Special Lubricants, Petroleum Refining
38. W. T. Stewart and F. A. Stuart, "Lubricating Laboratory Report PRL-3.48, Pennsylvania
Oil Additives", in: Kobe and Smith, Eds., Ad- State College, December 1949.
vances in Petroleum Chemistry and Refining, 52. L. T. Shearer and W. W. Akers, "Foaming in
Vol. VII, Interscience, N.Y., 1963. Lube Oils", J. Phys. Chem. 62, 1269 (1958).
39. Proposed Method of Test for Shear Stability of 53. "Fire Resistant Hydraulic Fluids", Lubrication
Polymer-Containing Oils, Committee D-2 on 48, 161 (1962).
Petroleum Products and Lubricants, 1961, Am. 54. D. Godfrey, "The Lubrication Mechanism of
Soc. Testing Materials, Supplementary Preprint Tricresyl Phosphate on Steel", ASLE Trans. 8,1
to the 1961 Report of Committee D-2 on Pe- (1965).
troleum Products and Lubricants, Appendix 55. E. E. Klaus and H. E. Bieber, "Effects of
XIII, pp. 61-66. P32 Impurities on the Behavior of Tricresyl
40. C. M. Murphy and H. Raoner, "Oxidation Phosphate-32 as an Antiwear Additive", ASLE
Characteristics of Some Diester Fluids", Ind. Trans. 8, 12 (1965).
Eng. Chem. 44, 1607 (1952). 56. E. E. Klaus et al., "A Study of Tricresyl Phos-
41. T. W. Selby, Consideration of the Degradation of phate as an Additive for Boundary Lubrica-
Polymer Systems on the Basis of Reduced', Vis- tion", ASLE Trans. 11, 155 (1968).
cosity Loss, ASTM Special Publication 382, p. 57. F. T. Barcroft and S. G. Daniel, "The Action of
58, 1964. Neutral Organic Phosphates as EP Additives",
42. R. LeMar, "Factors Affecting Sonic Degrada- ASME Trans. J. Basic Eng. 87, 761 (1965).
tion of Polymer Solutions", Ind. Eng. Chem., 58. J. Messina et al., "Evaluation of Long Chain
Prod. Res. Dev. 6, 19-23 (1967). Phosphorus Compounds as Lubricity Addi-
43. Klaus, Tewksbury, Jolie, Lloyd, and Manning, tives", ASLE Trans. 3, 48 (1960).
Effect of Some High Energy Sources on Polymer 59. R. C. Bowers et al., "Boundary Lubrication
Thickened Lubricants, ASTM Special Publica- Studies of Typical Fluoroesters", Lubrication
tion 382, p. 54, 1964. Eng. 12, 245 (1956).
44. E. E. Klaus, R. E. Hersh, and J. M. Perez, 60. R. C. Bowers et al., "Friction and Wear Studies
"Paraffinic Resins Have Dual Role as High of Chlorinated Methylphenyl Silicones", Ind.
Temperature Lubricants and Viscosity Index Eng. Chem. 48, 943 (1956).
Improvers", SAE Journal 74, 76 (1966); C. A. 61. H. M. Schiefer and J. V. Dyke, "Boundary Lu-
65, 19898 (1966). bricating Properties of Fluoroalkyl Silicones in
45. N. W. Furby, Development of Non-Flammable Bench and Pump Tests", ASLE Trans. 7, 32
Aircraft Hydraulic Fluids, AF-TR 6685 (Suppl. I). (1964).
62. A. W. Sawyer and T. M. Medved, Formulation
46. R. L. Peeler and S. A. Kovacich, Development
of Silane Base High-Temperature Hydraulic
of a Hydrolytically Stable High Temperature
Fluid, WADC-TR-5 8-407, Parts I and II
Hydraulic Fluid, WADC-TR-57-119, Parts
I and II. (1958).
63. W. A. Marshal, Energy Transfer Fluid Studies,
47. Research and Development on High Tempera- ML-TDR-64-154 (1954).
ture Additives for Lubricants and Hydraulic 64. L. E. Lorensen, "Pour Point Depression I;
Fluids, WADC -TR -59 -191, Parts II, HI, Mechanism Studies", Am. Chem. Soc, Div. of
and IV. Petroleum Chem. Preprints 7, B-61 (1962).
48. Prizer, Radtke, and White, "Mechanical Break- 65. G. A. Holder and J. Winkler, "Wax Crystalliza-
down of 0.1-Soluble Polymethacrylates", Am. tion From Distillate Fuels; Part I. Cloud and
5-13
AMCP 706-123
Pour Phenomena Exhibited by Solution of Bi- 70. W. Hampton, "The Problem of Cavitation Ero-
nary «-paraffin mixtures; Part II, Mechanism of sion in Aircraft Hydraulic Systems", Aircraft
Pour Depression; Part III. Effect of Wax Com- Engineering 38, 8 (1966).
position on Response to Pour Depressant and
71. J. Sharpley, Elementary Petroleum Microbi-
Further Development of the Mechanism of
ology, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston,
Pour Depression", J. Inst. of Petroleum 51, 228,
1966.
235, and 243 (1965).
66. L. E. Lorensen and W. A. Hewett, "Pour Point 72. J. Davis, Petroleum Microbiology, Elsevier Pub-
Depression II; Structure vs. Activity", Am. lishing Company, N.Y., 1967.
Chem. Soc, Div. of Petroleum Chem. Preprints
7, B-71, 1962. 73. D. O. Hetzman, "The Control of Bacterial and
67. R. LeMar, Development of a Wide-Temperature Fungal Growth in Jet Fuels by Use of a Fuel
Range Hydraulic Fluid, RIA Report No. 67- Additive", Developments in Industrial Mi-
2254, Rock Island Arsenal, Rock Island, Il- crobiology 6, 105 (1964).
linois (1967). 74. A. U. Churchill and W. W. Leathern, Develop-
68. N. W. Furby, Development of Non-Flammable ment ofMicrobiological Sludge Inhibitors, ASD-
Aircraft Hydraulic Fluids, AF-TR-6685 (ATI- TR-61-193, 1st Reprint, September 1962.
188471).
69. D. Godfrey and N. W. Furby, "Cavitation of 75. G. C. Blanchard and C. R. Goucher, Mech-
Oils and Hydraulic Fluids", in: R. L. Adamc- anism of Microbiological Contamination of Jet
zak, R. J. Benzing, and H. Schwenker, Proceed- Fuel and Development of Techniques for Detec-
ings of the AFML Hydraulic Fluids Conference, tion of Microbiological Contamination, APL-
AFML-TR-67-369, December 1967. TDR-64-70, Part II, February 1966.
5-14
AMCP 706-123
CHAPTER 6
STORAGE AND HANDLING
6-1 CONTAINERS Interior coatings or liners are common for hydraulic

fluid containers made for commercial use, especially
the 55-gal drums. For Military Specification fluids,
6-1.1 GENERAL however, interior coatings or liners generally are not
required. When interior coatings or liners are used,
The function of hydraulic fluid containers is simply they must be of a material that will not react with the
to contain the fluid during transport and storage. The hydraulic fluid.
container must be strong and tight enough to assure
protection of its contents, and it must preserve the
original cleanliness of the fluid. Characteristics impor- 6-1.3 CONTAINER SIZES, STORAGE, AND
tant to the design and selection of containers for a MARKING
specific hydraulic fluid include the container materials,
dimensions, and storage conditions to which the con- MIL-STD-290C (Ref. 5) includes detailed informa-
tainer will be subjected. Also of importance are stand- tion regarding required methods of packaging, packing,
ards for proper labeling, and guidelines for the purchas- and marking of hydraulic fluid containers. Table 6-1
ing and ordering of containers. and Figs. 6-1, 6-2, and 6-3 list and illustrate applicable
data regarding size.
6-1.2 CONTAINER MATERIALS
Industrial and military requirements for materials

for hydraulic fluids containers vary, but the usual
materials are steel or aluminum. In general, military
hydraulic fluid specifications for containers for one gal-
lon or less require that they be packaged in metal cans,
28 gage or lighter, conforming to Federal Specification
PPP-C-96A (Ref. 1). Heavier gage steel is used for
containers of 5- and 55-gal capacities. For instance,
55-gal drums must comply with Federal Specification
PPP-D-729B (Ref. 2) and range from 12 to 18 gage;
5-gal containers must comply with Federal Specifica-
tion PPP-P-704B (Ref. 3) and range from 24 to 26 gage.
Exterior coatings for military purposes usually con-
form to Federal Specification TT-E-515 (Ref. 4) for
quick-drying enamel. Containers of one gallon or less
are generally painted red, while larger containers are
painted olive drab. Exterior coatings for commercial use
depend on the manufacturer's preference and frequent-
ly incorporate a color code to distinguish the contents. Fig. 6-1. One-gal Screw Cap Can, Type V, Class 4
6-1
AMCP 706-123
TABLE 6-1.
HYDRAULIC FLUID CONTAINER SIZES5
Container Container Capacity Type Class Cap Design Shape
Can 1-pint V 4,8 Screw cap, spout, or special closure Oblong
Can 1-quart V 4,8 Screw cap, spout, or special closure Oblong
Can 1-quart I - Hermetically sealed Cylindrical
Can 1-gallon V 4,8 Screw cap, spout, or special closure Oblong
Can 1-gallon I - Hermetically sealed Cylindrical
Paü 5-gallon - - Screw cap, spout, or special closure Cylindrical
Drum 55-gallon - - Bung Cylindrical
agitation of the samples shall be permitted during stor-

age of the samples. The samples shall then be examined
visually to assure that they exhibit no formation of
resinous gums, sludges, or insoluble materials or sepa-
ration."
Marking instructions required on hydraulic fluid
containers for military use are given in MIL-STD-290C
(Ref. 5). References given in MIL-STD-290C (Ref. 5)
specify the colors and types of inks (Ref. 8), lacquers
(Ref. 9), and enamels (Ref. 10) to be used for marking
containers. The information normally required on large
containers, and its proper location, is illustrated in
Fig. 6-2. One-qt Hermetically Sealed Can, Type I
Storage requirements are frequently included in hy-

draulic fluid specifications. For example, MIL-H-
5606B hydraulic fluid specification states that "prior to
use in the intended equipment, the product may be
stored under conditions of sheltered or unsheltered
storage in geographic areas ranging in temperature
from-57° to + 49°C (-70° to + 120°F)" (Ref. 6). Hy-
draulic fluid specifications often include storage stabil-
ity requirements which a liquid must pass to become
qualified under the specification. For example, in MIL-
H-8448B (Ref. 7), a candidate liquid must pass the
following storage test: "Three 4-oz samples of the test
fluid shall be placed in separate airtight glass containers
and stored in the dark at temperatures between 65°F
(18°C) and 90°F (32°C) for a period of 12 months. No Fig. 6-3. One-pt Spout Top Can, Type V, Class 8
6-2
AMCP 706-123
Figs. 6-4 and 6-5. The numbers in parentheses on Fig. 6-2.1 SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION
6-5 refer to the letter size to be used. The abbreviations
listed in Table 6-2 are frequently used for hydraulic There are many sources of hydraulic fluid contami-
fluid container marking. nation. Some of the more common are: (1) lint and
dust, (2) moisture, and (3) additive problems.
TABLE 6-2.
RECOMMENDED ABBREVIATIONS5
a. Quantitative Units 6-2.1.1 Contamination from Lint and Dust
Dozen DZ Lint, dust, and other foreign matter should be the

Each EA least common type of fluid contaminant. Their source
Gross GR can usually be traced to carelessness on the part of
Hundred HD personnel who handle the fluid. Airborne dust can en-
Thousand MX ter the container when it is left uncapped or improperly
Weight WT sealed. Lint and other foreign matter can be traced to
Cube (cubic foot) CU careless procedures in wiping lids, funnels, and other
Gallon GA items which come into contact with the fluid.
Quart QT
Pint PT
Ounce OZ 6-2.1.2 Moisture Contamination During
Cubic Centimeter CC Storage
b. Procurement Marking Abbreviations
Aircraft ACFT Moisture is one of the greatest enemies of hydraulic
Automotive AUTO fluids and systems, except for aqueous type hydraulic
Engine ENG fluids and the systems designed to use them. In general,
Lubricating LUBE special care should be taken to make containers water-
Petroleum PETRO proof-especially when they are stored without protec-
Preservative PRESERV tion from the weather. Introduction of moisture into
Temperature TEMP waterproof containers by "breathing" and condensa-
Turbine TURB tion is a problem whenever containers are exposed to
Reciprocating RECIP frequently and widely varying temperatures. For this
Gyroscope GYRO reason, storage conditions where such problems can
occur should be avoided. Containers stored out-of-
doors should be stored on their sides to prevent water
Caution, warning, and instruction markings are from standing on container tops. Container lids and
sometimes required on containers. For example, MIL- bungs should be periodically checked for tightness.
H-27601A containers must include the following mark-
ings (Ref. 11): "INSTRUCTIONS: Destroy all mark-
ings on this container when empty. Do not mix with 6-2.1.3 Contamination Accompanying
any fluid except those of MIL-H-27601 and revisions." Additives
Impurities accompanying additives are, in the strict-

6-2 CONTAMINANTS est sense, a manufacturing problem but one which may
ultimately become the headache of the hydraulic fluid
Fluids used in hydraulic systems must meet high handler. For example, it has been reported that an
standards of purity. Malfunctions in hydraulic systems additive in some MIL-H-5606B fluids has, on occasion,
frequently can be traced directly to contaminated hy- been found to contain a contaminant soluble in the
draulic fluids. Although contamination can often be additive itself but insoluble in the finished hydraulic
attributed to sources not related to the handling and fluid (Ref. 12). Some additives for hydraulic fluids can
storage of the hydraulic fluid (such as contamination cause considerable contamination problems when
particles due to system wear), many problems can be moisture accumulates in the hydraulic fluid. Hydraulic
eliminated by proper handling and storing of hydrau - fluids with corrosion inhibitors are prone to form a
lie fluids. slime with moisture contamination (Ref. 12).
6-3
0)
■
4>
SPACE ALLOWANCE FOR CLOSURES
Military Symbol, Nomenclature,

Grade, Type, Class
Contractor's Name
DOMESTIC ADDRESS
CAUTION AND
USE MARKINGS
(A) Top Markings (B) Side Markings
Fig. 6-4. Markings on Top and Side of 55-gal Drum

AMCP 706-123
NATO SYMBOL (3/4)
MILITARY SYMBOL (1) OVERSEAS ADDRESS (1)

NOMENCLATURE (1/2)
SPECIFICATION NO. (1/2)
GRADE, TYPE, CLASS (1/2) CAUTION AND USE
STOCK NO. (1/2) MARKINGS (LEGIBLE)
CONTRACTOR'S NAME (LEGIBLE)
QUALIFICATION NO. (1/2)
DATE OF MANUFACTURE (1/2)
BATCH OR LOT NO. (1/2)
CONTRACT NO. (1/2)
NET CONTENT (1/2)
GROSS WEIGHT (1/2)
CUBE (1/2)
Fig. 6-5. Markings on Sides of 5-gal Tight-head Pail
Mahogany sulfonate rust inhibitors widely used in immiscible. Solid particle contaminants are self-
finished hydraulic fluids can also be a source of con- defined. They are impurities which may either be
tamination, i.e., rusting and staining of steel in a hy- chemically reactive with hydraulic fluids or which may
draulic system. It has been found that some mahogany foul hydraulic systems.
sulfonates contain inorganic water soluble salts (such
as calcium chloride and calcium sulfate) ranging from
0.02 to 0.19 percent. Data show that the concentration 6-2.2.1 Water As a Contaminant
of inorganic salts do not appear to affect the rust pre-
vention properties of the mahogany sulfonates, but Although water was the first liquid to be used in a
their presence does produce corrosion due to galvanic hydraulic system, it is generally a harmful contaminant
action. It was found that use of petroleum hydraulic (Ref. 14) in current sophisticated hydraulic systems.
fluids containing sulfonates with a relatively high chlo- Depending on the properties of the liquid under consid-
ride content of 0.12 percent produced system malfunc- eration, water will either form an emulsion in the hy-
tions while use of petroleum hydraulic fluids contain- draulic fluid (up to a certain percentage) or be partially
ing sulfonates with less than 0.03 percent of the salt immiscible with the hydraulic fluid with some water
permitted satisfactory operation (Ref. 13). floating on the surface of the hydraulic fluid or settling
to the bottom of the container. Immiscible or free quan-
tities of water in a hydraulic fluid are usually the result
6-2.2 TYPES OF CONTAMINANTS of careless handling and cause damage to both the
hydraulic fluid and the system. Unwanted water in a
The many impurities that can affect hydraulic fluids hydraulic fluid leads to a multitude of problems in
adversely can be classified as either solid particle or terms of hydraulic system damage and failure. The
liquid contaminants. The most common and most trou- worst threats of water contamination are the corrosive
blesome liquid contaminant is water, but liquid con- effects of water and the subsequent fluid and/or system
taminants include all foreign liquids, both miscible and contamination with corrosion particles.
6-5
AMCP 706-123
One clarification concerning water and hydraulic considered as a standard for all hydraulic fluids. In-
fluids must be made, however. In certain fire-resistant deed, if contamination levels are to be established for
hydraulic fluids, water is a welcome ingredient, making a hydraulic fluid, it is best to refer to the manufac-
up from 20-70 percent of the liquid. Such fire-resistant turer's data for the most reliable indication of the con-
hydraulic fluids are formed by an emulsion of water tamination limits and to take into account the design
dispersed in a second liquid, such as oil or a glycol. In of the system(s) in which the liquid will be used.
these liquids the distinction between water as a needed Table 6-4 is an example of contamination limits for
ingredient and water as a contaminant is clear. hydraulic fluids established by one aircraft company
A distinction must be made between oil-in-water (Ref. 15). Not only is the maximum number of particles
emulsions and water-in-oil emulsions. Although a sta- specified, but the maximum weight of the contaminant
ble solution can be made by dispersing oil in water, per 100 ml of liquid is also specified. The differences in
problems with corrosion and wear are more apt to contamination limits between Tables 6-3 and 6-4 serve
occur with this type of emulsion. "Inverse" or water-in- to illustrate the relative nature of fluid "cleanliness".
oil emulsions, on the other hand, offer the fire-resistant What may be a "clean" fluid in one application may not
quality of water while retaining the lubricating and be "clean" enough for another. The specific application
anticorrosion qualities of the oil. In "inverse" emul- of the fluid is always the ultimate factor in determining
sions, water is the dispersed phase while oil is the con- contamination limits.
tinuous phase. In oil-in-water emulsions, the situation
is reversed-the oil is the dispersed phase and the water
is the continuous phase.
6-2.2.3 Liquid Contaminants Other Than
Water
6-2.2.2 Solid Contaminant Particles
In addition to solid particle and water contamina-
Of all contaminants, solid particles are of most fre- tion, contamination from other liquids, both miscible
quent concern. Their measurement is usually deter- and immiscible, can occur.
mined according to size and number. The cleanliness of Liquid contaminants in hydraulic fluids often enter
a hydraulic fluid is normally reported as the relative a system as a result of mixing (accidental or inten-
"solid particle cleanliness". tional) two or more hydraulic fluids. Accidental mixing
Solid particle contaminants are either of the fibrous often occurs when replacing the hydraulic fluid in a
or nonfibrous variety. Fibrous particles have a large system with another hydraulic fluid without a
length-to-diameter ratio. A fibrous particle has been thorough cleaning of the system. Liquid contamination
defined by Aircraft Industries Association as one hav- of a hydraulic fluid can also occur when transferring
ing a length-to-diameter ratio greater than 10 to 1. the liquid into unclean containers. In general, such
Nonfibrous solid particle contaminants include all par- transfers should be avoided. In some cases, however,
ticles not in the fibrous class. Their irregular shapes Military Specifications indicate that two different liq-
make it necessary to define their size by their larg- uids are compatible and may be mixed. Such a mixture
est dimension. may be considered usable in that it does not form resin-
The unit of measurement for solid particle contami- ous gums, sludges, or insoluble solid materials; how-
nation is the micron (about 39 millionths of an inch). ever, the liquids in the mixture are contaminated in the
The normal human eye can detect particles as small as sense that the liquids may no longer retain their origi-
40 microns. However, contaminant particles as small as nal characteristics. Such characteristics may be critical
1/2 micron may be of concern. in certain applications that require a "clean" fluid.
Because of the wide variety of hydraulic fluids and Contamination of a hydraulic fluid by oils or sol-
their equally wide variety of applications, there are vents used in or on the hydraulic system is a frequent
many standards of fluid cleanliness. MIL-H-5606B re- form of contamination. This type of contamination
quires that (1) there be no particles over 100 microns reduces the effectiveness of the hydraulic fluid by
in size, and (2) the total contamination in a 100-ml changing characteristics such as viscosity, density, and
sample retained on a 0.45-micron cellulose filter be no lubricating ability or by attacking system components
more than 0.3 mg. such as seals. However, the oil or solvent may have no
Table 6-3 presents data on generalized contamina- chemical effect on the hydraulic fluid itself, particu-
tion limits for hydraulic fluids as proposed by the Air- larly in the case of petroleum base hydraulic fluids and
craft Industries Association (Ref. 15). It is not to be petroleum fraction oils or solvents (Ref. 12).
6-6
AM CP 706-123
TABLE 6-3.
is
AIA PARTICLE CONTAMINATION LIMITS FOR HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
Number of Particles
Particle Size, M Particle Size > 100/id
Class 5-10* 11-25 26-50 51-100 Fibersb Particles"
1 220 20 5 2 0
2 - 530 60 10 3 1
3 1,530 150 15 4 1
4 5,530 420 40 7 3
5 1,650 320 25 1 0C
Notes:
a. Value to be controlled for each application.
b. Particles with length-to-width ratio greater than 10 are termed "fibers;" with length-to-width ratio less than
10, they are termed "particles."
c. Zero particles are defined as none if one sample is taken; if an average of several samples is taken, total
particles in all samples must be less than number of samples to meet "zero" requirement.
d. n = 1 micron = 10_4cm
TABLE 6-4.
PARTICLE CONTAMINATION LIMITS FOR
HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS AT MARTIN AIRCRAFT COMPANY1S
Type System Maximum Filterable Solids, Maximum Particles and Fibers

mg/100 ml Size,*** Number/100 ml
Airborne 2.0 0-25 Unlimited
25-100 250
Over 100 10
Ground 3.0 0-25 Unlimited
25-100 750
Over 100 80
4
*/i = 1 micron =10 cm
Chemical contamination of a hydraulic fluid is gen- 6-2.2.4 Microbiological Contaminants

erally a rare occurrence and difficult to trace. Some
instances of chemical contamination have been ex-
Micro-organisms can grow in hydraulic fluids to
plained by deposits of cleaning compounds left on sur- some extent. However, most of the problems associated
faces, or by reaction of an additive with seals or filters, with this type of contamination occur in the handling
and other such unusual instances. However, one recur- and use of aviation fuels, and most of the research work
ring source of chemical contamination is a contaminant pertains to the effect of microbiological contamination
that is soluble in an additive but is insoluble in the of fuels. The problem deserves a discussion in relation
finished fluid (Ref. 12). to hydraulic fluids, however, because microbiological
6-7
AMCP 706-123
contamination can occur in hydraulic fluids. If suffi- Solid particles on the order of 100 microns can be
cient quantities of the organisms are allowed to grow formed from smaller ones. This effect has been espe-
unchecked, they can clog filters, restrict small orifices, cially noted in noncorrosion-preventing petroleum base
and cause poor operation of close tolerance parts. hydraulic fluids (Ref. 12). These fluids are highly die-
The growth of micro-organisms can be increased by lectric and contaminant particles retain a static charge.
the presence of other contaminants in the hydraulic The result is that when the fluid is exposed to long
fluid. Water contamination, for example, provides an periods of agitation, such as in shipping, the probability
environment, and is necessary, for the growth of living of particles colliding with one another increases and
organisms. In most cases, elimination of microbial con- particle agglomerations form. Fluids with submicronic
taminants with biocides does not solve the underlying particles have been known to form 25- to 200-micron
contaminant problems that originally contributed to particles under these conditions (Ref. 12).
growth of the micro-organisms (Ref. 16). Moisture is a contaminant which causes a slime in
some hydraulic fluids. The necessary ingredients for
6-2.3 EFFECTS OF CONTAMINATION the formation of this slime that can clog filters are
Contamination in a hydraulic system is damaging to tricresyl phosphate (an antiwear additive used in sev-
the hydraulic fluid and to the system in which it is used. eral hydraulic fluids), an alkali, and moisture (Ref. 12).
The degree of contamination usually begins at a low In a hydraulic fluid of the corrosion-preventive type,
level and increases because of the formation of con- moisture can also cause the formation of a slime resem-
taminants in the system itself (especially solid particle bling egg white. When sufficient moisture is present,
contaminants caused by system wear, oxidation, the corrosion-preventing additives can exhaust them-
and corrosion). selves by "wrapping up" the moisture in additive and
water dispersions (Ref. 12).
6-2.3.1 Effects of Contamination on the

Hydraulic Fluid 6-2.3.2 Effects of Contamination on the
Hydraulic System
Once a hydraulic fluid becomes contaminated, it is System damage or failure may be caused in a number
usually no longer suitable for use. The destructive ef- of ways. Solid particle contaminants may result in fric-
fects of contamination are often of a "chain-reaction" tion and wear, jamming, or seizing. In hydraulic mech-
nature and produce further damage to the liquid. While anisms where close-fitting parts move at relatively high
this is not always the case, it is easier to prevent damage speeds, solid particle contaminants shear the faces of
by avoiding contamination through proper handling and system components. The buildup of more and more
storage techniques than it is to make repairs that may wear particles can, therefore, result from an initially
be required as a result of using contaminated liquid. small amount of solid particle contamination. Since
There are a number of situations where contamina- moisture may also produce solid particle contaminants
tion can grow even within a closed and sealed system. due to corrosion, its ultimate effect can be the same-
One example of the "chain reaction" that can occur is more and more contaminant buildup. Plugging of small
the effect of moisture in hydraulic fluids without an- openings and filters may result from solid particle con-
ticorrosion additives. Corrosion particles resulting tamination or from the formation of slimes.
from moisture, in effect, act as wear particles which Hydraulic system fouling can also be caused by the
expose clean metal surfaces that subsequently succumb chemicai .nteraction of hydraulic fluids with seals. It is
to corrosion (Ref. 12). a design error to use seals or other system components
It has been observed that the presence of solid parti- that would be reactive with the fluid. The result is
cle contaminants can affect the oxidation resistance of formation of gels, sludge, and abrasive particles that
hydraulic fluids. Although most hydraulic fluids con- can further damage a hydraulic system.
tain oxidation inhibitors, their intended effect can be A convincing illustration of the ill effects of hydrau-
seriously depleted when solid particles accelerate oxi- lic fluid contamination is to compare system life under
dation of the fluid and "use up" the inhibitor (Ref. 12). controlled contamination levels with system life under
When excessive contamination thus "wears out" the the best contamination free conditions allowed by pre-
oxidation inhibitor, the hydraulic fluid can easily suc- sent technology. One report examines the effect of vari-
cumb to the effects of oxidation and, consequently, the ous controlled solid particle contamination levels on
formation of corrosion products. servo-valve internal leakage. One conclusion reached,
6-8
AMCP 706-123
which is indicative of the effects of at least solid particle in general use. They are: Federal Test Method 3009
contaminants, is that normal contamination can be (Ref. 19), ASTM D-2390-65T (Ref. 20), andAero-
controlled to the point where the life of a servo-valve nautical Recommended Practice ARP-598 (Ref. 21).
assembly can be increased by as much as 277 percent The three methods are very similar in the proce-
(Ref. 17). Table 6-5 presents data on some of the many dure and the reporting of results. In each method a
types of contaminants and their general effects on the sample of the specimen is filtered through a 0.45-
most common components in a hydraulic system. micron cellulose membrane filter. The filter is exam-
(Ref. 18). ined under a microscope and the number of solid parti-
cles in a given area of the filter is counted. The particle
counts are grouped in the following size ranges (in
6-2.4 METHODS OF DETERMINING
microns): 5 to 15, 15 to 25, 25 to 50, 50 to 100, over
CONTAMINATION
100 (length-width ratio under 10:1), over 100 (length-
width ratio over 10:1). The total number of particles
The required cleanliness of a hydraulic system is
present is calculated by statistical methods.
relative and is dependent on the design of a particular
system. Although the criteria for cleanliness may vary (2) Automatic Counting Methods:
for different systems, the methods of contaminant The tedious nature of most particle-contaminant
measurement are basically alike. Methods of solid par- counting and weighing methods can be avoided
ticle contaminant measurement involve counting, siz- through the use of automatic particle counters. Two
ing, and/or weighing of the particles in a given volume types of automatic counters exist. Sample counters
of fluid. Methods of determining the amount of liquid measure the number of particles in a sample of hydrau-
contaminants present in hydraulic fluids usually in- lic fluid. On-stream counters record the number of con-
volve chemical or physical procedures-distillation, taminant particles in a system while it is in operation.
separation with a solvent, or isolation of the contami-
(a) Sample-type Automatic Counters:
nant by chemical reaction.
One sample-type counter* is capable of counting
solid particle contaminants and indicating their size.
6-2.4.1 Solid Particle Contamination Electrodes on each side of a small channel detect a
Measurement by Counting change in resistance whenever a contaminated sample
of hydraulic fluid passes. The fluid sample must be
(1) Microscope Methods:
Three test procedures for determining the solid parti-
cle contamination in hydraulic fluids by counting are Made by Coulter Electronics, Inc., Chicago.
TABLE 6-5.
EFFECTS OF VARIOUS CONTAMINANTS ON HYDRAULIC SYSTEM COMPONENTS18
Airborne Lapping Process
Scale Rubber Metal Dust Sand Compound Residues Fibers
OÜ X X X X
Reservoir X X X XX X X
Pump X XXX X X X
Relief Valve X XX X X X X
Control Valves X X X X X
Actuators X X X X
Accumulators X X X X X X
Pipe Fittings,
Hoses, Etc. X X X XX X X
Filter X X X XX X
X-Noticeable XX-Medium XXX-Strong
6-9
AMCP 706-123
made conductive before testing by mixing it with a The insoluble contamination is determined by draw-
suitable solvent. Passing contaminants cause a voltage ing a 100-ml sample of hydraulic fluid through a mem-
pulse in proportion to the size of the particle so that the brane filter disk and measuring the resultant increase
number of particles within a certain size range can be in the weight of the filter. In addition, the filter disk is
determined. Measurement may be made down to about microscopically scanned for excessively large particles,
5 microns. fibers, or other unusual conditions.
Another sample-type counter* works on an electro- Precision: Results should not be considered suspect
optical system capable of measuring and counting con- unless they differ by more than the following amount:
taminant particles on test slides. Measurement may be (a) Repeatability. 0.2 mg/100 ml
made down to 1.0 micron. Also operating as an electro- (b) Reproducibility. 0.05 mg/100 ml
optical device is a sample-type counter* which allows
a sample of the fluid on a slide to oscillate past a photo-
cell which counts and sizes the contaminant particles. 6-2.4.3 Solid Particle Contamination
(b) On-stream Automatic Counters: Measurement by Combined Counting
A second category of particle counters provides for and Weighing Methods
automatic sampling of the hydraulic fluid. On-stream
counters connect directly into an operating hydraulic Many users of hydraulic fluids prefer to rely on more
system and tap fluid from a point in the flow believed than one technique for determining contamination.
to yield samples representative of the entire flow. The testing procedure required for MIL-H-5606B fluid
One commercially available on-stream device** is a good example. This particular fluid is considered
counts and sizes particles in the 5-250 micron range. below specification if it fails either a weight analysis or
The counter automatically draws a fluid sample from particle count test. According to weight, there must not
a hydraulic system through a narrow passage fitted be more than 0.3 mg of solid particle contaminants per
with a photoelectric detection system. The system 100 ml when the test is conducted under the provisions
makes contamination data available in terms of number of Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test
of particles in various size ranges per unit volume Method 3009 (Ref. 19). According to the particle
of sample. count', the number of contaminant particles must not
Another on-stream automatic counter design" al- exceed the values given in Table 6-6.
lows for the automatic sampling, sizing, and counting
of particles greater in size than 10 microns. Measure-
ments are accomplished by reflecting ultrasonic waves
off contaminant particles. 6-2.4.4 Liquid Contaminant Measurement
Determination of the amount of liquid contamina-

tion present in a hydraulic fluid can become a difficult
6-2.4.2 Solid Particle Contamination problem, especially if the contaminant is soluble or
Measurement by Weighing miscible in the hydraulic fluid. Since most means of
measuring liquid contaminants involve chemical reac-
Test Method: ASTM D-2387-65T (Ref. 22). tions, it is usually a prerequisite to know what kind of
This method covers the determination of insoluble contaminants are being measured so that the proper
contamination in hydraulic fluids by gravimetric anal- reagents may be used. However, the problem is some-
yses. The contamination determined includes both what simplified since the most common liquid contami-
particulate and gel-like matter, organic and inorganic, nant is water. Procedures for determining other types
which is retained on a membrane filter disk of pore of contaminants are usually specific to the chemical
diameter as required by applicable specifications (usu- nature of the hydraulic fluid.
ally 0.45 micron or 0.80 micron). If the amount of water contaminant present in a
hydraulic fluid is large, techniques such as dilution
with a solvent which will separate the water into an
The Cintel Flying-Spot Particle Resolver, made by Cinema immiscible layer can be used. When the amount of
Television Co., London. water present is small, two procedures are generally
* Casella Automatic Particle Counter and Sizer.
**HIAC Automatic Particle Counter. used. One depends upon the physical separation of wa-
**A counter designed by Sperry Products Company for the Mar-
ter by means of an entraining nonsolvent and the other
shall Space Flight Center. on a chemical reaction.
6-10
AMCP 706-123
TABLE 6-6.
SOLID PARTICLE CONTAMINATION LIMITS IN HYDRAULIC
FLUID CORRESPONDING TO MIL-H-5606B
Particle Size Range, n* Maximum Allowable Number of Solid Particles
5-15 2,500
16-25 1,000
26-50 250
51-100 50
Over 100 None
*M = 1 micron = 10" cm
(1) Test for Water in Petroleum and Other Bitumi- 6-3 PRECAUTIONS
nous Materials:
Test Methods: Federal Test Method 3001.8 (Ref. 23) The exercise of certain precautions in the storage and
ASTM D-95-62 (Ref. 24) handling of hydraulic fluids is vital for the safety of
These methods are used to determine the water con- personnel and for the protection of the fluid. The intro-
tent of bituminous materials by distillation with a water duction of contaminants into the hydraulic fluid and
immiscible, volatile solvent. contact with incompatible materials are both to be
The sample is heated under reflux with a water- avoided. Personal hazards from explosion, fire, skin poi-
immiscible solvent which co-distills with the water in soning, ingestive poisoning, and vapor inhalation are of
the sample. Condensed solvent and water are continu- even more concern. Anyone who stores and handles
ously separated in a trap, the water settling in the gra-
hydraulic fluids should know well the hazards they face
duated section of the trap and the solvent returning to and follow all recommended safety precautions.
the still.
(2) Test for Water With Karl Fischer Reagent:
Test Methods: Federal Test Method 3253 (Ref. 25) 6-3.1 HEALTH HAZARD
~ ASTM D-1744-64 (Ref. 26)
These methods cover the procedures for determining Skin poisoning, ingestive poisoning, and exposure to
water in the concentration of 50 to 1,000 ppm in liquid vapors and sprays of hydraulic fluids are common
petroleum products. The procedure, referred to as the threats to hydraulic fluid handlers. Other dangers are
Karl Fischer Method, or some variation of it, is due to the explosive or highly flammable nature of
widely used for the determination of moisture content some liquids. Most hydraulic fluids, however, do not
of many materials. Although the test standards list the pose a serious health hazard. For specific information
procedure for petroleum products only, it can be used on the hazardous nature of a particular fluid, the fluid
on most materials where the reagents will not produce manufacturer should be consulted.
reactions that give false readings.
Sufficient Karl Fischer reagent is diluted with pyri-
dine to adjust its strength to a water equivalence of 2 6-3.1.1 Precautions Against Poisoning
to 3 mg H20 per ml of solution. Fifty ml of the sample
is diluted with 50 ml of methanol-chloroform (1 part to Skin poisoning or irritation caused by repeated han-
3 parts by volume). The sample is then added to the dling of a hydraulic fluid, and ingestive poisoning
adjusted solution. If water is present, the solution will caused by accidental swallowing are two hazards that
no longer be dry. A second adjustment with Karl can be easily guarded against. The swallowing of a
Fischer reagent is made until the water equivalence of hydraulic fluid is very rare. Nonetheless, poisonous
2 to 3 mg H20 per ml of solution is again reached. The hydraulic fluids should be clearly marked as such and
amount of moisture present is then determined by the an antidote or other first aid procedure should be
amount of reagent used to reach the second end point. known from the manufacturer's data or from cautionary
6-11
AMCP 706-123
information on the fluid container. For all hydrau- coupling)-can spray system components and surround-
lic fluids, the avoidance of extended contact with the ings that may be hot enough to cause ignition. If the
skin is recommended. Although most hydraulic fluids, liquid is conducting, the spray can also cause short
including synthetics, are not harmful to bare skin, pro- circuits in electrical systems which, in turn, can cause
longed contact should be avoided because many of the ignition. Precautions against this sort of fire hazard are
ingredients and additives may tend to dry out the skin. the responsibility of the system designer. If possible, the
However, the effect is usually not long lasting if the probable points of system failure should be situated so
exposure is not prolonged. that, should a leak occur, the hydraulic spray will not
be exposed to potential ignition sources.
6-3.1.2 Precautions Against Dangerous 6-3.3 OTHER PRECAUTIONS

Vapors and Sprays
Additional areas requiring precautions pertain to the
Vapors and mists from many hydraulic fluids are relationship of hydraulic fluids with other materials.
generally irritating and cause coughing or sneezing. All hydraulic fluids are incompatible with some
For these reasons prolonged inhalation of hydraulic materials. The designer takes this into account when
fluid vapors or sprays is to be avoided. Even when the choosing system components and a hydraulic fluid for
effects of short exposures are known to be nontoxic, the system. On occasion, however, users of a hydraulic
indirect damage to the respiratory system could occur system may desire to use a different hydraulic fluid. In
because of frequent or repeated irritations. Vapors from changing to a different fluid, one should always investi-
hydraulic fluids are most irritating when the fluid is at gate the safety of the change thoroughly. If the new
high temperatures, as the fluid may decompose and fluid is incompatible with any system component, even-
give off toxic vapors. Then, and at all times, the general tual system malfunction is probable. The fluid manu-
rule is to avoid vapors from hydraulic fluids by working facturer can supply data on compatibility of his fluid
in well ventilated areas or by wearing protective masks. with commonly used system materials.
REFERENCES
6-3.2 DANGER OF EXPLOSION AND FIRE
1. PPP-C-96A, Cans, Metals, 28 Gage and Lighter,

The danger due to explosion of hydraulic fluids is 6 October 1964.
possible during storage, handling, or use in a hydraulic 2. PPP-D-729B, Drums: Metal, 55-Gallon (For
system. The "explosive limits" of a substance are the Shipment ofNoncorrosive Material), 19 August
lowest and highest concentrations of the vapors of the 1958.
substance in the atmosphere which will form a flamma- 3. PPP-P-704B, Pails, Metal: (Shipping, Steel, 1
ble mixture (Ref. 27). Hydraulic fluids should not be Through 12 Gallon), 20 February 1967.
stored where the temperature may become high enough 4. TT-E-515, Enamel, Alkyd, Lustreless, Quick-
to ignite the fluid. A common precaution that should Drying, 2 December 1963.
be taken is to store the hydraulic fluid in an area 5. MIL-STD-290C, Packaging, Packing, and
removed from all possible sources of ignition and from Marking of Petroleum and Related Products, 24
areas where personnel or equipment would be endan- May 1965.
gered should the stored liquids be accidentally ignited. 6. MIL-H-5606B, Hydraulic Fluid, Petroleum
Fire and explosion precautions are even more impor- Base; Aircraft, Missile, and Ordnance, 26 June
tant in direct handling of hydraulic fluids. Pouring or 1963.
draining of fluids near sources of ignition (such as di- 7. MIL-H-8446B, Hydraulic Fluid, Nonpetroleum
rect flames or hot surfaces) is inviting disaster. Even Base, Aircraft, 12 March 1959.
fire-resistant fluids can ignite and continue to support 8. TT-I-558, Ink, Marking, Stencil, Opaque, for
flame if conditions are favorable (Ref. 28). Nonporous Surfaces (Metals, Glass, etc.), 12
Serious fire hazards can occur when a liquid is in use June 1957.
in a hydraulic system. Because of the high pressure in 9. TT-L-20, Lacquer, Camouflage, 2 July 1963.
components of the system, flammable hydraulic fluids 10. TT-E-489, Enamel, Alkyd, Gloss, (For Exterior
in the event of a system failure (broken hose, line, and Interior Surfaces), 20 September 1965.
6-12
AMCP 706-123
11. MIL-H-27601, Petroleum Base, High Tempera- November 1961, Institution of Mechanical
ture, Flight Vehicle, 23 January 1964. Engineers, London (1962).
12. T. N. Deane, "The Effect of Contamination on 19. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test
Fluids and the Effect of the Ingredients of the Method 3009.
Fluids on Contamination", Proceedings of 20. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-2390-
Aerospace Fluid Power Systems and Equipment 65T, Part 18, p. 533, Philadelphia, American
Conference-May 1965, Society of Automotive Society for Testing Materials, 1967.
Engineers, New York, 1965. 21. Procedure for the Determination of Paniculate
13. J. Messina and A. Mertwoy, "Inorganic Salts Contamination of Hydraulic Fluids by the Parti-
in Mahogany Sulfonates and Their Effect on cle Count Method, Aeronautical Recommended
Petroleum Hydraulic Fluids", Lub. Eng., Practice 598, Society of Automotive Engineers,
Feb. 1967. Inc., New York, N.Y. pp. 1-6 (1960).
14. R. E. Hatton, Introduction to Hydraulic Fluids, 22. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-2387-
Reinhold Publishing Corp., N.Y., 1962. 65T, Part 18, pp. 510-513, Philadelphia, Ameri-
15. M. Piccone, "Control of Contamination in can Society for Testing Materials, 1967.
Rocket Booster Hydraulic Systems", Proceed- 23. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test
ings of Aerospace Fluid Power Systems and Method 3001.8.
Equipment Conference-May 1965, Society of 24. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-95-62,
Automotive Engineers, New York (1965). Part 17, p. 55, Philadelphia, American Society
16. S. A. London, "Microbial Activity in Air Force for Testing Materials 1967.
Jet Fuel Systems", Developments in Industrial 25. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test
Microbiology 6, 62 (1964). Method 3253.
17. H. L. Huggett, "Servo Valve Internal Leakage 26. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-1744-64,
as Affected by Contamination", Proceedings of Part 17, p. 667, Philadelphia, American Society
Aerospace Fluid Power Systems and Equipment for Testing Materials, 1967.
Conference-May 1965, Society of Automotive 27. Accident Prevention Handbook, AFM 32-3, De-
Engineers, New York (1965). partment of the Air Force, 1 August 1964.
D. F. Denny, "Cleanliness in Hydraulic Sys- 28. H. M. Shiefer, "For Hydraulic Systems, Drives,
terns", Proceedings of the Conference on Oil Hy- Dashpots: What's Hot in Fluids?" Product En-
draulic Power Transmission and Control- gineer, 107, August 1964.
6-13
AMCP 706-123
GLOSSARY
accumulator A fluid pressure storage chamber in milligrams of potassium hydrox-

which fluid pressure energy may ide, required to neutralize all basic
be stored and from which it may be constituents present in one gram of
withdrawn. sample.
bladder-type A hydropneumatic accumulator in boiling point The temperature at which a fluid
which the liquid and gas are sepa- refluxes or distills under carefully
rated by an expandable bladder or specified conditions.
elastic ba
§ bulk modulus The reciprocal of compressibility. It
diaphragm- A hydropneumatic accumulator in is usually expressed in pounds per
type which the liquid and gas are sepa- square inch.
rated by a flexible diaphragm. bypass An alternate route which provides
nonseparator- An accumulator in which a com- passage for a liquid around a com-
type pressed gas operates directly upon ponent.
the liquid in the pressure chamber. cavitation A phenomenon of formation of
piston-type An accumulator in which a com- cavities in a liquid across which
pressed gas operates on a piston the liquid can move with high
which applies force to the stored velocity, producing a hammer ef-
liquid. fect on any object it strikes. It usu-
spring-loaded An accumulator in which the com- ally occurs where pressure is low
pression energy is supplied by a and velocity high. Cavitation gen-
spring. erally causes noise and damage to
system components.
weight-loaded An accumulator in which weights
apply force to the stored liquid. centipoise A unit of absolute viscosity.
acid number The quantity of base, expressed in centistoke A unit of kinematic viscosity.
milligrams of potassium hydrox- cloud point The temperature at which wax or
ide, that is required to neutralize other dissolved solids first precipi-
the acidic constituents in one gram tate during chilling under specified
of sample. conditions.
actuator A device to convert fluid energy coefficient of The change in weight per unit
into mechanical motion. expansion volume per 1° change of tempera-
additive A chemical compound or com- ture.
pounds added to a liquid to change compressibility The reduction in volume of a liquid
its properties. when pressure is applied. Com-
autoignition The temperature at which a liquid pressibility is usually measured in
temperature placed on a heated surface will ig- terms of the bulk modulus, which
(AIT) nite spontaneously. is the reciprocal of compressibility.
base number The amount of acid, expressed in control A device used to regulate the func-
terms of the equivalent number of tions of a component or system to
G-1
AMCP 706-123
which it is usually connected; may plunger-type; A cylinder in which the movable

be integral or remote. element has the same cross-sec-
automatic A control actuated in response to a tional area as the piston rod.
signal from the system; also a con- single-acting A cylinder in which the fluid pres-
trol which actuates equipment in a sure is applied in only one direc-
predetermined manner. tion.
electric A control actuated by an electrical single-end A cylinder with a rod extending
device. rod from one end.
hydraulic A control actuated by liquid pres- density The mass of a material occupying
sure. unit volume at a specified tempera-
liquid-level A device which controls the liquid ture. Its dimensions are mass per
level, such as a float switch. unit volume.
mechanical A control actuated by linkages, elastomer An elastic, rubber-like material.
cams, gears, screws, or other me- emulsion An intimate dispersion of one liquid
chanical means. within another.
pneumatic A control actuated by air or other film strength The ability of a liquid to maintain a
gas pressure. film.
pump Controls applied to hydraulic filter A device through which a fluid is
pumps to adjust their output or di- passed to separate material held in
rection of flow. suspension. The filter medium is
servo A control actuated by a feed-back tie material which removes the
system which compares the output solids and consists of materials
with the reference signal and such as paper, cloth, finely woven
makes corrections to reduce the screen, sintered metals, finely di-
difference. vided solids such as clay, activated
charcoal, etc.
conduction Process by which heat flows from a
region of higher temperature to a bypass A filter which receives only a por-
region of lower temperature within tion of the total fluid flow. Con-
a medium or between different tinuous mixing of the filtered and
media in direct physical contact. unfiltered fluid ensures that it is all
eventually filtered in a reasonable
convection Transference of heat by moving period of time.
masses of matter.
fire point The temperature at which a liquid
cylinder A device for converting fluid energy will burn continuously when ig-
into linear motion. It usually con- nited by a small flame under care-
sists of a movable element such as fully specified conditions.
a piston and piston rod, plunger or
ram operating within a cylindrical fire-resistant A fluid difficult to ignite and which
bore. fluid shows little tendency to propagate
flame.
double-acting A cylinder which moves in either
direction due to fluid flow and flash point The temperature at which a liquid
pressure. gives off sufficient flammable va-
pors to ignite but not continue to
double-end A cylinder with a single piston and burn when approached by a small
rod with a rod extending from each flame under carefully specified
end. conditions.
flow, laminar A flow situation in which motion
piston-type A cylinder in which the movable occurs as a movement of one layer
element has a greater cross-sec- of fluid upon another. This is syn-
tional area than the piston rod. onymous with streamline flow.
G-2
AMCP 706-123
flow, steady A flow situation wherein conditions synthetic A material which, by definition, is
state such as pressure, temperature, and nonpetroleum, but which may
velocity at every point in the fluid contain nonfunctional amounts of
do not change. petroleum. Specifically, this per-
flow, streamline A flow situation in which motion mits petroleum to be used as a car-
occurs as a movement of one layer rier for a constituent, i.e., for an
of fluid upon another. This is syn- additive, etc., but excludes pe-
onymous with laminar flow. troleum used for any benefit of its
flow, turbulent A flow situation in which the liquid properties per se.
particles move in a random man- water-glycol- A fluid whose major constituents
ner. type are water and one or more glycols
flow rate The unit volume of a fluid flowing or polyglycols and which may con-
per unit of time. tain additional amounts of other
constituents.
flow velocity The rate of speed at which a volume
of fluid passes a particular point in water-oil A stabilized emulsion of water
a passage. emulsion -oil, and which may contain ad-
type ditional amounts of other constitu-
fluid A substance which yields to any
ents. There are two types: (1)
pressure tending to alter its shape. oil-in-water, a conventional solu-
Fluid, by strict definition, includes
ble oil in which oil is dispersed in
both liquid and gas.
a continuous phase of water; and
halogenated- A fluid composed of halogenated (2) water-in-oil, a dispersion of wa-
type organic materials and which may ter in a continuous phase of oil.
contain additional amounts of fluid power Power transmitted and controlled
other constituents.
through use of a pressurized fluid.
hydraulic A fluid suitable for use in hydraulic fluid power A system that transmits and con-
systems. system trols power through use of a press-
organic ester- A fluid composed of esters of car- urized fluid within an enclosed cir-
type bon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and cuit.
which may contain additional
foam An intimate mixture of gas and liq-
amounts of other constituents.
uid occupying much more volume
petroleum- A fluid composed of petroleum hy- than the liquid alone.
type drocarbons and which may con- freezing point The temperature at which a fluid
tain additional amounts of other
changes from liquid phase to solid
constituents.
phase.
phosphate A fluid composed of phosphate es- friction Resistance to motion. Fluid friction
ester -type ters and which may contain addi-
is that friction due to the viscosity
tional amounts of other constitu-
of the fluid.
ents.
polyalkylene A fluid composed of polyalky- heat exhanger A device for transferring heat from
glycol- lene glycols or derivatives and a hot fluid to a cold one, without
type which may contain additional a- the two coming in contact with
mounts of other constituents. each other. When used as a fluid
silicate ester- A fluid composed of organic sili- cooler in a hydraulic system, it
type cates and which may contain addi- may take the form of either a nest
tional amounts of other constitu- of pipes in a suitable container,
ents. through which coolant flows, or a
radiator.
silicone-type A fluid composed of silicones and
which may contain additional hose A flexible conduit for conveying
amounts of other constituents. fluid.
G-3
AMCP 706-123
hydraulic power A means of energy transmission in effectiveness of sealing increases

system which a relatively incompressible with the pressure.
liquid (hydraulic fluid) is used as oxidation A chemical reaction of oxygen with
an energy-transmitting medium. a liquid, resulting in the formation
hydropneumatic The combination of hydraulic and of oxidation products, which can
pneumatic power in a unit. cause changes in properties.
inhibitor Any substance which slows, pre- packing Any material or device used to pre-
vents, or modifies chemical reac- vent leakage. Packings, seals, and
tions such as corrosion or oxida- gaskets are often considered syn-
tion. onymous.
intensifier A device which increases the work- pilot line A tube or hose which conducts con-
ing pressure over that delivered by trol fluid.
a primary source. For example, piping All pipe, tubing, hose, and fittings.
such a device is one in which a low
pressure acts on a large piston di- piston ring A sealing ring which normally fits
rectly coupled to a smaller piston in grooves in the piston head.
which then produces a higher pres- poise The standard unit of absolute vis-
sure. cosity in the centimeter-gram-
isentropic Having the same properties in all second system. It is expressed in
directions. dyne seconds per square centime-
ter.
isothermal Describing a condition of constant
temperature. port An opening at a surface of a compo-
nent, e.g., the terminus of a pas-
leaching An operation in which the soluble sage. It may be internal or exter-
component of a solid phase is dis- nal.
solved and transferred to a liquid
solvent. pour point The lowest temperature at which a
liquid will flow under specific con-
motor A device for converting fluid energy ditions.
into mechanical motion.
pressure Force per unit area. It is usually
fixed A rotary motor in which the dis- expressed in pounds per square
displacement placement per revolution is fixed. inch.
oscillatory A rotary actuator giving an angular
movement of less than 360°, some- absolute The sum of atmospheric and gage
times referred to as a rotary hy- pressure.
draulic actuator. atmospheric Pressure exerted by the atmosphere
rotary A motor producing continuous ro- at any specific location. Sea level
tary motion. atmospheric pressure is approxi-
mately 14.7 psia.
variable A rotary motor in which the dis-
displacement placement per revolution is adjust- operating The pressure at which a system is
able. operated.
neutralization A measure of the acidity or basicity static The pressure that exists if there is
number of a liquid. It is defined as milli- no motion in the liquid.
grams of potassium hydroxide re- suction The pressure of the liquid at the in-
quired to neutralize the acidity in let of a pump.
one gram of fluid or the equivalent
of the basicity expressed in a simi- pressure drop The amount of pressure difference
lar manner. or the pressure required to force
O-ring An endless packing ring of circular fluid through a component.
cross section normally mounted in pressure loss The fall in pressure due to hydraulic
a groove in such a manner that the friction in a component or circuit.
G-4
AMCP 706-1 23
Pressure losses at full flow are body at a lower temperature when

often appreciable; there is, how- the bodies are separated in space,
ever, none when flow ceases. even when a vacuum exists be-
pump A device which converts mechani- tween them.
cal energy into fluid energy. reservoir A container for fluid from which
axial piston A pump with a fixed volumetric the fluid is withdrawn and re-
constant output and with multiple pistons turned after circulation through
volume having their axis parallel to the the system. The reservoir may be
drive shaft. open to the atmosphere, or it may
be closed and pressurized.
axial piston An axial piston pump with an
variable adjustable controlled volumetric Reynolds A dimensionless number used in
volume output. number considerations of fluid flow and
given by the formula: Rn =
centrifugal A pump having an impeller rotating (Velocity) (pipe diameter) /
in a housing with liquid carried Kinematic viscosity. When the
around the periphery of the hous- Reynolds number is below 2,000,
ing and discharged by means of laminar flow generally exists; at
centrifugal force. higher values, flow may be either
gear A pump having two or more inter- laminar or turbulent, but the
meshing gears or lobed members higher the value the less likely the
enclosed in a suitably shaped hous- flow will be laminar.
ing.
seal A material or device designed to
radial piston A pump with a fixed volumetric prevent leakage between parts,
constant output having multiple pistons moving or static.
volume disposed radially.
servomechanism Any mechanism which uses power
radial piston A radial piston pump with an magnification and in which there
variable adjustable volumetric output. is incorporated a means of relating
volume the speed and travel of the input
reciprocating A pump having reciprocating pis- and output.
tons to pressurize fluid. solenoid An electromagnet consisting of a
screw A pump having one or more screws wire-wound coil with a moving
rotating in a housing. plunger which moves when the
electric current is switched on.
two-stage A pump with two separate pumping
elements connected in a series. The specific gravity The ratio of the weight of a given
primary stage may be used to en- volume of fluid to the weight of an
sure that the second main stage is equal volume of water.
not starved for fluid, or it may pro- specific heat The heat required to raise a unit
duce much of the pressure rise weight one degree of temperature.
through the pump.
stability Resistance to permanent changes in
vane, constant A pump having a fixed volumet- properties under normal storage
volume ric output with multiple vanes and use conditions.
within a supporting rotor, encased
hydrolytic Resistance to permanent change in
in a cam ring.
properties caused by chemical
vane, variable A vane pump having suitable means reaction with water.
volume of changing the volumetric output. oxidation Resistance to permanent changes in
pump slippage Internal leakage in a pump from properties caused by chemical
outlet to inlet side. reaction with oxygen.
radiation The process by which heat flows thermal Resistance to permanent changes in
from a high-temperature body to a properties caused solely by heat.
G-5
AMCP 706-123
stoke The standard unit of kinematic vis- gate A valve with a gate which is raised
cosity in the centimeter-gram- or lowered by the action of a screw
second system. It is expressed in or other means to close or open the
square centimeters per second. flow passage.
strainer A filter made from wire mesh and globe A valve with a plug, ball, or disc,
capable of removing the larger par- which by action of a screw or other
ticles of solids from a fluid. means, is pulled away from or low-
A switch operated by pressure and ered into a corresponding seat to
switch, pressure
open or close the flow passage.
used for (a) controlling pressure
between predetermined limits, (b) needle A valve with a tapered needle which
starting or stopping a sequence is pulled away from or forced into
when a certain pressure is reached, a corresponding seat. The tapered
and (c) as a safety device. needle permits gradual opening or
closing of the passage.
thermostat A device for controlling tempera-
ture either by switching on and off open center A valve which in the center position
an electric current or by opening connects all ports.
and closing a valve in a liquid line. pilot A valve applied to operate another
torque Force applied through a rotary path valve or control.
of motion. pilot-operated A valve in which operating parts
vacuum A pressure which is less than the are actuated by pilot fluid.
prevailing atmospheric pressure. poppet-type A valve construction which closes
valve A device for controlling flow rate, off flow by a poppet seating against
direction of flow, or pressure of a a suitable seating material. Nor-
liquid. mally considered a dead-tight seal.
The poppet may be a ball, a cone,
cam-operated A valve in which the spool is posi-
or a flat disk.
tioned mechanically by a cam.
check A valve which permits flow of fluid pressure A valve which maintains a reduced
in one direction only and self reducing pressure at its outlet regardless of
closes to prevent any flow in the the higher inlet pressure.
opposite direction. relief A valve which opens when a set
pressure is reached to prevent fur-
closed center A valve which in the center position
ther rise of pressure in a system or
has all ports closed.
to keep the pressure constant. The
directional A valve whose primary function is relief valve limits pressure which
to direct or prevent flow through can be applied to that portion of
selected passages. the circuit to which it is attached.
flow control A valve whose primary function is sequence A valve which directs flow to a sec-
to control flow rate. ondary portion of a fluid circuit in
flow dividing A valve which divides the flow from sequence. Flow is directed only to
a single source into two or more that part of the circuit which is
branches. connected to the primary or inlet
port of the valve until the pressure
flow dividing, A valve which divides the flow setting of the valve is reached. At
pressure from a single source into two or this time, the valve opens and pres-
compensating more branches at constant ratio, sure in the secondary port may
type regardless of the difference in the vary from zero to near the setting
resistances of the branches. of the primary side with no varia-
four-way A valve having four controlled tion in the primary oressure.
working passages, usually ending shuttle A connective valve which selects
in four external ports. one of two or more circuits because
G-6
AMCP 706-123
flow or pressure changes between minimum. As the velocity in-

the circuits. creases at the Venturi throat, the
pressure decreases appreciably.
solenoid- A valve which is operated by one or
Venturi tubes are often used as
operated more solenoids.
flow meters, the difference of pres-
spool-type A valve construction using a spool sure between the entrance to the
consisting of undercuts or recesses Venturi and the throat varying as
on a cylinder of metal. The spool is the square of flow.
fitted in a bore containing annular
viscometer A device for measuring viscosity.
undercuts. Movement of the spool
in the bore connects ports uncov- viscosity A measure of the internal friction or
ered by the spool undercuts. the resistance of a fluid to flow.
three-position A valve having three positions to absolute The force required to move a plane
give three selections of flow condi- surface over another plane surface
tions. at the rate of one centimeter per
three-way A directional control valve having second when the surfaces are one
three distinctive external working centimeter square and are sepa-
connections. rated by a layer of fluid one centi-
two-position A valve having two positions to give meter in thickness. This force is
two selections of flow conditions. known as the poise.
two-way A directional control valve having kinematic The ratio of absolute viscosity to
two distinctive external working the density of a fluid. The unit of
connections. kinematic viscosity is the stoke.
unloading A valve which allows pressure to Viscosity in stokes, multipled by
build up to an adjustable setting, density at the test temperature
then bypasses the flow as long as equals the absolute viscosity in
the preset pressure is maintained poise.
on the pilot port by a remote Saybolt Saybolt Universal Second viscosity
source. Its primary function is to Universal is the time in seconds required for
unload a pump. Seconds 60 cc of liquid to flow through a
time delay A valve in which the change of flow (SUS) standard orifice at a given tem-
occurs only after a desired time in- perature.
terval has elapsed. Viscosity Index A measure of the viscosity-tempera-
vapor pressure The pressure exerted by a material (V.l.) ture characteristics of a fluid as re-
under consideration at a specified ferred to that of other fluids.
temperature. volatility The property of a fluid describing
venturi A local contraction in a pipe which the degree to which it will vaporize
is shaped so that the loss of pres- under given conditions of tempera-
sure due to friction is reduced to a ture and pressure.
G-7
AMCP 706-123
INDEX
absolute viscosity, 3-2 pour point depressants, 5-10
seal degradation retardants, 5-10
accumulators, 2-21
pneumatic-loaded, 2-22, 2-23 AIT, 3-27
spring-loaded, 2-22, 2-23
weight-loaded, 2-22 alkalinity, 3-70
selection considerations, 2-23
alky aryl phosphate ester, 4-7
accuracy, 1-5
Almen tester, 3-61
acid number
strong, 3-71 antioxidants, 5-1
total, 3-71 classes of, 5-2
for esters, 5-2
actuators, 2-9 for ethers, 5-3
cushioned, 2-11 for highly refined mineral oils, 5-3
cylinder, 2-10 for silicon! containing fluids, 5-3
kinematics of, 2-11 mode of action, 5-1
linear, 2-9 synergistic effect, 5-2
mounting configurations, 2-11
noncushioned, 2-11 antiwear additives, 3-60, 5-8, 5-9
nonrotating, 2-9
piston or plunger, 2-9 API Gravity, 3-40
rod type, 2-10
rotating, 2-9 Aroclor, 4-9
tandem, 2-10
ASTM Color, 3-70
actuator, rotary, 2-9, 2-14
ASTM slope, 3-9
actuators, valve, 2-31
cam, 2-31 autoignition temperature, 3-27
manual, 2-31
pilot fluid, 2-32 availability, 1-6
servomechanism, 2-32
spring, 2-31 axial-piston motors, 2-16
additives, 3-60, 5-1 axial-piston pumps, 2-6

antirust, 3-60
antiwear, 3-60, 5-8, 5-9 back-pressure valve, 2-27
for aryl ether fluids, 5-10
for mineral oils and esters, 5-9 baffles, 2-19
for silicone fluids, 5-9
hydrolytic inhibitors, 5-10 balanced vane pump, 2-6-
AMCP 706-123
base number, 3-71 inhibitors, 5-10

strong base number, 3-71
total base number, 3-71 Cellulube (FRYQUEL), 4-8
bellows pump, 2-8 centipoise, 3-3
bench tests, 3-61 centistoke, 3-3
beverage bottle test, 3-74 centrifuge, 1-7
Bingham pycnometer, 3-41 check valves, 2-6, 2-28
biocides, 5-11 chemical corrosion, 3-75
bladders, 2-23 chemical stability, 3-65
blends, viscosity of, 3-14 chloroprene rubber, 3-85
boiling point, 3-32 chlorosulfonated polyethylene, 3-85
boundary lubrication, 3-57, 3-58, 5-8 circuits, fluid power, 1-2
bulk modulus, 1-6, 3-44, 3-45 circuit, rotary liquid motor, 2-2
estimation of, 3-49
isentropic secant, 3-46 classification, 4-1
isentropic tangent, 3-46 chemical properties, 4-1
isothermal secant, 3-45 fire resistance, 4-2
isothermal tangent, 3-46 operating characteristics, 4-2
secant, 3-45 physical properties, 4-1
tangent, 3-46 Types I-VI, 4-2
viscosity, 4-1
Buna S rubber, 3-85
Cleveland open cup, 3-22
butyl rubber, 3-85
butadiene rubber, 3-85 cloud point, 3-20

significance, 3-22
by-pass reliefs, 2-19 test for, 3-21
calibration, viscometer, 3-8 coatings, containers, 6-1
Cannon-Fenske viscometer, 3-7, 3-8 coefficient of friction, 3-57,3-61
Cannon-Master viscometer, 3-8

coefficient of cubical expansion, 3-40
capillary viscometer, 3-6, 3-7
coefficient, viscosity-temperature, 3-11
caster oils, 4-6, 4-10
coke, 3-72
cavitation, 3-18, 3-54
damage, 3-81,, 3-82 color, 3-70
factors causing, 3-82
general, 3-81 color-indicator titration, 3-71
1-2
AMCP 706-123
compatibility, 1-4, 2-21, 3-79 cooling systems, 2-36

test for, 3-94 air-cooled, 2-37
with additives, 3-96 water-cooled, 2-37
with metals, 3-80
with other lubricants, 3-93, 5-1 corrosion, 3-67, 3-75, 3-81
with paints, 3-93 cause of metal fatigue, 3-81
with solid film lubricants, 3-95 chemical, 3-75
copper strip test, 3-76
compressibility, 1-5, 3-44 corrosion-fog cabinet test, 3-76
electrochemical, 3-75
compression ignition tests, 3-26 metal-liquid test, 3-76
oxidation-corrosion, 3-72, 3-74, 5-1
conduction, 2-35 protection-salt spray test, 3-76
Conradson test, 3-72 corrosion inhibitors, 5-4

limitations of, 5-4
containers, 6-1 mode of action, 5-4
coating, 6-1 volatile corrosion inhibitors, 5-5
liners, 6-1
marking, 6-1 couplings, 2-9, 2-39
materials, 6-1
sizes, 6-1 crescent seal motors, 2-14
storage, 6-1
crescent seal pumps, 2-4
contaminants, 6-3
dust, 6-3 crystallization, 3-56
lint, 6-3
liquids, 6-6 cushioned actuators, 2-11
microbiological, 6-7
particles, 6-6 cylinder-type actuators, 2-10
sources, 6-3
types, 6-5 deactivators, metal, 5-2
water, 6-5
demulsifiers, 5-7, 5-8
contamination, 1-7 density, 3-35, 3-36

automatic counting, 6-9 pressure dependence, 3-36
effect on oxidation, 3-66 temperature dependence, 3-36
effects, 6-8
hydraulic fluids, 1-7, 6-8 di-2-ethylhexyl sebacate, 5-2, 5-4
liquid, 6-10
measurement, 6-9, 6-10 diaphragm pump, 2-8
microbiological, 6-7
sedimentation, 3-56 dilatant fluid, 3-5
weighing of, 6-10
dilu te d pour point, 3-21
controls, directional, 2-2
Dornte oxidation test, 3-73
pressure, 2-2
elastomers, 3-83
convection, 2-35 compatibility with seals, 3-79, 3-83
materials, 3-84
conversion units, viscosity, 3-3, 3-8 test for compatibility, 3-92
1-3
AMCP 706-1 23
electrochemical corrosion, 3-75 flammability, 3-22

tests for, 3-24
electronic equipment coolant, 4-5
flapper valve, 2-24
emulsifiers, 5-7, 5-8
flashpoint, 3-22, 3-24
emulsions, 1-7, 3-51, 3-52,4-2, 4-7
flow-dividing valves, 2-24, 3-31
energy, 1-1
fluids, non-Newtonian, 3-4
Engler, 3-3, 3-4
fluid power 1-2
esters, 5-2 circuits, 2-2
organic acid, 4-5, 4-10 generation, 1-2
phosphate, 4-2, 4-3, 4-7, 4-10 uses, 1-3
silicate, 4-2, 4-5, 4-10
fluorocarbon rubber, 3-85
ethers, 5-9
polyphenyl, 3-66, 3-69, 4-2, 4-9, 4-10
fluorolube, 4-9
ethylene propylene rubber, 3-85
fluorosilicone rubber, 3-87
evaporation, 3-33, 3-34, 3-35, 3-73
foam, 3-51
evaporation-oxidation tests, 3-73 foaming tendency, 3-52
foam stability, 3-52
explosions, 6-12 test for, 3-52
extreme pressure, 3-59 foam inhibitors, 5-1, 5-7

additives, 5-8, 5-9 mode of action, 5-7
types of, 5-7
Falex tester, 3-61
fatigue, 3-81 fog cabinet, 3-76
film strength, 3-59 four-ball tester, 3-62
Fourier's Law, 2-35

filters, 1-7, 2-19
absorbent, 2-20
free radical acceptors, 5-2
adsorbent, 2-20
cleaning and replacement, 2-21
freezing point, 3-20
compatibility, 2-21
mechanical, 2-19
FRYQUEL (Cellulube), 4-8
pressure drop, 2-21
fuze, hydraulic, 2-28
fire point, 3-22, 3-24
gas solubility, 3-54
fire resistance, 3-28, 4-2
emulsions, 3-28 gas turbine lubricant, 4-5
synthetics, 3-28
water-glycol, 3-28 gear fatigue tests, 3-64
fittings, 2-37 gear pumps, 2-3

1-4
AMCP 706-123
gear motors, 2-14 hydraulic fluids, 1-4

classification, 4-1
gelling, 3-56 Specification fluids
JAN-F-461, 4-48, 4-49
gerotor motor, 2-14 W-B-680a, 4-48, 4-52, 4-53
W-L800, 4-10, 4-11
gerotor pump, 2-4 W-D-001078, 4-44,4-45
MIL-L-2104B, 4-10, 4-12
globe valve, 2-30 MIL-H-5559A, 4-44, 4-46
MIL-H-5606B, 4-13, 4-14
glossary, G-l MIL-H-6083C, 4-13
MIL-L-6085A, 2-35, 4-39
glycols, 4-5, 4-10 MIL-L-7808G, 4-40, 4-41
polyalkylene, 4-2, 4-6 MIL-H-8446B, 4-35,4-38
polyoxyalkylene, 4-6 MIS-10137, 4-13, 4-16
polyoxyethylene, 4-6 MIS-10150, 4-17, 4-18
polyoxypropylene, 4-6 MIL-L-10295A, 4-17, 4-19
water, 4-6 MIL-H-13866B, 4-17, 4-20
MIL-H-13910B, 4-48, 4-50, 4-51
halogenated fluids, 4-8 MIL-H-13919B, 4-21, 4-22
MIL-F-17111, 4-21, 4-23,4-59, 4-69
handling, 1-6 MIL-L-17331F, 4-21, 4-24
compatibility, 6-12 MIL-H7672B, 4-21, 4-25
explosions, 6-12 MIL-H-19457B, 4-35, 4-37
fire, 6-12 MIL-L-21260A, 4-26, 4-27
health hazards, 6-11 MIL-H-22072A, 4-48, 4-54
poisoning, 6-11 MIL-L-23699A, 4-40, 442
precautions, 6-11 MIL-F-25598, 4-26, 4-28
M1LH-27601A, 4-26, 4-27, 4-28
heat exchangers, 2-35 MIL-L-45199A, 4-26, 4-30
air-cooled, 2-37 MIL-H-46001A, 4-31, 4-32
water-cooled, 2-37 MIL-L-46002, 4-31, 4-33
MIL-H-46004, 4-31, 4-34
heat transfer, 2-35, 3-42 MIL-P-46046A, 4-44, 4-47
conduction, 2-35 MIL-H-81019, 4-35, 4-36
convection, 2-35 MIL-S-81087A, 4-40, 4-43
radiation, 2-35
heat transfer coefficient, 2-36 hydraulic fluid stability, 1-5
heat-transfer fluid, 4-5 hydraulic fluid types, 4-1
helical gear pumps, 2-4 hydraulic fuze, 2-28
herringbone gear pumps, 2-4 hydraulic power, 1-1
heterocyclic compounds, 4-9 hydraulic system types, 4-2
high-pressure spray ignition, 3-24 hydrocarbons, 4-2, 4-8
hot manifold spray ignition, 3-24 hydrodynamic lubrication, 3-57, 5-8
Houghto-Safe, 4-8 hydrolytic inhibitors, 5-10
1-5
AMCP 706-123
hydrolytic stability, 3-67, 3-74 oils at 400° F, 3-64

steam turbine oils, 3-64
hydrometer, 3-41
load-dividing valves, 2-27
impurities, 5-5
loss coefficients, 2-39
incendiary gun fire test, 3-26
low-pressure spray ignition, 3-24
inhibitors
cavitation, 5-11 low-temperature stability, 3-55
corrosion, 5-1, 5-4, 5-5, 5-15
foam, 5-1, 5-7 low-temperature properties, 3-18
hydrolytic, 5-10
oxidation, 5-1 lubrication, 3-57
boundary, 3-57, 3-58
insoluble material formation, 1-6 extreme pressure, 3-59
hydrodynamic, 3-57
instrument lubricant, 4-5
lubricity, 1-5, 3-59, 5-8
intensifiers, 2-17
isoprene, 3-85 lubricity additives, 5-1, 5-9
jet-pipe valves, 2-24 marking, hydraulic fluid containers, 6-1

abbreviations, 6-3
Kel-F, 4-8 cautions, 6-3
colors, 6-2
kinematic viscosity, 3-3, 3-6, 3-7 materials, 6-2
lacquer formation, 1-6 microbiological contamination, 6-7
leaching, 5-5 mineral oils, 3-66, 4-2, 5-3
liners, container, 6-1 motors, 1-3, 2-2

crescent seal, 2-14
Lipkin pycnometer, 3-40 gear, 2-14
gerotor, 2-14
liquid containers, 6-1 piston, axial, 2-16
piston, radial, 2-17
piston, rotary, 2-17
liquid contamination, 6-10 rotary, 2-14
Karl Fischer test, 6-11 spur gear, 2-14
test for water, 6-11 vane, 2-15
liquid metals, 4-2, 4-9 natural rubber, 3-85
liquid springs, 2-44 needle valves, 2-30
liquids, non-Newtonian, 3-4 neutralization number, 3-70

by color-indicator titration, 3-71
load-carrying tests, 3-64 by potentiometric titration, 3-71
aircraft turbine lubricant, 3-64
lubricating oils, 3-64 Newtonian fluids, definition, 3-4
AMCP 706-123
nitrile rubber, 3-85 piston-type actuators, 2-9
non-Newtonian fluids, 3-4 plastic fluid, 3-4

dilatant, 3-5
plastic, 3-4 pneumatic-loaded accumulators, 2-23
pseudoplastic, 3-4
rheopectic, 3-5 pneumatic power, 1-1
thixotropic, 3-5
poise, 3-3
noncushioned actuators, 2-11
poisoning, 6-11
nonrotating actuators, 2-9
polar fluids, 5-5
oiliness, 3-59
polyacrylic rubber, 3-85
organic acid esters, 4-5, 4-10
polyalkylene glycol, 4-2, 4-6
organic oils, 4-6
polyethers, 4-6
orientation viscosity loss, 5-6
polyglycols, 4-5
orifice, 3-7
polyisoprene, 3-85
Ostwald viscometer, 3-8
polyoxyalkylene glycols, 4-6, 4-10
oxidation-corrosion test, 3-72, 3-76
polyoxyethylene glycols, 4-6
oxidation inhibitors. 5-1
oxidation stability, 3-65, 3-68, 3-72, 3-73 polyphenyl ethers, 3-66, 3-69, 4-2, 4-9, 4-10
Pensky-Martens Closed Cup Tester, 3-23 polysiloxanes, 4-5, 4-8, 4-10
perfluorinated liquids, 4-9 polysulfide, 3-85
perfluoroalkylesters, 4-2 polyurethane, 3-85
petroleum base liquids, 4-3, 4-7, 4-10 poppet valves, 2-23, 2-24, 2-29
phosphate esters, 4-2, 4-3, 4-7, 4-10 port plates, 2-6
phosphonitrilates, 4-9 position valves, 2-28
pintle, 2-7, 2-17 positive-displacement metering valves, 2-31
pipe cleaner evaporation test, 3-27 potentiometric titration, 3-71
piping, 2-38 pour point, 3-20, 3-21, 3-22

couplings, 2-75 depressants, 5-10
fittings, 2-39
power transmission, 1-1
piston pumps, 2-6 precautions, 6-11
1-7
AMCP 706-123
pressure-compensated valves, 2-30 recoil mechanisms, 3-38

pressure controls, 1-3 Redwood viscosity, 3-3
pressure drop, 2-38, 3-6 reflux tests, 3-74
pressure surges, 2-39 regulator valves, 2-28
pressure switch, 2-28 Reid vapor pressure, 3-32
properties relief valves, 2-2, 2-26, 2-27

low-temperature, 3-18
lubrication, 3-57 reservoir, 2-2, 2-18
physical, 3-2
viscosity-pressure, 3-14 response speed, 1-5
viscosity-temperature, 3-8
reverse flow viscometer, 3-8
pseudoplastic fluid, 3-4
reyn, 3-3
pumps, 2-3
axial-piston, 2-6 Reynolds number, 3-6
balanced vane, 2-12
bellows, 2-8 rheopectic fluid, 3-5
crescent seal, 2-4
diaphragm, 2-8 rod-type actuators, 2-10
external gear, 2-3
gerotor, 2-4 rotary actuator, 2-19
helical gear, 2-4
herringbone gear, 2-4 rotary fluid motor, 2-14
internal gear, 2-4
piston, 2-6 rotary-piston motor, 2-17
radial-piston, 2-7
reciprocating, 2-3 rotating piston pumps, 2-7
rotary, 2-3
rotating piston, 2-7 rust inhibitors, 5-4
screw, 2-8
spur gear, 2-3 Ryder gear machine, 3-64
unbalanced vane, 2-5
vane, 2-5, 2-15 SAE tester, 3-63
pump tests, 3-63 Saybolt Furol viscosity, 3-3
Pydraul, 4-8 Saybolt Universal viscosity, 3-3, 3-7, 3-9
radial-piston motors, 2-17 Saybolt viscometer, 3-7
radial-piston pumps, 2-7 scission, 3-18
radiation, 2-36 seal degradation retardants, 5-10
radiation resistance, 3-68, 3-74 seating valves, 2-24
Ramsbottom test, 3-72 secant bulk modulus, 3-45

1-8
AMCP 706-123
sedimentation, 3-56 oxidation, 3-65, 3-72, 3-73

thermal, 3-66, 3-73
separation, 3-56
stable pour point, 3-21
sequence valves, 2-27
steam turbine oxidation test, 3-72
servo valves, 3-68
stoke, 3-3
shearing stress, 3-2
storage, 1-6, 6-1
shock absorbers, 2-39, 2-44
hydraulic, 2-40 streamline flow, 3-4
hydropneumatic, 2-41
liquid spring, 2-44 strong acid number, 3-71
relevant fluid properties, 2-44
suspended level viscometer, 3-8
shuttle valves, 2-29
symbols, 1-2, 1-3
short tube viscometer, 3-6
synergistic effect, 5-2
silicate esters, 4-2, 4-5, 4-10
tag closed cup tester, 3-22
silicones, 3-66, 3-69, 3-87, 4-2,
4-5, 5-3 tandem actuators, 2-10
silicone rubber, 3-87 tangent bulk modulus, 3-46
Skydrol, 4-8 temperature, 1-4
sliding-spool valves, 2-24 temperature-viscosity charts, 3-9
slope, ASTM, 3-9 temporary viscosity loss, 5-6
solid film lubricants, 3-95 tertiary phosphate esters, 4-7
solubility, gas, 3-54 testers, friction and wear, 3-61

Almen, 3-61
sonic bulk modulus, 3-46, 3-48 Falex, 3-61
four-ball, 3-62
specific gravity, 3-38, 3-40, 3-41 SAE, 3-63
Timken, 3-61
specific heat, 3-42
thermal conductivity, 3-42
spray ignition tests, 3-24
thermal energy, 2-35
spur gear pumps, 2-3 thermal expansion, 3-40
spring-loaded accumulators, 2-22 thermal stability, 3-66, 3-73
stability thermal stability test, 3-73

chemical, 3-65
thin flim oxidation tests, 3-73
hydrolytic, 3-67, 3-74
low-temperature, 3-55 thixotropic fluid, 3-5
1-9
AMCP 706-123
thixotropic viscosity loss, 5-6 seating, 2-24

sliding-spool, 2-24
thrust cam, 2-6, 2-17 symbols for, 1-6
volume-control, 2-30
thrust ring, 2-17 vapor pressure, 3-32
time-delay valves, 2-30 viscometers, 3-6

calibration, 3-8
Timken tester, 3-61 Cannon-Fenske, 3-7, 3-8
Cannon-Master, 3-8
total acid number, 3-71 capillary, 3-6
glass, 3-8
total base number, 3-71 kinematic, 3-8
Ostwald, 3-8
toxicity, 1-6 reverse-flow, 3-8
Saybolt, 3-7
transducer, 2-32 suspended-level, 3-8
transmission, fluid, 2-17 viscosity, 1-4, 3-2

absolute, 3-2
trialkyl phosphate ester, 4-8 blends, 3-14
definition, 3-2
triaryl phosphate ester, 4-8 Engler 3-3
kinematic, 3-3, 3-6, 3-7
turbidity, 3-56 non-Newtonian materials, 3-5
Redwood, 3-3
turbulent flow, 3-6 Saybolt Furol, 3-3
Saybolt Universal, 3-3, 3-7, 3-9
unbalanced vane pump, 2-5 significance, 1-4
unloading valve, 2-26 Viscosity Index (V.l.), 3-11, 3-13

valves, 1-2, 2-24 Viscosity Index improvers, 5-1, 5-6
actuation, 2-31 mode of action, 5-6
cam, 2-31 solubility, 5-6
manual, 2-31 susceptibility to shear, 5-6
pilot fluid, 2-32 types, 5-6
servomechanism, 2-32
solenoid, 2-31
spring, 2-31 viscosity loss, 3-16
design, 2-33
directional-control, 2-28 viscosity-pressure properties, 3-14
flow-dividing, 2-24
pressure-control, 2-26 viscosity-shear characteristics, 3-16, 3-18
back-pressure, 2-27
hydraulic fuze, 2-28 viscosity stability, low temperature, 3-56
load-dividing, 2-27
pressure switch, 2-28 viscosity-temperature
regulator, 2-28 ASTM charts, 3-9, 3-13
relief, 2-26 coefficient, 3-11
sequence, 2-27
unloading, 2-26 viscosity, unit conversions, 3-3, 3-8
-10
AMCP 706-123
viscous flow, 3-4, 3-6 water glycols, 3-28, 4-6, 4-10
volatility, 3-28 weapon lubricant, 4-5
volume controls, 1-3 wear, prevention, 3-60
Walther equation, 3-9 wear rate, 3-60
water, 3-51 weight-loaded accumulators, 2-22
water-base liquids, 4-2 wobble plate, 2-6,2-17
1-11
AMCP 706-123
(AMCRD-TV)
FOR THE COMMANDER:
OFFICIAL: CHARLES T. HORNER, JR.

Major General, USA
Chief of Staff
'. J. PHILLIPS
Colonel, GS
Chief, HQ Admin Mgt Ofc
DISTRIBUTION:
Special
* U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1971 O - 430-510(7 432A)

ENGINEERING DESIGN HANDBOOKS
Listed below are the Handbooks which have been published or are currently under preparation. Handbooks with publication
dates prior to 1 August 1962 were published as 20-series Ordnance Corps Pamphlets. AMC Circular 310-38, 19 July 1963,
redesignated those publications as 706-series AMC Pamphlets (e.g., ORDP 20-138 was redesignated AMCP 706-138). All new,
reprinted, or revised Handbooks ärs being published as 706-series AMC Pamphlets.
No. Title No. Title
AMCP 706- AMCP 706-
100 *Design Guidance for Producibility 201 »Rotorcraft Engineering, Part One, Preliminary
104 »Value Engineering Design
106 Elements of Armament Engineering, Part One, 202 »Rotorcraft Engineering, Part Two, Detail
Sources of Energy Design
107 Elements of Armament Engineering, Part Two, 203 »Rotorcraft Engineering, Part Tnree, Qualifica-
Bal1istics tion Assurance
108 Elements of Armament Engineering, Part Three, 205 »Timing Systems and Components
Weapon Systems and Components 210 Fuzes
109 *Tables of the Cumulative Binomial Probabilities 211(C) Fuzes, Proximity, Electrical, Part One (U)
110 Experimental Statistics, Section 1, Basic Con- 212(S) Fuzes, Proximity, Electrical, Part Two (U)
cepts and Analysis of Measurement Data 213(S) Fuzes, Proximity, Electrical, Part Three (U)
111 Experimental Statistics, Section 2, Analysis of 214(5) Fuzes, Proximity, Electrical, Part Four (U)
Enumerative and Classificatory Data 215(C) Fuzes, Proximity, Electrical, Part Five (U)
112 Experimental Statistics, Section 3, Planning 235 »Hardening Weapon Systems Against RF Energy
and Analysis of Comparative Experiments 239(S) »Small Arms Ammunition (U)
113 Experimental Statistics, Section 4, Special 240(S) Grenades (U)
Topics 241(S) »Land Mines (U)
114 Experimental Statistics, Section 5, Tables 242 Design for Control of Projectile Flight
115 Environmental Series, Part One, Basic Environ- Characteristics (REPLACES -246)
mental Concepts 244 Ammunition, Section 1, Artillery Ammunition--
116 »Environmental Series, Part Two, Basic Environ- General , with Table of Contents, Glossary,
mental Factors and Index for Series
120 »Criteria for Environmental Control of Mobile 245(C) Ammunition, Section 2, Design for Tenr-inal
Systems Effects (U)
121 »»Packaging and Pack Engineering 246 +Ammunition, Section 3, Design for Control of
123 »Hydraulic Fluids Flight Characteristics (REPLACED BY -242)
125 Electrical Wire and Cable 247 Ammunition, Section 4, Design for Projection
127 »Infrared Military Systems, Part One 248 +Ammunition, Section 5, Inspection Aspects of
128{S) *Infrared Military Systems, Part Two (U) Artillery Ammunition Design
130 Design for Air Transport and Airdrop of 249 Ammunition, Section 6, Manufacture of Metallic
Materi el Components of Artillery Ammunition
133 *Maintainabi1ity Engineering Theory and Practice 250 Guns--General
134 Maintainability Guide for Design 251 Muzzle Devices
135 Inventions, Patents, and Related Matters 252 Gun Tubes
136 Servomechanisms, Section 1, Theory 255 Spectral Characteristics of Muzzle Flash
137 Servomechanisms, Section 2, Measurement and 260 Automatic Weapons
Signal Converters 270 Propellant Actuated Devices
138 Servomechanisms, Section 3, Amplification 280 Design of Aerodynami cal ly Stabilized Fri-e
139 Servomechanisms, Section 4, Power Elements and Rockets
System Design 281(SRD) Weapon System Effectiveness fu)
140 Trajectories, Differential Effects, and Data 282 ^Propulsion and Propellants (REPLACED BY -285)
for Projectiles 283 Aerodynamics
145 »Dynamics of a Tracking Gimbal System 284(C) Trajectories (U)
150 Interior Ballistics of Guns 285 Elements of Aircraft and Missile Propulsion
160(S) Elements of Terminal Ballistics, Part One, Kill (REPLACES -282)
Mechanisms and Vulnerability (U) 286 Structures
161(S) Elements of Terminal Ballistics, Part Two, 290(C) Warheads — General (U)
Collection and Analysis of Data Concerning 291 Surface-to-Air Missiles, Part One, System
Targets (U) Integration
162(SRD) Elements of Terminal Ballistics, Part Three, 292 Surface-to-Air Missiles, Part Two, Weapon
Application to Missile and Space Targets (U) Control
165 Liquid-Filled Projectile Design 293 Surface-to-Air Missiles, Part Three, Computers
170(C) **Armor and Its Application (U) 294(S) Surface-to-Air Missiles, Part Four, Missile
175 Solid Propellants, Part One Armament (U)
176(C) Solid Propellants, Part Two (U) 295(S) Surface-to-Air Missiles, Part Five, Counter-
177 Properties of Explosives of Military Interest measures (U)
178(C) ^Properties of Explosives of Military Interest, 296 Surface-to-Air Missiles, Part Six, Structures
Section 2 (U) (REPLACED BY -177) and Power Sources
179 Explosive Trains 297(S) Surface-to-Air Missiles, Part Seven, Sample
180 *Principles of Explosive Behavior Problem (U)
185 Military Pyrotechnics, Part One, Theory and 327 Fire Control Systems — General
Appl i cati on 329 Fire Control Computing Systems
186 Military Pyrotechnics, Part Two, Safety, 331 Compensating Elements
Procedures and Glossary 335(SRD) »Design Engineers' Nuclear Effects Manual,
187 Military Pyrotechnics, Part Three, Properties Volume I, Munitions and Weapon Systems (U)
of Materials Used in Pyrotechnic Compositions 336(SRD) »Design Engineers' Nuclear Effects Manual,
188 »Military Pyrotechnics, Part Four, Design of Volume II, Electronic Systems and Logistical
Ammunition for Pyrotechnic Effects Systems (U)
189 Military Pyrotechnics, Part Five, Bibliography 337(SRD) »Design Engineers' Nuclear Effects Manual,
190 *Army Weapon System Analysis Volume III, Nuclear Environment (U)
191 *System Analysis and Cost-Effectiveness 338(SRD) »Design Engineers' Nuclear Effects Manual,
195 »Development Guide for Reliability, Part One, Volume IV, Nuclear Effects (U)
Introduction, Background, and Planning for 340 Carriages and Mounts — General
Army Materiel Requirements 341 Cradles
196 »Development Guide for Reliability, Part Two, 342 Recoil Systems
Design for Reliability 343 Top Carriages
197 »Development Guide for Reliability, Part Three, 344 Bottom Carriages
Reliability Prediction 345 Equilibrators
198 »Development Guide for Reliability, Part Four, 346 Elevating Mechanisms
Reliability Measurement 347 Traversing Mechanisms
199 »Development Guide for Reliability, Part Five, 350 Wheeled Amphibians
Contracting for Reliability 355 The Automotive Assembly
200 »Development Guide for Reliability, Part Six, 356 Automotive Suspensions
Mathematical Appendix and Glossary 357 Automotive Bodies and Hulls
»UNDER PREPARATION—not available »REVISION UNDER PREPARATION

+OBSOLETE--out of stock

Engineering Design Handbook - Hydraulic Fluids

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UNCLASSIFIED

THIS PAGE IS UNCLASSIFIED

HEADQUARTERS, U.S. ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND APRIL 1971

TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont'd)

2-0 LIST OF SYMBOLS 2-1

TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont'd)

2-7.1.3 Pneumatic-loaded Accumulators • 2-22

3-0 LIST OF SYMBOLS 3-1

TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont'd)

3-2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 3-2

TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont'd)

3-2.10.1 Specific Heat 3-42

TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont'd)

TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont'd)

4-1 GENERAL 4-1

5-1 GENERAL 5-1

TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont'd)

5-2.3.1 Esters 5-2

TABLE OF CONTENTS (concluded)

6-2.2.2 Solid Contaminant Particles 6-6

1-1 Graphic Symbol for a Three-position, Four-port Hydraulic Valve 1-3

1-3 Graphic Symbol for a Hydraulic Oscillatory Device 1-3

1-5 Graphic Symbol for a Pressure Relief Valve 1-3

2-1 Rotary Motor Circuit Which Produces Constant Torque 2-2

2-2 Spur Gear Rotary Hydraulic Pump 2-3

2-4 Crescent Seal Internal Gear Hydraulic Pump 2-4

2-5 Gerotor Internal Gear Hydraulic Pump 2-4

2-7 Unbalanced Vane Hydraulic Pump 2-5

2-9 Balanced Vane Hydraulic Pump 2-6

2-10 Axial-piston Hydraulic Pump 2-6

2-11 Redial-piston Hydraulic Pump With Rotating Piston Housing 2-7

2-12 Radial-piston Hydraulic Pump With Spherical Pistons 2-7

2-13 Rotating Piston Hydraulic Pump 2-7

2-14 Two-rotor Screw Hydraulic Pump With Helical Gears 2-8

2-15 Typical Bellows Pump 2-8

2-16 Typical Diaphragm Pump 2-9

2-17 Rotating Linear Actuator 2-9

2-18 Plunger-type Linear Actuator 2-10

2-19 Telescoping Linear Actuator 2-10

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (cont'd)

Fig. No. Title Page

2-20 Double-acting Linear Actuator 2-10

2-21 Stepped-tandem Linear Actuator 2-11

2-22 Dual Linear Actuator 2-11

2-23 Cushioned Double-acting Linear Actuator 2-11

2-24 Mounting Arrangements for Linear Actuators 2-12

2-25 Applications of Linear Actuators 2-13

2-30 Typical Single-vane Actuator 2-16

2-31 Typical Double-vane Actuator 2-16

2-32 Helix-spline Rotary Actuator 2-16

2-33 Piston-rack Rotary Actuator 2-16

2-34 Diagram of a Hydraulic Intensifier Circuit 2-18

2-35 Basic Configurations of Filter Assemblies 2-20

2-36 Hydraulic Fluid Filter With Disk-type Filter Elements 2-20

2-37 Weight-loaded Hydraulic Accumulator 2-22

2-38 Spring-loaded Hydraulic Accumulator 2-22

2-39 Nonseparated Pneumatic-loaded Hydraulic Accumulator 2-22