Data Communication & Networks

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BCA 501T DATA COMMUNICATION & NETWORKS
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BCA501T: DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS
Total Teaching Hours : 60 No of Hours / Week : 04

Unit – I
Introduction: Communication Network and services, Approaches to Network Design, Network
Functions and Network Topology, Message ,packet and circuit Switching , Internet, Packet
Switching ; Key factors in Communication Network Evolution ; Layered Architecture and
Applications – Examples of Layering , OSI Reference Model, TCP/IP Model Telnet FTP and
IP Utilities. Digital Transmission: Digital Representation of Information: Properties of digital
transmission: Characterization of Communication Channels Frequency Domain and Time
Domain : Fundamental limits in Digital Communication – The NyquistSignalling rate, The
Shannon channel capacity : Line coding , Modems & digital Modulations
[ 12 Hours ]
Unit - II
Transmission Systems: properties of media and digital transmission Systems – Twisted Pair ,
Coaxial Cable, Optical Fibre, Radio Transmission Intrared Light Error detection and
correction – Error detection , Two – dimensional parity checks , Internet checksum ,
Polynomial code; standardized Polynomial codes , Error detecting capability of a polynomial
code, Multiplexing – frequency – Division , Time – Division , SONET; Wavelength Division
Multiplexing Circuit switches; Telephone network , signalling Traffic and Overload control in
Telephone networks – Concentration, Routing Control, Overload controls Cellular Telephone
Networks, Satellite Cellular networks. [ 12 Hours ]
Unit – III
Peer –to-Peer Protocols:- Peer-to peer Protocols and service models ARQ Protocols stop and
wait , Go –back-N Selective Repeat , Transmission efficiency of ARQ Protocols, Other
adaptation functions , - Sliding window flow control Timing Recovery in Synchronous
Services Reliable Stream Service, Data Link Control, HDLC, PPP ; Statistical Multiplexing.
[ 12 Hours ]
Unit - IV
Local Area Networks and Medium access Control Protocols:- Multiple access
communications; Local Area network – LAN Structure, MAC Sublayer, Logical link
control layer, Random Access protocols ALOHA , Slotted ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD,
Scheduling approaches to medium access control – Reservation Systems, polling , Token
passing rings, comparison of Random access & Scheduling access control Comparison of
Radom access & SHEDULING MEDIUM access controls; Channelization – FDMA,
TDMA, CDMA; [ 12 Hours ]

Unit - V
LAN Standard –Ethernet and IEF, 802.3 LAN Standard ; Token Ring and IEEE 8025 LAN
standard , FDDI, Wireless LAN’s and IEEE 802.11 Standards; LAN Bridges – Transparent
Bridges , Source Routing Bridges , Mixed – media Bridges. Packet Switching Networks :-
Network services & Internal Network Operation; Packet Network Topology; Datagrams &
VIRTUAL circuits ; structure of switch/ Router, Connectionless packet switching ; Virtual –
Circuit packet switching ; Overview of Routing and congestion in packet networks – Routing
algorithms classification , Routing tables, shortest path routing algorithms, Flooding ,
Hierarchical routing , Distance vector routing
Link state routing , congestion control algorithms. [ 12 Hours ]
Text Books:
1.Stallings, “Data and Computer Communications”, 7thEdition,Pearson Education, 2012
Reference Books:
1. Andrew S Tanenbaim, “Computer Networks”, 4th Edition, Pearson Education.
2. BehrouzFerouzan, Introduction to Data Communication & Networking TMH, 1999. 3.
Larry &Peterson & Bruce S Davis; Computer networks Second Edition , Morgan
Kaufman, 2000.
BCA501T: DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS

BLUE PRINT
Question paper pattern for theory has four sections :
Section – A :Contains 12 questions, out of which a student has to answer 10 questions. Each
question carries 2 marks ( 10 x 2 = 20 )
Section – B :Contains 5 full questions includes sub-question as (a) & (b). Each full question
carries 10 marks (5 x 10 = 50)
Section – C: Contains 5 full questions includes sub-question as (a) & (b). Each full question
carries 15 marks (3 x 15 = 45)
Section – D :Contains 2 questions out of which a student has to answer 1 questions. Each
question carries 1 marks (1 x 10 = 10 )

SECTION A SECTION B
CHAPTER SECTION C SECTION D
2 MARKS 10 MARKS
15 MARKS 10 MARKS
Introduction to data
communication 1
networks
Network architecture
and switching 1
I
techniques
Layered architecture 1 1 1
1
and applications
Data and signals 1 1
Encoding 1 1
1
Transmission Media 1
II Multiplexing 1 1
Error Detection And
1 1
Correction
Peer to Peer Protocols 1 1
III Medium Access Control 1
1 1
Protocols
1
IV Local Area Networks 1 1
Packet Switching 1
V Networks and 1 1
Congestion Control
5 2
TOTAL 12 8
ANSWER ANSWER ANSWER ANSWER

ANY 10 ANY 5 ANY 3 ANY 1
45 10
TOTAL MARKS 20 25

SECTION – A ( 2 Marks)
UNIT-I
[Nov / Dec 2016]
1. Write any two examples of data communication modes?
2. Expand NIC and TCP
3. What is a switch?
4. Write any two difference between analog and digital signals?
[Nov / Dec 2017]

5. Define SNR?
6. What is modem?
7. What is FTP?
8. What do you mean by IP utility? Give an example.
9. What is Network Topology? List out any two network topologies.
10. Define attenuation
11. Write any two differences between analog and digital signals.
[Nov / Dec 2018]

12. What is telnet? How it differs from FTP?
13. What is meant by protocol and internet protocol suite?
14. Define encoding and decoding.
15. Define datagram and packet.
16. Define bit rate and baud rate.
[TMAQ – Important Tutor Mark Assignment Questions]

1. What is Network Topology? List any two types of Topology.
2. What are the types of network?
3. Expand SMTP and SNMP.
4. Define computer network.
5. What are the different characteristics for analog signals?
6. Compare LAN and WAN.
7. What is protocol? Give 2 examples.

SECTION – A (2 Marks)
UNIT-II
[Nov / Dec 2015]
1. Define multiplexing?
[Nov / Dec 2016]
2. What is cellular telephone network?
[Nov / Dec 2017]
3. What do you mean by Nyquist signaling rate? Explain.
1. Define SNR.
2. What is digital to digital encoding?
3. What is difference between UTP and STP cables?
4. What is TFTP?
5. Define NETSTAT command.
6. What is Shannon capacity formula?
UNIT-III
[Nov / Dec 2016]
1. Expand HDLC and PPP?
2. What is framing?

1. What is pipelining?
2. Differentiate between single hop and End-to-End.
3. What is polling?
4. What is piggybacking?
5. Define checksum.
6. What is ALOHA?
7. Compare FDMA, TDMA.

UNIT-IV
[Nov / Dec 2016]
1. What is the use of repeaters?
2. Expand FDDI and CSMA
[Nov / Dec 2017]
3.What is reservation?
4.What do you mean by centralized pooling?
1. What is FDDI?
2. List the features of CSMA/CD.
3. What are the essential components of LAN?
4. What are the functions of data link sub layer?
5. Compare various standards of Ethernet.
UNIT-V
[Nov / Dec 2016]
1. What is Ethernet?
2. What is meant by choke pocket?
3. What are the two types of LAN standards?
[Nov / Dec 2017]
4. What is flooding?
[Nov / Dec 2018]
6. What do you mean by IEEE 802.11 standards?
7. What do you mean by flooding? Explain.
8. What is the difference between Ethernet and fast Ethernet?
1. Explain different types of bridges.
2. Define routing.
3. What is bridge?
4. What is hierarchical routing?
5. What is fragmentation?

SECTION – B (10 Marks)
UNIT-I
[Nov / Dec 2016]
1. Explain types of transmission modes?
2. Compare mesh topology with star topology?
6. Differentiate datagrams with virtual circuits.
[Nov / Dec 2017]
7. Explain packet switching.
8. Explain Shannon capacity.
7. Illustrate the use of function overloading with example.
[Nov / Dec 2018]
14. Explain circuit switching.
15. How many layers are there in TCP\IP model? Mention the function of each layer.

1. Explain packet switching techniques.
2. Write a note on various technology?
3. What is multiplexing? What are the different types of multiplexing?
4. What is pulse code modulation?
5. With a neat diagram, explain TELNET.
6. Explain TCP/IP architecture.
7. Explain the properties of digital transmission systems.
8. Explain circuit switching and packet switching techniques.
UNIT-II
[Nov / Dec 2016]
1. Explain concept of checksum?
2. Explain types of errors?
[Nov /Dec2017]
3.What is multiplexing? Explain TDM
4. Differentiate connectionless and connection oriented services.
[Nov / Dec 2018]

16. Explain twisted pair cable as transmission medium.
18. Explain 2-dimensional parity check for error detection.
19. Explain the difference between connection and connectionless services.

1. Explain the concept of checksum.
2. Explain the types of errors.
3. Define time domain and frequency domain with the representation of any 2 frequency
signals.
4. Write a short notes on a) Infrared waves
5. Explain CRC with example.
6. Explain SONET multiplexing.

UNIT-III
[Nov / Dec 2016]
1. Explain the structure of HDLC frames
[Nov / Dec 2018]
2. Explain HDLC frame structure

1. Explain pulse code modulation.
2. Explain selective repeat ARQ.
3. Explain in detail the 1-persistant, p-persistent and non-persistent CSMA protocols.
4. How go back ‘n’ is different from selective repeat method?
5. Write the signal waveforms when 101101 is transmitted suing line coding
(a)Polar NRZ b) Bipolar
6. Explain Go Back N ARQ.
UNIT-IV
[Nov / Dec 2016]
1. Explain CSMA protocols.
[Nov / Dec 2017]

1. Illustrate CSMA
2. Describe FDDI.
3. Explain structure of HDLC frame.

1. Briefly explain peer-to-peer protocols and service models.
2. Explain the following scheduling schemes.
(i) Reservation systems (ii) polling
3. Explain transition phases in PPP.
4. Explain the architecture of IEEE 802.11.
5. Explain the architecture of IEEE 802.5.
SECTION – B ( 10 Marks )
UNIT-V
[Nov / Dec 2016]
1. Explain the following (a) congestion control.
[Nov / Dec 2017]
1. Describe FDDI
2. Write Bellman Ford Algorithm.
[Nov / Dec 2018]
3.Explain the role of the following network devices:
2.Describe FDDI.

1. Explain congestion control algorithms.
2. Explain token bucket algorithm.
3. Explain Dijkstraw’s algorithm.
4. Explain flooding algorithms.
5. Explain leaky bucket algorithm.
6. Write short note on choke packets.
7. Write short note on distance vector routing.

SECTION – C (15 Marks)
UNIT-I
[Nov / Dec 2016]
1.a) Explain the types of network?
b) Explain the functions of OSI model layers?
[Nov / Dec 2017]

2. Explain OSI reference model with a neat diagram.
3. What is digital modulation? Explain the digital modulation techniques.
[Nov / Dec 2018]

4. Explain digital representation of information

UNIT-II
[Nov / Dec 2016]

1.Explain the following?
A) Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).
B) SONET
c.coaxial cable
[Nov / Dec 2017]

2. Illustrate polynomial code with an example
3. Describe twisted pair cable.
4. Explain SONET.
[Nov / Dec 2018]

5) Write note on polynomial code with suitable exam
6. Explain optical fibre as transmission medium

UNIT-III
[Nov / Dec 2016]

1.Explain the following?
a) CRC method
b) Stop –and-wait –ARQ algorithm
[Nov / Dec 2017]
2. Describe selective repeat ARQ.
[Nov / Dec 2018]
3. Explain stop and wait ARQ with a neat diagram.
4. Explain sliding window method of flow control.
5.What do you mean by peer-to-peer protocol? Compare

UNIT-IV
[Nov / Dec 2016]

1. a) Write short notes on ALOHA protocol.
b) Explain CSMA protocols.
[Nov / Dec 2017]

2.Explain FDMA, TDMA and CDMA
[Nov / Dec 2018]
3.Explain ALOHA and slotted ALOHA

4. Explain frequency division multiple access and time division multiple access
5. Explain LLC and MAC sub layers of data link layer.

UNIT-V
[Nov / Dec 2016]
1. Explain Dijikstra’s algorithm
[Nov / Dec 2017]

2. What is a bridge? Explain the various types of bridges
3. Illustrate the two sublayer of data link layer
4.I llustrate open-loop congestion control
[Nov / Dec 2018]

5.Explain different types of bridges in computer
SECTION – D (10 Marks)

UNIT-I
[Nov / Dec 2016]
1.Compare packet switching with circuit switching.
[Nov / Dec 2017]
2.Explain TCP/IP model with a neat diagram.
[Nov / Dec 2018]
3.Explain OSI reference model in detail.

UNIT-II
[Nov / Dec 2016]
4.IIlustrate polar line encoding scheme.

UNIT-V
[Nov / Dec 2016]
2.Explain the following:
a) Modems
b).Congestion control.
[Nov / Dec 2018]
3. Explain any routing algorithms.

1. Explain the working of FTP.
2. Explain AM, FM and PM.
3. Write a note on guided transmission media.
4. Explain IEEE 802.4 Token ring format.
5. Write a note on switches?
6. What are different scheduling approaches? Compare them.
7. Discuss MAC sub layer and logical link control sub layer.
8. Explain Cyclic Redundancy check method for error detection.
9. Explain sliding window protocols.
10. What is the difference between datagram and virtual algorithms.
11. Describe digital to analog conversion.
12. What is Hamming code?
13. Explain scheduling algorithms?
14. Write a short notes on shortest path algorithm?
15. Explain the working and frame format of token ring.
16. Write algorithm of CRC method of error detection with an example.
17. Explain the characteristic s of co-axial cable with neat diagram? What are the
advantages of co-axial over twisted pair.
18. Explain selective Repeat ARQ.
19. Explain the concept of checksum.
20. Explain the flooding algorithm.

Section -A
Unit-1
1. Write any two examples of data communication modes?
• Simplex mode: Ex: T.V transmission
• Half-duplex mode: Ex: Internet browsing
• Full-duplex mode: Ex: Telephone communication
2. Expand NIC and TCP
• NIC: network interface cards
• TCP: transmission control protocol
3. What is a switch?
A network switch is a hardware device that channels incoming data from multiple input
ports to a specific output port that will take it toward its intended destination. It is a small
device that transfers data packets between multiple network devices such as computers,
routers… A switch network consists of several devices interlinked by a series of nodes
called switch.
4. Write any two difference between analog and digital signals?

Analog signal Digital signal
An Analog signal is a continuous wave that A digital signal is a discrete wave that
changes over a time period. carries information in binary form.
Analog signal has no fixed range. Digital signal has a finite numbers i.e. 0
and 1.
5. Define SNR?
SNR is ratio of the signal power to the noise power
SNR= Average signal power
Average noise power
6. What is modem?
Modem is abbreviation for Modulator – Demodulator. Modems are used for data transfer
from one computer network to another computer network through telephone lines.
7. What is FTP?

FTP is application protocol used to transfer a file from one computer to another .it is intended
to operate across different computers even when they are running different operating system.
8. What do you mean by IP utility? Give an ex.
IP provides several handy tools or utilities for troubleshooting, investigating, and analyzing
the network
Examples:
➢ PING
➢ TRACE ROUTE.
9. What is Network Topology? List out any two network topologies.

Network Topologies define layout, virtual shape or structure of network, not only physically
but also logically.
Examples
➢ Bus topology
➢ Star topology
10. Define attenuation?

Attenuation, when a signal travel through transmission media it loses some of its energy in
overcoming the resistance of the medium. To compensate attenuation, amplifier are used to
strengthen the signal.
11.Write any two differences between analog and digital signals.
ANALOG SIGNALS DIGITAL SIGNALS
a) An analog signal is a continuous wave that a)A digital signal is a discrete wave that
changes over a time period. carries information in binary form
b) An analog signal is represented by a sine b) A digital signal is represented by square
wave. waves.
12. What is telnet? How it differs from FTP ?

TELNET is a terminal network . It is a TCP\IP protocol which provides a means of accessing
resources on a remote computer where the initiated computer is treated as local to the remote
computer.
FTP provides access to files only. It is driven either by command line interpreter or graphical
user interface.

13. What ismeant by protocol and internet protocol suite ?
In telecommunication, a communication protocol is a system of rules that allow two or more
entities of a communications system to transmit information via any kind of variation of a
physical quantity.
Internet protocol is one of the major protocols in the TCP\IP protocols suite. It works at the
internet layer of the TCP\IP model.
14. Define encoding and decoding.

Encoding is the process by which information from a source is converted into symbols to be
communicated.
Decoding is the reverse process, converting these code symbols back into information
understandable by a receiver.
15.Define datagram and packet.

Datagram is a basic transfer unit associated with a packet switched network it provides a
connectionless communication service across a packet switched network.
Packet is a unit of data made into a single package that travels along a given network path.
16. Define bit rate and baud rate.

Bit rate is the number of bits transmitted per second.
Baud rate is the number of signal units transmitted per second
17. Define multiplexing?

Multiplexing is a method by which multiple analog or digital signals are combined into one
signal over a shared medium. ... For example, in telecommunications, several telephone calls
may be carried using one wire.
18. What is cellular telephone network?

A cellular network or mobile network is a communication network where the last link
is wireless. The network is distributed over land areas called "cells", each served by at least
one fixed-location transceiver, but more normally, three cell sites or base transceiver stations.
19. What do you mean by Nyquist signaling rate ? explain.

The Nyquist frequency, named after electronic engineer Harry Nyquist, is half of the
sampling rate of a discrete signal processing system.The Nyquist rate is twice the maximum
component frequency of the function being sampled.
Formula : C = 2 * B * log2 M

20. Expand HDLC and PPP?
HDLC – high level data link control
PPP – point to point protocol
21. What is framing?
A frame is a digital data transmission unit in computer networking and telecommunication.
A frame typically includes frame synchronization features consisting of a sequence of bits or
symbols that indicate to the receiver the beginning and end of the payload data within the
stream of symbols or bits it receives.
22. What is the use of repeaters?

A network device used to regenerate or replicate a signal. Repeaters are used in transmission
systems to regenerate analog or digital signals distorted by transmission loss.
Analog repeaters frequently can only amplify the signal while digital repeaters can reconstruct
a signal to near its original quality.
23. Expand FDDI and CSMA

• FDDI – Fiber Distributed Data Interface.
• CSMA- Carrier Sense Multiple Access.
24. What is reservation?
The Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) is a transport layer protocol designed
to reserve resources across a network using the integrated services model. ... RSVP can be used
by hosts and routers to request or deliver specific levels of quality of service (QoS) for
application data streams.
25. What do you mean by centralized pooling?
A central controller transmits polling messages to stations according to a certain order
Ethernet is the traditional technology for connecting wired local area networks (LANs),
enabling devices to communicate with each other via a protocol-- a set of rules or common
network language.
27.What is meant by choke pocket?
A choke packet is used in network maintenance and quality management to inform a specific
node or transmitter that its transmitted traffic is creating congestion over the network. This
forces the node or transmitter to reduce its output rate.

28.What are the two types of LAN standards?
(I) Ethernet or IEEE 802.3 standard
(II) Token bus or IEEE 802.4 standard
29. What is flooding?
Flooding is a simple routing technique in computer networks where a source or node sends
packets through every outgoing link. Flooding, which is similar to broadcasting, occurs when
source packets (without routing data) are transmitted to all attached network nodes.
Ethernet is the traditional technology for connecting wired local area networks (LANs),
enabling devices to communicate with each other via a protocol-- a set of rules or common
network language.
31.What do you mean by IEEE 802.11 standards?
IEEE 802.11 refers to the set of standards that define communication for wireless LANs
(wireless local area networks, or WLANs). The technology behind 802.11 is branded to
consumers as Wi-Fi. As the name implies, IEEE 802.11 is overseen by the IEEE, specifically
the IEEE LAN/MAN Standards Committee (IEEE 802).
32. What do you mean by flooding? Explain.
In a network, flooding is the forwarding by a router of a packet from any node to every
other node attached to the router except the node from which the packet arrived. The
Internet's Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) protocol, which updates router information in
a network, uses flooding.
33. What is the difference between Ethernet and fast Ethernet?
ETHERNET FAST ETHERNET
Offers 100 Mbps speed. Provide 1 Gbps speed.
Generate more delay. Less comparatively.
Simple Complicated and create more errors.
Can cover distance up to 10 km. Has the limit of 70 km.
Successor of 10-Base-T Ethernet. A successor of fast Ethernet.

Section B (5marks)
1. Explain types of transmission modes?
Ans:Transmission mode refers to the mechanism of transferring of data between two devices
connected over a network. It is also called Communication Mode. These modes direct the
direction of flow of information. There are three types of transmission modes. They are:
1. Simplex Mode
2. Half duplex Mode
3. Full duplex Mode
Simplex mode : In this type of transmission mode, data can be sent only in one direction
i.e. communication is unidirectional. We cannot send a message back to the sender.
Unidirectional communication is done in Simplex Systems where we just need to send a
command/signal, and do not expect any response back.
Examples of simplex Mode are loudspeakers, television broadcasting, television and
remote, keyboard and monitor etc.
Half duplex mode : Half-duplex data transmission means that data can be transmitted
in both directions on a signal carrier, but not at the same time
Full duplex mode : In full duplex system we can send data in both the directions as it is
bidirectional at the same time in other words, data can be sent in both directions
simultaneously.

2. Compare mesh topology with star topology?
Mesh topology Star topology
It contains at least two nodes with two The peripheral nodes are connected to
or more paths between them. the central node(ex. hub, switch or
router).
Information is directly routed from one All the information is routed from the
device to another. central network connection.
Expensive due to extensive cabling. Cost is Comparatively less
Quite complex Simple0
Highly robust Intermediate
3. Differentiate datagrams with virtual circuits

Virtual circuits Datagrams
1.It is connection-oriented simply meaning that 1.It is connectionless service. There is no need for
there is a reservation of resources like buffers, reservation of resources as there is no dedicated
CPU, bandwidth, etc. for the time in which the path for a connection session.
newly setup VC is going to be used by a data
transfer session.
2. First packet goes and reserves resources for the 2. All packets are free to go to any path on any
subsequent packets which as a result follow the intermediate router which is decided on the go by
same path for the whole connection time dynamically changing routing tables on routers.
3. Since all the packets are going to follow the 3. Since every packet is free to choose any path,
same path, a global header is required only for the all packets must be associated with a header with
first packet of the connection and other packets proper information about the source and the
generally don’t require global headers. upper layer data.
4. Since data follows a particular dedicated path, 4. The connectionless property makes data
packets reach inorder to the destination. packets reach the destination in any order, means
they need not reach in the order in which they
were sent.
5. In Virtual Circuit Switching, it is sure the all 5. Datagram networks are not reliable as Virtual
the packets will definitely reach to the Destination. Circuits.
No packet will discard due to unavailability of
resources.

4. Explain packet switching.
Packet switching is a method of grouping data that is transmitted over a digital network
into packets. Any message exceeding the maximum-defined length of the packet is broken
up into packets. Packet switching overcomes the drawbacks of circuit switching and
message switching. Packets are made of a header,user data, trailer. Data in the header are
used by networking hardware to direct the packet to its destination where the payload is
extracted and used by application software Each packet contains header, user data and
trailer. The header specifies the beginning of a packet and contains control information like
source and destination addresses, packet number, priority codes etc. the user data contains
information. The trailer contains a cyclic redundancy checksum used for error detection
and correction.
5. Explain Shannon capacity.

Transmission channels are noisy. The presence of noise can corrupt one or more bits. If
data rate is increased, then more bits will occur in the interval of a noise spike, and hence
more errors will occur. Claude Shannon introduced a formula, called Shannon capacity, to
determine the theatrical highest data rate for a noisy channel.
C = B * log2 (1+SNR)
Where,

C is the capacity of the channel in bits per second
B is the bandwidth of the channel
SNR is the Signal-to-noise Ratio.
6. Explain circuit switching.
In circuit switching a dedicated physical connection is established between the source and
destination and then data is transmitted. Communication via circuit switching involves
three phases.Circuit establishment: Before any data can be transmitted, an end to end
dedicated connection is established.
Data transfer: once the connection is established data is transmitted on the link.
Circuit disconnect: After the data transmission is completed, the circuit is terminated and
the resources are deallocated
Advantages:
• Data is transmitted without delays.
• This method suitable for long continuous transmission.
Disadvantages:
• Long connection establishment delay
• Network does not provide flow control or error control.
7. How many layers are there in TCP\IP model? Mention the function of each layer.
TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the network
model used in the current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set of rules which
govern every possible communication over a network. These protocols describe the
movement of data between the source and destination or the Internet. These protocols offer
simple naming and addressing schemes. TCP/IP that is Transmission Control Protocol and
Internet Protocol was developed by Department of Defence Project Research Agency
(ARPA, later DARPA) as a part of a research project of network interconnection to
connect remote machines

Host-to-network layer
• Lowest layer of the all.
• Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.
• Varies from host to host and network to network. It is equivalent to the combination
of physical and datalink layer.
Internet layer
• Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a connectionless
internetwork layer is called a internet layer.
• It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
• It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.
• Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are sent.
• IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.
Transport layer
• It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
• Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done by
transport layer.
• The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
• Transport layer adds header information to the data.
• Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are
handled more efficiently by the network layer. Transport layer also arrange the
packets to be sent, in sequence.
Application layer
• TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting to a
remote machine and run applications on it.
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer amongst
computer users connected over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to transport
electronic mail between a source and destination, directed via a route.
• DNS (Domain Name Server) The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical
decentralized naming system for computers, services, or other resources
connected to the Internet or a private network.
•

8. Explain concept of checksum?
• A checksum is an error-detection method the transmitter computes a numerical
value according to the number of set or unset bits in a message and sends it along
with each message frame.
• At the receiver end, the same checksum function (formula) is applied to the message
frame to retrieve the numerical value. If the received checksum value matches the
sent value, the transmission is considered to be successful and error free. A
checksum may also be known as a hash sum.
• A mismatched checksum shows that the entire message has not been transmitted.
TCP/IP and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) provide a checksum count as one of
their services.
• The procedure of generating checksums from messages is called a checksum
function and is performed using a checksum algorithm. Efficient checksum
algorithms produce different results with large probabilities if messages are
corrupted. Parity bits and check digits are special checksum cases suitable for tiny
blocks of data. Certain error-correcting codes based on checksums are even capable
of recovering the original data.
9. Explain types of errors?
• Whenever bits flow from one point to another, they are subject to unpredictable
changes because of interference. This interference can change the shape of the
signal.
There are three types of errors.
1.single bit
2.multiple bit
3.burst error
• The term single-bit error means that only 1 bit of a given data unit (such as a byte,
character, or packet) is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.
• The following figure shows the effect of a single-bit error on a data unit. To
understand the impact of the change, imagine that each group of 8 bits is an ASCII
character with a 0 bit added to the left. In the figure 00000010 (ASCII STX) was
sent, meaning start of text, but 00001010 (ASCII LF) was received, meaning line
feed.

Burst Error:
The term burst error means that 2 or more bits in the data unit have changed from 1 to
0 or from 0 to 1.The following figure shows the effect of a burst error on a data unit. In
this case, 0100010001000011 was sent, but 0101110101100011 was received. Note that a
burst error does not necessarily mean that the errors occur in consecutive bits. The
length of the burst is measured from the first corrupted bit to the last corrupted bit.
Some bits in between may not have been corrupted.
Multiple bit error: multiple bit error means that two or more non-consecutive bits in
the data unit have changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1
10. What is multiplexing? Explain TDM
• Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of
multiple signals across a single data link.
TDM (Time division multiplexing)
• Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method of putting multiple data streams in a
single signal by separating the signal into many segments, each having a very short
duration. ... The composite signal thus contains data from multiple senders.
• Time-division multiplexing is used primarily for digital signals, but may be applied
in Analog multiplexing in which two or more signals or bit streams are transferred
appearing simultaneously as sub-channels in one communication channel, but are

physically taking turns on the channel.
11. Differentiate connectionless and connection oriented services
NO CONNECTION-ORIENTED SERVICE CONNECTION-LESS SERVICE
Connection-oriented service is related Connection-less service is related to the

1.
to the telephone system. postal system.
Connection-oriented service is
preferred by long and steady Connection-less Service is preferred by
2.
communication. bursty communication.
Connection-oriented Service is
3.
necessary. Connection-less Service is not compulsory.
4.
Connection-oriented Service is feasible. Connection-less Service is not feasible.
In connection-oriented Service, In connection-less Service, Congestion is

5.
Congestion is not possible. possible.
Connection-oriented Service gives the Connection-less Service does not give the
6.
guarantee of reliability. guarantee of reliability.
12. Explain twisted pair cable as transmission medium.

• A twisted pair can be used as a balanced line, which as part of a balanced circuit can
greatly reduce the effect of noise currents induced on the line by coupling of electric
or magnetic fields. The idea is that the currents induced in each of the two wires are
very nearly equal. The twisting ensures that the two wires are on average the same
distance from the interfering source and are affected equally. The noise thus
produces a common-mode signal which can be cancelled at the receiver by detecting
the difference signal only, the latter being the wanted signal.

• Shielded twisted pair: Shielded twisted pair is a special kind of copper telephone
wiring used in some business installations. An outer covering or shield is added to
the ordinary twisted pair telephone wires; the shield functions as a ground.
• Unshielded twisted pair :Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables are found in
many Ethernet networks and telephone systems. For indoor telephone applications,
UTP is often grouped into sets of 25 pairs according to a standard 25-pair colour
code originally developed by AT&T Corporation.
Advantages
• Cheapest form of cable available for networking purposes.
• Easy to handle and install.
13. Explain 2-dimensional parity check for error detection.
• When a large amount of data is to be transmitted two dimensional parity checks can be
employed. In this method, the data words are arranged one above another and is
organized in a form of two dimensional binary matrix. For each row and column of the
matrix parity-check bit is calculated.
• A message consisting of n characters with 8-bits per character will now become n+1
character with 9-bits per character and is transmitted.
• The whole matrix is then sent to the receiver. At the receiver end, the sum of the bits in
the block of data is added again, and if the calculated sum is different than what was

transmitted, then an error is indicated. Then the original block must be transmitted or
written again. This scheme can detect up to three errors that occur anywhere in the
table.
1100111 1011101 0111001 0101001

• Ex: Original data
1100111 1
Row
1011101 1
parities
0111001 0
0101001 1
0101010 1 column parities
11001111 10111011 01110010 0101001 01010101
14. Explain the difference between connection and connectionless services.
S.NO CONNECTION-ORIENTED SERVICE CONNECTION-LESS SERVICE
Connection-oriented service is related Connection-less service is related to the

1. to the telephone system. postal system.
Connection-oriented service is
preferred by long and steady Connection-less Service is preferred by
2. communication. busty communication.
Connection-oriented Service is Connection-less Service is not

3. necessary. compulsory.
Connection-oriented Service is
4. feasible. Connection-less Service is not feasible.
In connection-oriented Service, In connection-less Service, Congestion is

5. Congestion is not possible. possible.
Connection-oriented Service gives the Connection-less Service does not give the
6. guarantee of reliability. guarantee of reliability.
In connection-oriented Service, In connection-less Service, Packets do not

7. Packets follow the same route. follow the same route.

15. Explain the structure of HDLC frames
An HDLC frame is structured as follows:

FLAG ADDRESS CONTROL INFORMATION FCS FLAG
8 bits 8 bits 8 / 16 bits variable 8 8 bits
FRAME FIELDS
FLAG
• The flag field of an HDLC frame is an 8-bit sequence with the bit pattern
01111110, same as PPP flag field which indicates the beginning and end of the
frame.
ADDRESS
• The second field of an HDLC frame contains the address of the secondary
station. If a primary station created the frame, it contains a to address. If a
secondary creates the frame, it contains a from address.
CONTROL
• The control field is used for flow and error control. It also determines the type of
the frame
INFORMATION FIELD
• The information field contains the user’s data from the network layer or
management information.
FCS FIELD:
• The frame check sequence is the HDLC error detection field. It contains either a
2 or 4-byte CRC
16. Illustrate CSMA
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with collision avoidance(CSMA/CA) was invented for
this network. Collisions are avoided through the use of three CSMA/CA strategies:
✓ Interface space(IFS): In this method when a station senses the channel id idle, it
does not send immediately. It waits for a period of time called the Inter-frame
space. Even though the channel may appear idle when it is sensed, a distant
station may have already started transmitting.
✓ Contention Window: The contention window is an amount of time divided into
slots. A station that is ready to send chooses a random number of slots as its

wait time. The number of slots in the window changes according to the binary
exponential back-off strategy
✓ Acknowledgement: With all these precautions, there may be collision resulting
in destroyed data. The positive acknowledgement and the time-out timer can
help the receiver has received the frame.
17. Describe FDDI
• FDDI uses dual-ring architecture with traffic on each ring flowing in opposite
directions. The dual rings consist of a primary and a secondary ring. During normal
operation, the primary ring is used for data transmission, and the secondary ring
remains idle. When the frames are transmitted through the primary ring at each and
every station the destination address is checked, if it matches then it stops at the
destination else will be transferred through the ring again until exact address is
matched got. If there is any break in the ring, unlike Token-Ring, the frame takes
opposite direction of flow and is transmitted on the secondary ring.
18. Write Bellman Ford Algorithm

The Bellman Ford algorithm calculates the shortest path to all nodes in the graph from a
single source. The principle states that “Each neighbor of source node knows the shortest
path to the destination node.
The steps involved in bellman ford algorithm is:
1. Intially mark all the nodes except source as infinity.
2. And the distance to destination Dd=0.
3. Find minimum distance to the destination through neighbours: for each i=/d D i-
minj(cij+Dj), for all j=/i
4. Repeat step 2 until destination is reached.

Consider the following figure. Suppose we want to find the shortest path from node 2 to
node 6
To reach destination from node 2, we must go through either node1, node4, node5.
Suppose the shortest path from node 1(through node 3), node4 and node 5 to the
destination node 6 are 3,3,2.
➢ Then for the packet from node 2 through node 1, the total distance is(3+3)=6
➢ Similarly, for the packet from node 2 through node 4 and node 5 are (1+3)=4 and
(4+2)=6 respectively
Then the shortest distance according to Bellman ford algorithm from node 2 to
destination node 6 is through node 4.
Example
Let us understand the algorithm with following example graph. The images are taken
from this source.
Let the given source vertex be 0. Initialize all distances as infinite, except the distance to
source itself. Total number of vertices in the graph is 5, so all edges must be processed 4
times.
Let all edges are processed in following order: (B, E), (D, B), (B, D), (A, B), (A, C), (D,
C), (B, C), (E, D). We get following distances when all edges are processed first time.
The first row in shows initial distances. The second row shows distances when edges (B,

E), (D, B), (B, D) and (A, B) are processed. The third row shows distances when (A, C) is
processed. The fourth row shows when (D, C), (B, C) and (E, D) are processed.
The first iteration guarantees to give all shortest paths which are at most 1 edge long.
We get following distances when all edges are processed second time (The last row
shows final values).

The second iteration guarantees to give all shortest paths which are at most 2 edges
long. The algorithm processes all edges 2 more times. The distances are minimized after
the second iteration, so third and fourth iterations don’t update the distances.
19. Explain the role of the following network devices:
• Hub
• Switch
• Bridge
• Router
• Repeater
• Hub – A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires
coming from different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which
connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all
connected devices.
• Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its
efficiency (large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. Switch is data
link layer device. The switch can perform error checking before forwarding data,
that makes it very efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors
and forward good packets selectively to correct port only.
• Bridge – A bridge operates at data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on
functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of source and
destination.
• Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their
IP addresses. Router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect
LANs and WANs together and have a dynamically updating routing table based on
which they make decisions on routing the data packets. Router divide broadcast
domains of hosts connected through it.
• Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the
signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as
to extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same network.
An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do not amplify the
signal. When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate
it at the original strength. It is a 2 port device.

Section-C
1. A) Explain the types of network?
LAN
• LAN refers to a group of computers that all belong to the same organization and that
are linked within a small geographic area using a network and often the same
technology (the most widespread being Ethernet).
• A local area network is a network in its simplest form. Data transfer speeds over a local
area network can reach up to 10 Mbps, such as for an Ethernet network, and 1 gbps, as
with FDDI or Gigabit Ethernet. A local area network can reach as many as 100, or even
1000, users. MAN
• MANs connect multiple geographically close LANs (over an area of up to several dozen
miles) to one another at high speeds. Thus, a MAN lets two remote nodes communicate
as if they were part of the same local area network.A MAN is made from switches or
routers connected to one another with high-speed links (usually fibre optic cables).
WANs
• A WAN connects multiple LANs to one another over great geographic distances. The
speed available on a WAN varies depending on the cost of the connections, which
increases with distance, and may be low.WANs operate using routers, which can
"choose" the most appropriate path for data to take to reach a network node.
The most well-known WAN is the Internet.
b) Explain OSI reference model with a neat diagram. Repeated [Nov-Dec 2018]
Layer 1: The Physical Layer
1. Physical Layer is the lowest layer of the OSI Model.

2. It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
3. It is responsible for transmission and reception of the unstructured raw data over
network.
4. Voltages and data rates needed for transmission is defined in the physical layer.
5. It converts the digital /analog bits into electrical signal or optical signals.
6. Data encoding is also done in this layer.
Layer 2: Data Link Layer
1. Data link layer synchronizes the information which is to be transmitted over the
physical layer.
2. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from one node
to another, over the physical layer.
3. Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by this layer.

4. This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames received and sent
respectively. Resending of non-acknowledgement received frames is also handled by this
layer.
5. This layer establishes a logical layer between two nodes and also manages the Frame
traffic control over the network. It signals the transmitting node to stop, when the frame
buffers are full.
Layer 3: The Network Layer
1. Network Layer routes the signal through different channels from one node to other.
2. It acts as a network controller. It manages the Subnet traffic.
3. It decides by which route data should take.
4. It divides the outgoing messages into packets and assembles the incoming packets into
messages for higher levels.
Layer 4: Transport Layer
1. Transport Layer decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
2. Functions such as Multiplexing, Segmenting or Splitting on the data are done by this
layer
3. It receives messages from the Session layer above it, convert the message into smaller
units and passes it on to the Network layer.
4. Transport layer can be very complex, depending upon the network requirements.
Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more
efficiently by the network layer.
Layer 5: The Session Layer

1. Session Layer manages and synchronize the conversation between two different
applications.
2. Transfer of data from source to destination session layer streams of data are marked
and are resynchronized properly, so that the ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided
Layer 6: The Presentation Layer
1. Presentation Layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the receiver will
understand the information (data) and will be able to use the data.
2. While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms the data to be ready for the
application layer.
3. Languages(syntax) can be different of the two communicating systems. Under this
condition presentation layer plays a role of translator.
4. It performs Data compression, Data encryption, Data conversion etc.

Layer 7: Application Layer
1. Application Layer is the topmost layer.
2. Transferring of files disturbing the results to the user is also done in this layer. Mail
services, directory services, network resource etc are services provided by application
layer.
3. This layer mainly holds application programs to act upon the received and to be sent
data.
DIAGRAM OF OSI MODEL
3.What is digital modulation? Explain the digital modulation techniques.

DM stands for Digital Modulation and is a generic name for modulation techniques that uses
discrete signals to modulate a carrier wave.
Three types of digital modulation
• Amplitude Modulation (AM)

• Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Phase Modulation (PM)
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude modulation was developed in the beginning of the 20th century. It was the earliest
modulation technique used to transmit voice by radio. This type of modulation technique is
used in electronic communication. In this modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal varies

in accordance with the message signal, and other factors like phase and frequency remain
constant.
Frequency Modulation
In this type of modulation, the frequency of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the
message signal, and other parameters like amplitude and phase remain constant. Frequency
modulation is used in different applications like radar, radio and telemetry, seismic
prospecting and monitoring new-borns for seizures via EEG, etc.
Phase Modulation
In this type of modulation, the phase of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the
message signal. When the phase of the signal is changed, then it affects the frequency. So, for
this reason, this modulation is also comes under the frequency modulation.
4. Explain digital representation of information.
Applications that run over networks involve the transfer of information of various types. Some
of them may involves blocks of text characters like e-mail and others involve stream of
information such as telephony.
Information can be classified into two broad categories
1. Block oriented information: this occurs naturally in form of a single block. These
blocks of information range from a few bytes to several hundred kilobytes and
occasionally several megabytes. Normal files of this form usually contain fair amount of
redundancies. Hence, data compression utilities such as compress, zip and other
methods are used to encode the original information into blocks which will now take
fewer bits to transfer and less disk storage space.
2. Stream information: this id produced continuously and must be transmitted as it is
produced. These signals are analog signals that are digitalized before transmission. The
first step in digitalizing and analog signal is to obtain sample values of the signal every
T seconds. The second step is quantizing each of the sample values. The last step is to
convert them into digital signals. Video signals are succession of pictures that gives
illusion to the human eye the appearance of continuous motion.
Transmission of digital signals

1. Baseband transmission: Base band is defined as one that uses digital signaling , which
is inserted in the transmission channel as voltage pulses .
2. Broadband transmission: These systems use analog signaling to transmit information
using a carrier of high frequency.

Transmission impairment
1. Attenuation: When a signal travels through a medium it loses some of its energy in
overcoming the resistance of the medium. To compensate attenuation, amplifiers are
used to strengthen the signal.
2. Distortion: It means that the signal changes its form or shape. It can occur in a
composite signal made of different frequencies.
3. Noise: It is the disturbance in the medium caused due to heat, crosstalk, spike in
energy, lighting. Noise corrupts the signal.
5. Explain the following?
A) Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).
• A signal is pulse code modulated to convert its analog information into a binary
sequence, i.e., 1s and 0s. The output of a PCM will resemble a binary sequence. The
following figure shows an example of PCM output with respect to instantaneous values
of a given sine wave.
• Instead of a pulse train, PCM produces a series of numbers or digits, and hence this
process is called as digital. Each one of these digits, though in binary code, represent
the approximate amplitude of the signal sample at that instant.
• In Pulse Code Modulation, the message signal is represented by a sequence of coded
pulses. This message signal is achieved by representing the signal in discrete form in
both time and amplitude.
B) SONET
• Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
(SDH) are standardized multiplexing protocols that transfer multiple digital bit streams
over optical fiber using lasers or light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Lower data rates can also
be transferred via an electrical interface. The method was developed to replace the

Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) system for transporting larger amounts of
telephone calls and data traffic over the same fiber without synchronization problems.
SONET generic criteria are detailed in Telcordia Technologies Generic Requirements
document GR-253-CORE.Generic criteria applicable to SONET and other transmission
systems (e.g., asynchronous fiber optic systems or digital radio systems) are found in
Telcordia GR-499-CORE.
• SONET and SDH, which are essentially the same, were originally designed to transport
circuit mode communications (e.g., DS1, DS3) from a variety of different sources, but
they were primarily designed to support real-time, uncompressed, circuit-switched
voice encoded in PCM format.The primary difficulty in doing this prior to
SONET/SDH was that the synchronization sources of these various circuits were
different. This meant that each circuit was actually operating at a slightly different rate
and with different phase. SONET/SDH allowed for the simultaneous transport of many
different circuits of differing origin within a single framing protocol. SONET/SDH is
not itself a communications protocol per se, but a transport protocol.
Co-coaxial cable
• Coaxial cable is a type of copper cable specially built with a metal shield and other
components engineered to block signal interference. It is primarily used by cable TV
companies to connect their satellite antenna facilities to customer homes and businesses.
It is also sometimes used by telephone companies to connect central offices to telephone
poles near customers. Some homes and offices use coaxial cable, too, but its widespread
use as an Ethernet connectivity medium in enterprises and data centres has been
supplanted by the deployment of twisted pair cabling.
5. Illustrate polynomial code with an example.Repeated [Nov-Dec 2018]
Polynomial codes are used extensively in error detection and correction. Polynomial codes can
be easily implemented using shift-register circuits. A k-bit data-word can be represented as a
polynomial with k terms ranging from x k-1 to x0 as
I(x)= ik-1xk-1 + ik-2 xk-2 +………….+i1 x +I0 .
For example, let’s take a 8-bit message 10011010. The corresponding polynomial is
represented
M(x) = 1.x7 +0.x6 + 0.x5 +1.x4 + 1.x3 + 0.x2 + 1.x1 + 0.x0
=x7 + x4 + x3+ x1
•

• Polynomial codes involve generating check bits in the form of a cyclic redundancy
check(CRC). For these reasons they are also known as CRC codes.
• When applying the CRC method, both the sender and the receiver must agree upon a
common generator polynomial G(x). To compute the checksum for frame with M bits,
corresponding to the polynomial M(x), the frame M must be longer than the generator
polynomial. The polynomial M(x)is divided by G(x) to generate checksum. The
checksum, is appended at the end of the frame, in such a way that the transmitted
polynomial is completely divisible by G(x). if there is no remainder, it indicates no
transmission error.
• The most common CRC is the CCITT CRC-16 and CRC-32 used for many today’s
applications.
CRC-16=X16+X15+X2+1
CRC-CCITT=X16+X12+X5+1
CRC-32=X32+X26+X23+X22+X16+X12+X11+X10+X8+X7+X5+X4+X2+1
7. Describe twisted pair cable.

A twisted-pair cable is a cable made by intertwining two separate insulated wires.
There are two twisted pair types:
• Shielded twisted pair
• Unshielded twisted pair

A STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) cable has a fine wire mesh surrounding the wires to protect the
transmission a UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) cable does not. Shielded cable is used in older
telephone networks, as well as network and data communications to reduce outside
interference. The illustration gives an example of how the inside of these looks.
ADVANTAGES
• Electrical noise going into or coming from the cable can be prevented.
• Crosstalk is minimize.
• Cheapest form of cable available for networking purposes.
• Easy to handle and install.
DISADVANTAGES
• It is incapable carrying a signal over long distances without the use of repeaters only
because of high attenuation.
• It is not suitable for broadband applications only because of its low bandwidth capabilities
8.Explain SONET.
Synchronous optical networking (SONET) is a standardized digital communication protocol
that is used to transmit a large volume of data over relatively long distances using a fiber optic
medium. With SONET, multiple digital data streams are transferred at the same time over
optical fiber using LEDs and laser beams.
PHYSICAL CONFIGURATION
1. STS Multiplexer:
• Performs multiplexing of signals
• Converts electrical signal to optical signal
2. STS De-multiplexer:
• Performs de-multiplexing of signals
• Converts optical signal to electrical signal
3. Regenerator:
It is a repeater, that takes an optical signal and regenerates (increases the strength) it.
4. Add/Drop Multiplexer:
It allows to add signals coming from different sources into a given path or remove a
signal.

10. Explain optical fibre as transmission medium
• Optical fibre transmission systems were introduced in 1970. It offered greater advantages
over copper based digital transmission systems.
• A thin flexible fibre with a glass core through which light signals can be sent.
• Fibre optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances.
• Optical fibre are immune to interference and cross talk
• A fibre optic cable is made of centre glass core surrounded by a concentric layer of
glass(cladding).
• The information is transmitted thru the glass core in the form of light.
• An important characteristic of fibre optic is refraction. Refraction is the characteristic of a
material to either pass or reflect the light. When a light passes thru the medium, it bends as it
passes from one medium to another.
•Wave length Division Multiplexing is an effective approach to explore the bandwidth that is
available in optical fibre. In WDM multiple wave length are used to carry several information
simultaneously over the same fibre.
Advantages
• It supports higher bandwidth
• It runs greater distance.
• Electromagnetic noise cannot affect fibre optic cables
• Usage of glass makes more resistant than copper
Disadvantages
• Installation and maintenance is difficult.
• Unidirectional light propagation. Two fibres are used for bidirectional propagation
• The cable and the interfaces are more expensive.

11. Explain the following?
a) CRC method
• Error detection mechanism in which a special number is appended to a block of data in
order to detect any changes introduced during storage (or transmission). The CRe is
recalculated on retrieval (or reception) and compared to the value originally
transmitted, which can reveal certain types of error. For example, a single corrupted bit
in the data results in a one-bit change in the calculated CRC, but multiple corrupt bits
may cancel each other out.
• A CRC is derived using a more complex algorithm than the simple CHECKSUM,
involving MODULO ARITHMETIC (hence the 'cyclic' name) and treating each input
word as a set of coefficients for a polynomial.
• CRC is more powerful than VRC and LRC in detecting errors.
• It is not based on binary addition like VRC and LRC. Rather it is based on binary
division.
• At the sender side, the data unit to be transmitted IS divided by a predetermined
divisor (binary number) in order to obtain the remainder. This remainder is called
CRC.
• The CRC has one bit less than the divisor. It means that if CRC is of n bits, divisor is of
n+ 1 bit.
• The sender appends this CRC to the end of data unit such that the resulting data unit
becomes exactly divisible by predetermined divisor i.e. remainder becomes zero.
• For example, if data to be transmitted is 1001 and predetermined divisor is 1011. The
procedure given below is used:
• String of 3 zeroes is appended to 1011 as divisor is of 4 bits. Now newly formed

data is 1011000.

1. Data unit 1011000 is divided by 1011.
2. During this process of division, whenever the leftmost bit of dividend or remainder is 0, we
use a string of Os of same length as divisor. Thus in this case divisor 1011 is replaced by 0000.
3. At the receiver side, data received is 1001110.
4. This data is again divided by a divisor 1011.
5. The remainder obtained is 000; it means there is no error.

b) Stop –and-Wait –ARQ algorithm
Characteristics
• Used in Connection-oriented communication.
• It offers error and flow control
• It is used in Data Link and Transport Layers
• Stop and Wait ARQ mainly implements Sliding Window Protocol concept with Window
Size 1
Useful Terms:
• Propagation Delay: Amount of time taken by a packet to make a physical journey from
one router to another router.
Propagation Delay = (Distance between routers) / (Velocity of propagation)
• RoundTripTime (RTT) = 2* Propagation Delay
• TimeOut (TO) = 2* RTT
• Time To Live (TTL) = 2* TimeOut. (Maximum TTL is 180 seconds)
Simple Stop and Wait
Sender:
Rule1) Send one data packet at a time.

Rule 2)Send next packet only after receiving acknowledgement for previous.
Receiver:
Rule 1) Send acknowledgement after receiving and consuming of data packet.
Rule 2) After consuming packet acknowledgement need to be sent (Flow Control).

12. Describe selective repeat ARQ.
Selective repeat protocol, also called Selective Repeat ARQ (Automatic Repeat reQuest), is a
data link layer protocol that uses sliding window method for reliable delivery of data frames. ...
The size is half the maximum sequence number of the frame
Features required for Selective Repeat ARQ
• To support Go-Back-N ARQ, a protocol must number each PDU which is sent. (PDUs
are normally numbered using modulo arithmetic, which allows the same number to be
re-used after a suitably long period of time. The time period is selected to ensure the
same PDU number is never used again for a different PDU, until the first PDU has "left
the network" (e.g. it may have been acknowledged)).
• The local node must also keep a buffer of all PDUs which have been sent, but have not
yet been acknowledged.
• The receiver at the remote node keeps a record of the highest numbered PDU which has
been correctly received. This number corresponds to the last acknowledgement PDU
which it may have sent.
Recovery of lost PDUs using Selective Repeat ARQ
The recovery of a corrupted PDU proceeds in four stages:
• First, the corrupted PDU is discarded at the remote node's receiver.

• Second, the remote node requests retransmission of the missing PDU using a control
PDU (sometimes called a Selective Reject). The receiver then stores all out-of-sequence
PDUs in the receive buffer until the requested PDU has been retransmitted.
• The sender receives the retransmission request and then transmits the lost PDU(s).
• The receiver forwards the retransmitted PDU, and all subsequent in-sequence PDUs
which are held in the receive buffer.

14. Explain sliding window method of flow control.
In this protocol (and the next), the sliding window is an abstract concept that defines the
range of sequence numbers that is the concern of the sender and receiver. In other words, the
sender and receiver need to deal with only part of the possible sequence numbers. The range
which is the concern of the sender is called the send sliding window; the range that is the
concern of the receiver is called the receive sliding window.

The send window is an imaginary box covering the sequence numbers of the data frames which
can be in transit. In each window position, some of these sequence numbers define the frames
that have been sent; others define those that can be sent. The window at any time divides the
possible sequence numbers into four regions.
• The first region, from the far left to the left wall of the window, defines the sequence
numbers belonging to frames that are already acknowledged. The sender does not worry
about these frames and keeps no copies of them.
• Defines the range of sequence numbers belonging to the frames that are sent and have an
unknown status. The sender needs to wait to find out if these frames have been received or
were lost. We call these outstanding frames.
• The third range, white in the figure, defines the range of sequence numbers for frames
that can be sent; however, the corresponding data packets have not yet been received from
the network layer.
• Finally, the fourth region defines sequence numbers that cannot be used until the window
slides, as we see next.
The window itself is an abstraction; three variables define its size and location at any time. We
call these variables (send window, the first outstanding frame), Sn (send window, the next
frame to be sent), and Size (send window, size). The variable Sf defines the sequence number of
the first (oldest) outstanding frame.
The variable Sn holds the sequence number that will be assigned to the next frame to be sent.
Finally, the variable Size defines the size of the window, which is fixed in our protocol.

The send window is an abstract concept defining an imaginary box of size 2m ~ 1 with three
variables: Sf Sm and Size'
How a send window can slide one or more slots to the right when an acknowledgment arrives
from the other end. As we will see shortly, the acknowledgments in this protocol are
cumulative, meaning that more than one frame can be acknowledged by an ACK frame.
Frames 0, I, and 2 are acknowledged, so the window has slid to the right three slots. Note that
the value of Sf is 3 because frame 3 is now the first outstanding frame.
15.What do you mean by peer-to-peer protocol? Compare PPP and HDLC.
Peer to Peer Protocol:

one of the most common protocols for point-to-point access is the Point-to-Point Protocol
(PPP). Today, millions of Internet users who need to connect their home computers to the
server of an Internet service provider use PPP. The majority of these users have a traditional
modem; they are connected to the Internet through a telephone line, which provides the
services of the physical layer. But to control and manage the transfer of data, there is a need
for a point-to-point protocol at the data link layer. PPP is by far the most common.
BASIS FOR
HDLC PPP
COMPARISON
Expands to High-level Data Link Layer Protocol Point-to-Point Protocol
Type of protocols Bit-oriented protocol Byte oriented protocol
Used in Only synchronous media Synchronous as well as

asynchronous media
Authentication No provision of authentication Provides authentication
Dynamic addressing Does not offer dynamic addressing. Dynamic addressing is used.
Implemented in Point-to-point and multipoint Only point-to-point

configurations. configurations.
Compatibility with other Can not be operated with non-Cisco Interoperable with non-Cisco
protocols devices. devices also.

Unit 4
16 .a) Write short notes on ALOHA protocol.
ALOHA is a system for coordinating and arbitrating access to a shared communication

Networks channel. It was developed in the 1970s by Norman Abramson and his
colleagues at the University of Hawaii. The original system used for ground based radio
broadcasting, but the system has been implemented in satellite communication systems.
A shared communication system like ALOHA requires a method of handling collisions

that occur when two or more systems attempt to transmit on the channel at the same
time. In the ALOHA system, a node transmits whenever data is available to send. If
another node transmits at the same time, a collision occurs, and the frames that were
transmitted are lost. However, a node can listen to broadcasts on the medium, even its
own, and determine whether the frames were transmitted.
Aloha means "Hello". Aloha is a multiple access protocol at the datalink layer and
proposes how multiple terminals access the medium without interference or collision.
There are two different versions of ALOHA
Pure ALOHA
• In pure ALOHA, the stations transmit frames whenever they have data to send.
• When two or more stations transmit simultaneously, there is collision and the frames
are destroyed.
Slotted ALOHA
• Slotted ALOHA was invented to improve the efficiency of pure ALOHA as chances of
collision in pure ALOHA are very high.
• In slotted ALOHA, the time of the shared channel is divided into discrete intervals
called slots.
• The stations can send a frame only at the beginning of the slot and only one frame is
sent in each slot.

b) Explain CSMA protocols.
o CSMA is a network access method used on shared network topologies such as Ethernet to
control access to the network. Devices attached to the network cable listen (carrier sense)
before transmitting. If the channel is in use, devices wait before transmitting. MA (Multiple
Access) indicates that many devices can connect to and share the same network. All devices
have equal access to use the network when it is clear.
CSMA works on the principle that only one device can transmit signals on the network,
otherwise a collision will occur resulting in the loss of data packets or frames. CSMA works
when a device needs to initiate or transfer data over the network. Before transferring, each
CSMA must check or listen to the network for any other transmissions that may be in
progress. If it senses a transmission, the device will wait for it to end. Once the transmission is
completed, the waiting device can transmit its data/signals. However, if multiple devices access
it simultaneously and a collision occurs, they both have to wait for a specific time before
reinitiating the transmission process.
17.Explain FDMA, TDMA and CDMA
• Frequency division multiple access(FDMA): In FDMA, the available bandwidth of the
channel is divided into frequency bands and each frequency band is allocated to different
stations. Each station on demand is allocated a predetermined band to send its all the time.
To prevent station interference the allocated bands are separated from one another by
small guard bands.
• Time division multiple access (TDMA) : In TDMA, the stations take turns to share the
entire bandwidth of the channel. Each station is allocated a time slot during which it can
transmit data for the complete bandwidth. Since TDMA transmissions are slotted, the
receiver must be synchronized with the sender. Each station needs to know the beginning of
its slot and the location of its slot for transmission.

• Code division multiple access(CDMA): In TDMA and FDMA data transmission from
different stations are clearly separated either by time or by frequency. Code division
multiple access is a digital wireless technology that uses spread spectrum techniques.
CDMA does not assign a specific frequency to each user. Instead, every station uses the full
available spectrum.
18.Explain ALOHA and slotted ALOHA
• ALOHA is a system for coordinating and arbitrating access to a shared communication
Networks channel. It was developed in the 1970s by Norman Abramson and his colleagues
at the University of Hawaii. The original system used for ground based radio
broadcasting, but the system has been implemented in satellite communication systems.
• A shared communication system like ALOHA requires a method of handling collisions
that occur when two or more systems attempt to transmit on the channel at the same time.
• In the ALOHA system, a node transmits whenever data is available to send. If another
node transmits at the same time, a collision occurs, and the frames that were transmitted
are lost. However, a node can listen to broadcasts on the medium, even its own, and
determine whether the frames were transmitted.
• There are two different versions of ALOHA
Pure ALOHA
• In pure ALOHA, the stations transmit frames whenever they have data to send.
• When two or more stations transmit simultaneously, there is collision and the
frames are destroyed.
Slotted ALOHA
• Slotted ALOHA was invented to improve the efficiency of pure ALOHA as
chances of collision in pure ALOHA are very high.
• In slotted ALOHA, the time of the shared channel is divided into discrete
intervals called slots.

• The stations can send a frame only at the beginning of the slot and only one
frame is sent in each slot.
20.Explain LLC and MAC sub layers of data link layer.
The data link layer is divided into two sublayers namely LLC (Logical Link Control) and MAC
(Media Access Control).
Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer provides the logic for the data link. Thus, it
controls the synchronization, flow control, and error checking functions of the data link
layer.
Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer provides control for accessing the transmission
medium. It is responsible for moving data packets from one network interface card
(NIC) to another, across a shared transmission medium. Physical addressing is handled
at the MAC sublayer. MAC is also handled at this layer. This refers to the method used
to allocate network access to computers and prevent them from transmitting at the
same time, causing data collisions. Common MAC methods include Carrier Sense
Multiple Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD), used by Ethernet networks,
Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA), used by AppleTalk
networks, and token passing, used by Token Ring and Fiber Distributed Data Interface
(FDDI) networks.

Unit 5
21. Explain the following:
a) Dijikstra’s algorithm
o Dijkstra's algorithm is a step-by-step process we can use to find the shortest path
between two vertices in a weighted graph. This algorithm enables us to find
shortest distances and minimum costs, making it a valuable tool.

b) Token bucket algorithm.
• The token bucket algorithm is based on an analogy of a fixed capacity bucket into
which tokens, normally representing a unit of bytes or a single packet of predetermined
size, are added at a fixed rate.
• When a packet is to be checked for conformance to the defined limits, the bucket is
inspected to see if it contains sufficient tokens at that time. If so, the appropriate
number of tokens, e.g. equivalent to the length of the packet in bytes, are removed
("cashed in"), and the packet is passed, e.g., for transmission.
• The packet does not conform if there are insufficient tokens in the bucket, and the
contents of the bucket are not changed. Non-conformant packets can be treated in
various ways:
Algorithm
• A token is added to the bucket every seconds
• The bucket can hold at the most tokens. If a token arrives when the bucket is full, it is
discarded.
• When a packet (network layer PDU) of n bytes arrives,
• if at least n tokens are in the bucket, n tokens are removed from the bucket, and the
packet is sent to the network.
• if fewer than n tokens are available, no tokens are removed from the bucket, and the
packet is considered to be non-conformant.
22. What is a bridge? Explain the various types of bridges.Repeated [Nov-Dec 2018]
• It is type of computer network device that provides interconnection with other bridge
network that uses same protocol
Types of bridges:
• Transparent bridges: The term transparent refers to the fact that stations are
completely unaware of the presence of bridges in the network. When a transparent is
added or removed from the system, reconfiguration of the stations in unnecessary.
• Source Routing Bridges: Source routing bridges were developed by the IEEE 802.5
Committee and are primarily used to interconnect token-ring networks. Unlike
transparent bridges where filtering frames, forwarding and blocking functions are
implemented in bridges, source routing bridges put these burden on the end stations.
The main idea of source routing is that each station should determine the route to the
destination when it wants to send a frame and therefore include the route information
in the header of the frame.

24.Illustrate open-loop congestion control
Open-loop policies, policies are applied to prevent congestion before it happens. In these
mechanisms, congestion control is handled by either the source or destination.
• Admission control: Admission control is a quality-of-service mechanism that computes
the resource requirements of a network flow and determines whether the resources are
available for the flow. If the QoS of the new flow can be satisfied without violating QoS
of existing flow, the flow is accepted; otherwise, the flow is rejected.
• Traffic shaping: one of the main causes of congestion is that traffic is often bursty data.
When a source tries to send packets; it may not know exactly what its traffic flow looks
like. if the source wants to ensure that the traffic flow conforms to the parameters of
QoS, it should alter its traffic flow
25.Explain different types of bridges in computer networks.
There are three types of bridges
1. Transparent bridges: The term transparent refers to the fact that stations are
completely unaware of the presence of bridges in the network. When a transparent is
added or removed from the system, reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary.
A transparent bridge performs the following 3 basic functions:
A. Forwards frames from one LAN to another
B. Learns where stations are attached to the LAN
C. Prevents loops in the topology
2. Source Routing bridges: It was developed by the IEEE 802.5 committee an are primarily
used to interconnect token ring networks Unlike transparent bridges where filtering
frames, forwarding and blocking functions are implemented in bridges, source routing

bridges put these burden on the end stations. The main idea of this is that reach station
should determine the route to the destination when it wants to send a frame and therefore
include the route information in the header of the frame. thus the problem boils down to
finding good routes efficiently.
The solution is to first find all the paths from source to destination then calculate the
distance for all the route the less distance path will be taken for transferring the frame
from source to destination
As an example, if S1 wants to send a frame to S2, then a possible route is
a. LAN 1 – B1 – LAN 2 – B4 – LAN 4
b. LAN 1 – B2 – LAN 3 – B5 – LAN 4
c. LAN 1 – B2 – LAN 3 – B3 LAN 2 – B4 – LAN 4
d. LAN 1 – B2 – LAN3 – B6 – LAN 5 – B7 LAN 4
2. Mixed Media Bridges: Bridges that interconnect LAN of different type are referred to
as Mixed Media Bridge. This type of interconnection is not simple. Mixed media bridges
can be discussed in terms of the interconnection of Ethernet and token ring LAN. These
two LAN differ in their frame structure, their operation and their speed, and the bridge
needs to take these difference into accounts.

Section D
26. Compare packet switching with circuit switching.
Packet switching Circuit switching
1. Packet switching is connectionless which 1. Circuit switching is a type of networking
means the data is transmitted into small units protocol in which a dedicated channel is
called packets and a dynamic route is established between two end points in a network
established for each pack for the duration of a transmission. Data transfer
takes place after the circuit is established
2.Data is divided into small units called packets 2. A physical path is established which is
with each packet carrying small header dedicated to a single connection between the two
containing signalling information end points.
3.Dynamic route is established for each packet 3. Data transmission takes place after the circuit
which carries the routing information. is established for the duration of the
transmission.
4.Each data packet may take a different route to 4. A dedicated routing path is followed
reach the destination, making it flexible throughout the transmission and no other user
throughout the session. is allowed to use the circuit.
5. There is no end to end reservation of links. 5. It follows a uniform path throughout the
session.
6.Each data packet carries the signalling 6. Data doesn’t carry the signalling information
information containing source and destination and moves on its own.
addresses in the packet header.
7.It’s mainly used for data and voice 7. It’s ideal for voice communication and the
communication, and the delay is not uniform. delay is uniform.

34. Explain TCP/IP model with a neat diagram.
TCP/IP model layers
TCP/IP functionality is divided into four layers, each of which include specific protocols.
• The application layer provides applications with standardized data exchange. Its protocols
include the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Post Office
Protocol 3 (POP3), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) and Simple Network
Management Protocol (SNMP).
• The transport layer is responsible for maintaining end-to-end communications across the
network. TCP handles communications between hosts and provides flow control,
multiplexing and reliability. The transport protocols include TCP and User Datagram
Protocol (UDP), which is sometimes used instead of TCP for special purposes.
• The network layer, also called the internet layer, deals with packets and connects
independent networks to transport the packets across network boundaries. The network
layer protocols are the IP and the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), which is
used for error reporting.
• The physical layer consists of protocols that operate only on a link -- the network
component that interconnects nodes or hosts in the network. The protocols in this layer
include Ethernet for local area networks (LANs) and the Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP).

35. Explain OSI reference model in detail.
The model is proposed by the ISO (International Standards Organization). It is called ISO-
OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model because it deals with connecting
open systems. The OSI Reference Model has 7 layers.
a. Physical Layer:
• It is concerned with the actual physical attachment to the network i.e. it deals with the
means of connecting two nodes in a network.
• It deals with transmitting raw bits over the communication channel.
• The design issues here deal with mechanical, electrical, timing interfaces and the
physical transmission medium which lies below the physical layer.
b. Data Link Layer:
• It breaks the data into frames and passes it to the network layer. It also does:
• Error Control: To control transmission errors.
• Flow Control: To prevent the drowning of slow receiver by fast transmitter.
• Access Control: Control access to the shared channel. A special section of the DLL
called the Medium Access Control sub layer deals with this.
c. Network Layer:
• It has the responsibility of preforming source to destination delivery of packets. It
focuses on:
• Dynamic routing
• Congestion control
• Quality of service
• Addressing
• Integration of heterogeneous networks.
e. Transport Layer:
• It deals withControl of data flow in the network.
• Ensuring no loss of data.
• Ensuring that destination is not inundated with data.
• Ensuring that all pieces arrive correctly at the other end.
• It is a true end to end layer.
e. Session Layer: Its features are:
• Dialogue Control: Keeping track of whose turn it is to transmit.
• Token management: Preventing two parties from attempting the same critical operation
at the same time.

• Synchronization: Check pointing long transmissions to allow them to continue from
where they were after a crash.
f. Presentation Layer: It is concerned with the following:
• Syntax of information.
• Semantics of information.
• Compression
• Encoding of information.
g. Application Layer: Application layer provide user interface and support for services
like:
• E-mail.
• Remote file access.
• File transfer
• Shared database management.
Advantages of OSI Reference Model:
• OSI Model distinguish between the services, interfaces and protocols.
• Protocols of OSI Model are very well hidden.
• They can be replaced by new protocols as technology changes.
• Supports connection oriented as well as connectionless service.
Disadvantages of OSI Reference Model:
i. Model was devised before the invention of protocols.
ii. Fitting of protocols is a tedious task.
36. Illustrate polar line encoding scheme.
A: Non Return to Zero (NRZ)

NRZ Codes has 1 for High voltage level and 0 for Low voltage level. The main behavior of
NRZ codes is that the voltage level remains constant during bit interval. The end or start of a
bit will not be indicated and it will maintain the same voltage state, if the value of the previous
bit and the value of the present bit are same.
The following figure explains the concept of NRZ coding.

If the above example is considered, as there is a long sequence of constant voltage level and
the clock synchronization may be lost due to the absence of bit interval, it becomes difficult
for the receiver to differentiate between 0 and 1.
There are two variations in NRZ namely −
NRZ - L (NRZ – LEVEL)
There is a change in the polarity of the signal, only when the incoming signal changes from 1
to 0 or from 0 to 1. It is the same as NRZ, however, the first bit of the input signal should have
a change of polarity.
NRZ - I (NRZ – INVERTED)
If a 1 occurs at the incoming signal, then there occurs a transition at the beginning of the bit
interval. For a 0 at the incoming signal, there is no transition at the beginning of the bit
interval.
NRZ codes has a disadvantage that the synchronization of the transmitter clock with the
receiver clock gets completely disturbed, when there is a string of 1s and 0s. Hence, a separate
clock line needs to be provided.
Bi-phase Encoding
The signal level is checked twice for every bit time, both initially and in the middle. Hence, the
clock rate is double the data transfer rate and thus the modulation rate is also doubled. The
clock is taken from the signal itself. The bandwidth required for this coding is greater.
There are two types of Bi-phase Encoding.
• Bi-phase Manchester
• Differential Manchester
Bi-phase Manchester
In this type of coding, the transition is done at the middle of the bit-interval. The transition for
the resultant pulse is from High to Low in the middle of the interval, for the input bit 1. While
the transition is from Low to High for the input bit 0.

Differential Manchester
In this type of coding, there always occurs a transition in the middle of the bit interval. If
there occurs a transition at the beginning of the bit interval, then the input bit is 0. If no
transition occurs at the beginning of the bit interval, then the input bit is 1.
The following figure illustrates the waveforms of NRZ-L, NRZ-I, Bi-phase Manchester and
Differential Manchester coding for different digital inputs.
37.Explain the following:
a) Modems:Modem is abbreviation for Modulator – Demodulator. Modems are used for data
transfer from on computer network to another computer network through telephone lines. The
computer network works in digital mode, while analog technology is used for carrying
massages across phone lines.
Modulator converts information from digital mode to analog mode at the transmitting end
and demodulator converts the same from analog to digital at receiving end. The process of
converting analog signals of one computer network into digital signals of another computer
network so they can be processed by a receiving computer is referred to as digitizing.
Types of Modems
• Modems can be of several types and they can be categorized in a number of ways.
• Categorization is usually based on the following basic modem features:
1. Directional capacity: half duplex modem and full duplex modem.
2. Connection to the line: 2-wire modem and 4-wire modem.
3. Transmission mode: asynchronous modem and synchronous modem.
b).Congestion control.Congestion is an important issue that can arise in packet switched
network. Congestion is a situation in Communication Networks in which too many packets are
present in a part of the subnet, performance degrades. Congestion in a network may occur
when the load on the network (i.e. the number of packets sent to the network) is greater than
the capacity of the network (i.e. the number of packets a network can handle.). Network
congestion occurs in case of traffic overloading.

38. Explain any routing algorithms.
Routing is process of establishing the routes that data packets must follow to reach the
destination. In this process, a routing table is created which contains information regarding
routes which data packets follow. Various routing algorithm are used for the purpose of
deciding which route an incoming data packet needs to be transmitted on to reach
destination efficiently.
Classification of Routing Algorithms: The routing algorithms can be classified as follows:
1.Adaptive Algorithms –These are the algorithms which change their routing decisions
whenever network topology or traffic load changes. The changes in routing decisions are
reflected in the topology as well as traffic of the network. Also known as dynamic routing,
these make use of dynamic information such as current topology, load, delay, etc. to select
routes. Optimization parameters are distance, number of hops and estimated transit time.
2.Non-AdaptiveAlgorithms–These are the algorithms which do not change their routing
decisions once they have been selected. This is also known as static routing as route to be
taken is computed in advance and downloaded to routers when router is booted.
Further these are classified as follows:
(a) Flooding – Flooding is the static routing algorithm. In this algorithm, every incoming
packet is sent on all outgoing lines except the line on which it has arrived.
(b) Random walk – In this method, packets are sent host by host or node by node to one
of its neighbours randomly. This is highly robust method which is usually implemented
by sending packets onto the link which is least queued.

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SOLUTION BANK

BCA 501T DATA COMMUNICATION & NETWORKS

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Total Teaching Hours : 60 No of Hours / Week : 04

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BCA501T: DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS

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ANSWER ANSWER ANSWER ANSWER

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[Nov / Dec 2017]

[Nov / Dec 2018]

[TMAQ – Important Tutor Mark Assignment Questions]

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[TMAQ – Important Tutor Mark Assignment Questions]

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[TMAQ – Important Tutor Mark Assignment Questions]

[Nov / Dec 2018]

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SECTION – B (10 Marks)

[TMAQ – Important Tutor Mark Assignment Questions]

[Nov / Dec 2017]

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[TMAQ – Important Tutor Mark Assignment Questions]

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[Nov / Dec 2017]

[Nov / Dec 2018]

SECTION – C (15 Marks)

[Nov / Dec 2016]

[Nov / Dec 2017]

[Nov / Dec 2018]

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[Nov / Dec 2016]

SECTION – C (15 Marks)

[Nov / Dec 2016]

[Nov / Dec 2017]

[Nov / Dec 2018]

3.Explain ALOHA and slotted ALOHA

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[Nov / Dec 2017]

[Nov / Dec 2018]

SECTION – D (10 Marks)

[Nov / Dec 2018]

3.Explain OSI reference model in detail.

SECTION – D (10 Marks)

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4. Write any two difference between analog and digital signals?

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9. What is Network Topology? List out any two network topologies.

10. Define attenuation?

12. What is telnet? How it differs from FTP ?

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14. Define encoding and decoding.

15.Define datagram and packet.

16. Define bit rate and baud rate.

17. Define multiplexing?

18. What is cellular telephone network?

19. What do you mean by Nyquist signaling rate ? explain.