General Physics 1-2 | Midterms-Finals

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General Physics 1-2 | Midterms-Finals 1

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General Physics 1-2 | Midterms-Finals 2

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND
MEASUREMENTS
STEM 4 (GENERAL PHYSICS 1)
Unit 1 Lesson 1 | 1st Quarter | 1st Semester

Physical Quantity
Derived Quantities
● It is a property of an object that can be
measured with a measuring instrument. For ● These are based on the seven fundamental
example length, width, time, weight, etc. quantities and are expressed from the product
of two or more base units.
Measurement
Derived Quantities and Their Corresponding SI
● is a process of assigning a quantity to describe
Units
a property of an object by comparing it with a
standard. This standard requires it to be used
by different people from different places and
getting the same result. It should be universal
and does not change with time.
● Measurements of physical quantities are
expressed in terms of units, which are
standardized values. For example, the length
of a race, which is a physical quantity, can be
Different definitions of base units used in the past
expressed in units of meters (for sprinters) or
posed several limitations:
kilometers (for distance runners).
● Artifacts may be lost or damaged.
2 Major System of Units Used in the World
● Some definitions are highly abstract and
1. SI units (metric system) – The acronym “SI”
idealized
is derived from the French Système
Today, base units are defined using the defining
International
constants.
2. Imperial and US customary measurement
Second (s)
systems – historically used in nations once
● the time required for 9 192 631 770 cycles of
ruled by the British Empire and are still widely
microwave radiation in cesium-133 atoms.
used in the United States
Meter (m)
SI Base Units and Their Corresponding Symbols
● the distance traveled by light in a vacuum in
1/299 792 458 second
Kilogram (kg)
● Shown on the right is a replica of the
International Prototype Kilogram (IPK) used
since the 19th century.
● Kilogram was redefined in May 2019.
ACCURACY VS PRECISION
Accuracy
● indicates how close the measured value is to
the true value
● 21.7 ± 0.2 mm, this means that the true value
has a higher chance of being found between
21.5 mm and 21.9 mm.
30 ohms ± 10%
Precision
Empirical and US Customary Units and Their
● describes the scatter or the variability of a set
Metric Equivalence
of measurements made
● refers to the closeness of two or more
measurements to each other
● If you measured the length of your pencil three
times and you got 13.2 mm, 13.3, and 13.2
mm. Since the values are close to each other,
we can say that it is more precise than a set of
3
 values composed of 13.5 mm, 12.8 mm, and Systematic Errors
14.2 mm. ● it remains constant or changes in regular
fashion even if measurements are repeated
● related to a particular measuring instrument or
an experimental technique
Examples:
● For example, when you measure using a ruler
where the first 5 cm is cut off, even if you
repeatedly measure the length of an object,
you will still get the same error.
● Another example is when you perform an
experiment, and the environment needs a
background temperature of 20°C, but the room
ERROR temperature is relatively higher
● defined as the difference between the true
Conversion of Units
value and the measured value
● An error signifies an inevitable uncertainty that
is present in all types of measurement. It
cannot be completely eliminated, even if one is
conducting an experiment carefully.
Types of Error
Random Errors
● occur when repeated measurements produce
randomly different results
● a short-term variation of values around a mean
value
● caused by unknown and unpredictable
changes in the environment
● processed statistically using the calculations
Examples:
● When weighing yourself on a scale, you
position yourself slightly differently each time.
● When taking a volume reading in a flask, you
may read the value from a different angle each
time.
Formula for Mean:

Sample Problems
● x̄ = mean 1. Convert 5 inches to centimeters.
● Σ𝑥 = sum of all values
● 𝑛 = number of x values
Sample Problem for Mean: In a physics laboratory
activity, you are tasked to measure the mass of a cup
of water. You were able to get five readings as follows:
2.5 kg, 2.6 kg, 2.5 kg, 2.4 kg, and 2.6 kg. What is the
average mass?

2. Convert 3.5 yds. to meters.

3. Convert 22.85 km to miles.

4
 ● Find the resultant of the vectors: 2 m, North
and 3 m, South.
○ (both vectors are in y-axis)
○ We can just add them directly. Make
sure to put a negative sign on South
and West.

4. Convert 10 453 cm to km.

1. Anna walked 1.83 km to the East then 0.45 km

to the West. What is her resultant
displacement?

5. Convert 0.35 decimeter to cm

Adding 2 vectors where one is in the x-axis and

the other is in the y-axis
Example:
6. Convert 0.026 hl to ml
● Anna walked 3 km to the North and then 2 km
to the East. What is her resultant
displacement?
● The vector “3 km to the North” is in the y-axis
and “2 km to the East” is in the x-axis”

1. Anna walked 3 km to the North and then 2 km

to the East. What is her resultant
ADDITION OF VECTORS displacement?
STEM 4 (GENERAL PHYSICS 1) ● We will use TOA since both sides are
Session 1.2 | 1st Quarter | 1st Semester given

Adding two or more vectors within the same axis

● This is adding 2 or more vectors that are in the
same axis (x or y axis)
Example:

5
 2. Two forces simultaneously act on a box. The
first one pushes it for 4.6 N to the North and
the other one pushes it 3.8 N to the West.
What is the resultant force?

● Calculate the magnitude of the vector using

the Pythagorean theorem.

Adding 2 or more vectors with angles

Example:
1. Denise walks every day from her house to the
school. First, she covers 10 m, 20° north of
east. Then, she walked 15 m in a direction 50°
north of east. What is her resultant
displacement?

6
 ● The resultant vector of Denise is 24.18 m,
38.06° North of East.
● Or 24.18 m, 51.94° East of North.

Example
Elsa walked 3 km West then 2 km 45°
North of East and lastly, 1 km, 30° South of West.
What is her final displacement?
● 2 of the vectors in the problem has angles
● We will use the component method in solving
this problem.

7
 Problem Solving
Three forces act on a ball. The first one pushes it 4.5 N
to the North, the second one pushes it 3.6 N, 50° West
of South, and the last force pushes it 7.2 N 55° South
of East. What is the resultant or net force?

8
 ● a quantity that describes when an event took
place
● a necessary parameter to describe and to
observe changes in a specific space
● time is change, or the interval over which
change occurs
● measured in terms of seconds (s)
● usually noted by t
Distance and Displacement
Distance
● Describes how far an object has traveled
● Pertains to the total length traveled by the
object in motion
● type of quantity: scalar
● SI unit: m

● symbol:
Displacement
● the length and direction of the line that
connects the initial position to the final position
● describes how ‘far’ and object is from its initial
position
● type of quantity: vector
● SI unit: m

● symbol:

Distance and Displacement

● Distance is always greater than or equal to
displacement.
● These two quantities can only be equal if the
object in motion travels towards one direction
only and does not go back to its original
position.
Example: The skater moves from A to B, B to C, and
finally, C to D

KINEMATICS: MOTION ALONG

THE STRAIGHT LINE
STEM 4 (GENERAL PHYSICS 1) ● In general, distance can be calculated using
Session 1.4 | 1st Quarter | 1st Semester the equation below.

KINEMATICS
● branch of physics concerned with the motions
of objects without being concerned with the ● Distance is the total length traveled by an
forces that cause the motion object.
Quantities Describing Motion What is the distance covered by the skater?
Time 𝑑 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3

9
 𝑑 = 180 𝑚 + 140 𝑚 + 100 𝑚 What is the skater’s average velocity?
𝑑 = 420 𝑚
● In general, distance can be calculated using
the equation below.

Problem Solving
● Displacement is defined as the length of the
line that separates the initial position (𝑥𝑜) to the 1. The physics teacher walks 4 meters East, 2
meters South, 4 meters West, and finally 2
final position (𝑥𝑓).
meters North. The entire motion lasts 24
What is the displacement covered by the skater? seconds. Determine her average speed and
→
𝑑 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑜 average velocity.
→
𝑑 = 140 𝑚 − 0 𝑚
→
𝑑 = 140 𝑚
Speed and Velocity
● quantities that combine the concept of time
and space
Speed
● the rate of change in position. It can be noted
−1
as 𝑣 or 𝑠 and has a unit of 𝑚/𝑠 or 𝑚𝑠
Velocity ● The physics teacher walked a distance
● rate of change in position with respect to a of 12 m in 24 s; thus, her average
reference point speed was 0.50 m/s. However, since
her displacement is 0 m, her average
velocity is 0 m/s.
2. A car is traveling 3000 m to the west for 5
minutes. What is the average velocity of the
car?

● Given:
- Displacement = -3000 m
- Time = 5 minutes or 300 s
→
-𝑣 =?

What is the skater’s speed? Acceleration

● describes how an object changes its velocity
per elapsed time
2
● a vector quantity with an SI unit of 𝑚/𝑠

10
Three Ways to Say that the Object is Accelerating
1. if the magnitude of the velocity of the object is
changing;
2. if the direction of the motion of the object is
changing; and
3. if both the magnitude of the velocity and the
direction of motion are changing.
Signs of Acceleration
● Positive acceleration ⟶ a and v are of the
same direction ⟶ speeding up
● Negative acceleration ⟶ a and v have
opposite directions ⟶ slowing down
● Zero acceleration ⟶ object is traveling at
constant v or not moving at all
Problem Solving
1. A car starts from rest and accelerates
uniformly to a velocity of 3 m/s over a time of
5.21 s. Determine the acceleration of the car

2
2. A car is uniformly accelerating for 3.5 𝑚/𝑠
from rest. What is the final velocity after
1.65s?

GRAPHS OF MOTION

RELATIVE NATURE OF MOTION

11
 ● Motion is relative
● This means that an object which is moving for
you might not be moving relative to another
person.
● Consider you and your classmate who is
sitting on your respective chairs. Do any of you
change positions?

3. An airplane accelerates down a runway at

3.30 m/s2 from rest for 33 s until it finally lifts
off the ground. Determine the distance
traveled before takeoff.

Uniformly Accelerated Motion

● It is a kind of motion along a straight line with
constant acceleration.
● It means that the velocity of an object changes
at a fixed rate during the entire course of the 4. A bike accelerates uniformly from rest to a
motion. speed of 7 m/s over a distance of 35.4 m.
Formulas for Uniformly Accelerated Motion Determine the acceleration of the bike.

VECTORS AND COMPONENTS

OF VECTORS
STEM 4 (GENERAL PHYSICS 1)
Problem Solving Session 1.5 | 1st Quarter | 1st Semester

2 VECTORS AND SCALARS

1. A car accelerates at 1.5 𝑚/𝑠 from rest. What
Scalar Quantity
will be its velocity after 5 s?
● ia physical quantity that has magnitude
(size or quantity) but no direction. It is
described by a single number with its
appropriate unit
● examples: temperature, mass, time, distance,
speed, density and volume
Vector Quantity
● a physical quantity with both magnitude
and direction. Magnitude describes the
quantity or the size of the physical quantity,
2. A car traveling at 22.4 m/s skids to a stop in
while direction describes how the vector is
2.55 s. Determine the skidding distance of the
oriented relative to a reference point
car (assume uniform acceleration).

12
 ● examples: velocity (30 m/s westward), force
(2.5 N, 36º North of East) and displacement 1. What are the x- and y-components of a
(3.6 m South) displacement vector with a magnitude of 50 m
and an angle of 30° North of East?
The car is moving at a speed of 30 m/s
● Speed is a scalar quantity.
The car is moving at a speed of 30 m/s, eastward.
● Velocity is a vector quantity.
Representing Vector Quantity
● Vectors are represented by a single letter with
an arrow above them

2. A car has a displacement of 750 m, 45° north

of west. What are the components of the
displacement vector?
● The direction of the vector is expressed as an
angle of rotation either from the north, south,
east, or west.
● By default, angles are measured from the east
direction.
Components of a Vector

● Consider a displacement vector pointing

northeast.
● It also has a component along the north
(vertical axis).
● It has a component along the east (horizontal
axis).
● A vector can be resolved into its components.
● The sides of the triangle can be defined from
the angle.
● The x-component of the vector is
‒530.33 m while its y-component is
530.33 m.
3. What are the x and y-components of the force
vector, 4.5 N, 60º South of West?

Trigonometric functions can be expressed as the

following equations:

● x-component:

Practice Problems
13
 ● A projectile is an object whose motion, in the
absence of air resistance, consists of
horizontal motion with constant velocity and
vertical motion with constant acceleration.
● Consider a ball undergoing free-fall (red) and a
ball undergoing projectile motion (yellow)

● y-component:

The x-component of the vector is ‒2.25 N Practice Problems: Part 1

while its y-component is ‒3.9 N.
1. A stone is thrown forward with a velocity of 10
KINEMATICS: MOTION IN TWO m/s on top of a cliff and lands 30.5 m away
horizontally. Calculate the height of the cliff.
DIMENSIONS (PROJECTILE
MOTION)
STEM 4 (GENERAL PHYSICS 1)
Session 2.1 | 2nd Quarter | 1st Semester

PROJECTILE
● refers to any object that has an initial velocity,
but proceeds through a parabolic path, called
a trajectory, entirely influenced by
acceleration due to gravity and air
resistance
2. A stone is kicked horizontally off a 28-meter
● For simplicity, we treat projectiles as particles
high hill and landed at a distance of 35.0
with constant direction and magnitude and
meters from the edge of the hill. Determine the
gravitational acceleration.
horizontal velocity of the stone.

This two-dimensional motion of a projectile may be

visualized in an xy-coordinate plane

● an object’s projectile motion depends on the

the initial velocity, 𝑣𝑜 , with the trajectory
influenced by gravity
Characteristics of a Horizontally Launched
Projectiles

14
3. A pool ball leaves a 0.60-meter high table with
an initial horizontal velocity of 2.4 m/s. Predict
the time required for the pool ball to fall to the
ground and the horizontal distance between
the table’s edge and the ball's landing location.

Practice Problems: Part 2

1. A ball is kicked with an initial velocity of 22 m/s
at an angle of 40˚ from the horizontal.
Determine the time of flight, the horizontal
distance, and the peak height of the ball.

● The green arrows indicate the initial velocity of

the projectile.
● The light blue arrows show the components of
the projectile’s velocity at a certain point.
● The velocity along the horizontal 𝑣𝑜𝑥 is
constant, as signified by the length of the
arrows along the x-axis.
● The object goes against gravity as it heads
upward, causing the velocity along the vertical
𝑣𝑜𝑦 to decrease until it reaches zero.
● Eventually, the projectile will be influenced
solely by gravity and will accelerate downward.

15
 3. A ball was kicked at an angle of 36° above the
horizon (horizontal) with an initial velocity of 15
m/s. What is its total time of flight?

FORCE
STEM 4 (GENERAL PHYSICS 1)
Session 2.2 | 2nd Quarter | 1st Semester

FORCE
● a push or pull that tends to change the state of
motion of a body
● 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

2. A rock was thrown upward at a speed of 20

m/s at 70º above the horizon (horizontal). Find
the time of the rock’s flight time and the
maximum height it reaches.

CONTACT AND NON-CONTACT FORCE

CONTACT FORCES
● an interaction that brings about a direct
physical contact between two objects
Frictional Force
● The force exerted by a surface as an object
moves across it or makes an effort to move
across it.

● Static Friction – It is what keeps the box from

moving without being pushed, and it must be
overcome with a sufficient opposing force
before the box will move.

16
● Kinetic Friction – the force that resists the Applied Force
relative movement of the surfaces once they're ● force applied to an object by a person or
in motion another object
Tension Force
● is the force that is transmitted through a string,
rope, cable or wire when it is pulled tight by
forces acting from opposite ends

Spring Force
● the force exerted by a compressed or
stretched spring upon any object that is
attached to it

Normal Force
● is the support force exerted upon an object
that is in contact with another stable object

NON-CONTACT FORCES
● act between objects that are distant and are
separated by vacant space
● all of the fundamental forces are non-contact
forces
Fundamental Forces
Gravitational Force
● force between two objects with mass, such as
the Earth and the Sun. It increases as the
Fluid Friction or Drag Force
mass of the objects increases and decreases
● refers to forces that resist relative motion of an
with distance. It is the force the keeps objects
object through a fluid or a fluid to another fluid
in orbit
Electromagnetic Force
● occur when an electromagnetic field interacts
with electrically charged particles (ie.
electrons, protons and other ions). It include
the electric force, which produces electric
fields between charged forces, and the
magnetic force, which manifests itself as

17
 magnetic fields wherever there are moving ● The superposition principle (superposition
charges property) states that for all linear forces the
Strong Nuclear Force total force is a vector sum of individual forces.
● keeps the atoms from separating together due
to the electric force from the repulsion of the
protons
Weak Nuclear Force
● plays a role in the radioactive decay of some
nuclei

Radioactive Decay
● the spontaneous breakdown of an atomic
nucleus resulting in the release of energy and
matter from the nucleus ● Individual forces exerted at a point upon an
WEIGHT VS. MASS object will produce a similar effect as a single
force equivalent to the resultant, or vector sum
of the individual forces.

● Now, let’s consider a laptop on the table.

○ What are the forces that act on it?
○ Considering superposition of forces:

No net force acts on an object at rest. We say that the

object is in equilibrium.
● For an object to be in equilibrium, either no
NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION force must act upon it, or the resultant of the
STEM 4 (GENERAL PHYSICS 1) individual forces exerted upon it must have a
Session 2.3 | 2nd Quarter | 1st Semester net force of zero.
1ST LAW: LAW OF INERTIA
● Consider a book being slid by a horizontal ● “A body when at rest will remain at rest or
force across a horizontal, rough tabletop. when in motion will continue to move with
● After it has been released, the book will slow constant velocity unless acted upon an
down and eventually stop. unbalanced force (net force).”
Inertia
What force stopped the book? ● property of a body that tends to resist change
in its motion
● What if you slide the same book in a slab of ● mass is a measure of inertia
ice. What is the difference of the outcome ● the greater the mass, the greater the inertia.
when you slide a book on a table? The greater the inertia, the harder it is to
● What if you slide the same book on a change the state of motion of a body
frictionless surface? What do you think will 2ND LAW: LAW OF ACCELERATION
happen? ● “Acceleration is directly proportional to the
Superposition of Forces force (at constant mass). The greater the
force, the greater the acceleration.”

18
 ● “When a net force acts on a body, it will be
accelerated in the direction of the force.”
● 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
2
○ 𝐹 – force in Newtons (𝑁) or 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚/𝑠
○ 𝑚 – mass in 𝑘𝑔
2
○ 𝑎 – acceleration (𝑚/𝑠 )
● Acceleration is directly proportional to the
force (at constant mass).
● Acceleration is inversely proportional to the
mass at constant force.

3. A 12 kg box is pulled to the right by a 350 N

force that is 30° above the horizontal. A
constant frictional force of 120 N opposes it.
a. What is the net horizontal force acting
on the box?
b. Calculate the acceleration to the right.

Practice Problems
1. Find the acceleration of a 1 kg bowling ball if a
4 N unbalanced force was acted on it.

2. A 5 kg box is pulled to the right by a horizontal

force of 200 N. A constant frictional force of 60 3RD LAW: LAW OF INTERACTION
N opposes it. ● “Whenever one body exerts a force on a
a. Calculate the horizontal net force of second body, the first body experiences a
the box. force that is equal in magnitude and opposite
b. Find its acceleration. in direction to the force that it exerts.”
● “For every action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction.”

19
 temperatures. Superconductors can be
produced by cooling some materials to low
temperatures.
Structure of the Atom
● Atoms are made up of three subatomic
particles namely: electrons, protons, and
neutrons.
Methods of Charging
Charging by Friction
● When you rub one material to another, they
are charged by friction.

● The reason why we can walk is because the

ground pushes our feet forward as we push
the ground backward.
Charging by Conduction
ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ● it is charging by contact between the neutral
body and the charging body
ELECTRIC FIELD
STEM 7 (GENERAL PHYSICS 2)
Session 3.1-3 | 3rd Quarter | 2nd Semester

ELECTRIC CHARGE
● there are two kinds of charge, positive and
negative
● like charges repel, unlike charges attract
● positive charge comes from having more
protons than electrons; negative charge
comes from having more electrons than
Charging by Induction
protons
● The process of induction does not involve
● charge is conserved
contact between the neutral body and the
● Coulomb (C) – S.I. Unit for charge
charging body. The neutral body is just brought
near to the charging body.

18
1 𝐶 = 6. 25 𝑥 10 electrons

● Conductors – it is a material which allows

charges to flow readily.
example: copper
● Insulator – it is a material that resists flow of
charges
examples: rubber, plastic, glass, etc.
● Semiconductor – intermediate between
conductors and insulators.
examples: silicon and germanium (both have 4
valence electrons)
● Superconductor – offers no resistance to
current flow of charges below some critical
20
 COULOMB’S LAW
● We know that like charges repel and unlike
charges attract, but how strong is this force? In
1788. Charles Augustin de Coulomb
formulated the relationship between this
electric force with the distance between them.
3. At what distance of separation must two
1.00-microCoulomb charges be positioned in
order for the repulsive force between them to
be equivalent to the weight (on Earth) of a
1.00-kg mass??
● It states that the electric force between
charged particles is proportional to the quantity
of each of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
● 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 (units are in Coulomb (C))
● 𝑑 is the distance in meters
● 𝐹 is the electrical force in Newtons
● 𝑘 is the Coulomb constant with an
9 2 2
approximate value of 9 × 10 𝑁𝑚 /𝐶

Practice Problems
1. Calculate the force attraction between the lone
electron and proton in a hydrogen atom. The ELECTRIC FIELD
average distance between them is ● is defined as the amount of electric force on a
5. 0 * 10
−11
𝑚. charged body exerted by external charged
bodies
Three Basic Rules in Drawing Electric Field Lines
1. Field lines emanate from the positive charge
and terminate to the negative charges.
2. Field lines do not intersect at one point. Field
lines only meet if the force between the
charges is attractive.
3. The density of the lines (number of lines per
space) represents the strength of the field.

The strength of an electric field at any point is given

𝐹𝑒
by the equation: 𝐸 = 𝑞𝑜

● 𝐹 is the force in Newtons

2. Two charged spheres are separated by a ● 𝑞𝑜 is the magnitude of the test charge in
−6
distance of 0. 3 𝑚. if Q1 is 5 × 10 𝐶 and Q2 Coulomb
−6
is 4 × 10 𝐶, what is the magnitude of the ● 𝐸 is the electric field strength with a unit of N/C
electric force between these two charged
spheres? ● In general, we can formally define the electric
field at a point as the electric force (𝐹𝑒) acting

21
 on a positive test charge (𝑞𝑜) placed at that 3. A force if 100 𝑁 is directed north on a
−5
point per unit charge. − 2 × 10 𝐶. What is the magnitude and
● Since electric force is a vector quantity, we can direction of the electric field at this point?
already deduce that the electric field is also a
vector quantity. It has an SI unit of newton
per coulomb ( 𝑁/𝐶 ).

Recall Coulomb’s law:

● If we let 𝑞1 as the external charge 𝑞 and 𝑞2 as
● Positive test charge experiences a force
towards the direction of the electric field.
● Negative test charge experiences a force
our test charge 𝑞𝑜, we have:
opposite to the direction of the electric field.
● Then, we can further rewrite the equation for
Practice Problems electric field as the following below to calculate
the electric field strength at any point at a
distance d in space from a point charge 𝑞:
1. What is the magnitude and direction of an
−15
electric field that exerts a 1. 2 × 10 𝑁
downward force on a electron

Practice Problems
−7
1. Point A is 0. 5𝑚 from a charge of 6. 0 × 10 𝐶
. What is the magnitude of the electric field at
point A?

2. What is the magnitude and direction of an

electric field acting on a 2 C charge if an
electrostatic force of 10500 N towards east
2. What is the magnitude of the field at 2 𝑚 from
acts on the particle?
a 2. 0 𝑁𝑐 charge?

3. What is the magnitude of the force being

experienced by the electron in the figure as it
travels between the parallel plates if the
electric field has a value of 14 𝑁/𝐶?

22
 ● We will take heat to mean the thermal energy
transferred into/out of a body
● The higher the temperature, the faster the
particles (atoms/molecules) are moving, i.e.
more Kinetic Energy.
Temperature Scales
1. Celsius Scale – Ander Celsius
2. Kelvin Scale – William Thompson
3. Fahrenheit Scale – Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit
4. Rankine Scale – William Rankine
4. A uniform electric field is directed downward
Conversion of Temperature
and has a magnitude of 5 N/C. Find the
magnitude of the force experienced by a
charge of -6 C placed in this field. Note: you
may disregard the sign of the charge.

EFFECTS OF HEAT AND METHODS OF

TRANSFER
Thermal Expansion
● The average distance between molecules
changes with the temperature.
● Most objects expand when heated and
THERMODYNAMICS: HEAT AND contract when cooled.
● The atoms are not at rest, even in solids,
TEMPERATURE where each atom has a fixed equilibrium
STEM 7 (GENERAL PHYSICS 2) position.
Session 2.4 | 3rd Quarter | 2nd Semester Common Examples
1. Breaking of glass.
TEMPERATURE 2. Gaps in concrete roads.
● Temperature is quantity related to average Types of Expansion
kinetic energy of the molecules of a 1. Linear Expansion: Δ𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜α Δ𝑇
substance.
2. Area Expansion: Δ𝐴 = 𝐴𝑜ϒΔ𝑇 → ϒ = 2α
HEAT
● Heat is energy in transit due to temperature 3. Volume Expansion: Δ𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜β Δ𝑇 → β = 3α
difference. Coefficient of Linear Expansion
● Measured in calories or Joules (in honor to
James Prescott Joule)
● 1 cal = 4.186 Joules → Mechanical Equivalent
of Heat

Practice Problems
1. A glass (pyrex) cylinder is filled to the brim
with 250 mL water at 20oC. If the water and
the container are heated to a temperature of
91oC, how many mL of water spills over the
−6
top of the glass? (β𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 207 × 10 /°𝐶)

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 Practice Problems
1. 1 182 calories is needed to change the
temperature of a 250 gram metal from 28oC to
2. A large rod of metal has a length of 5.10 m. It 50oC. What is its specific heat?
was heated and after some time it reached
120 °C. This expands the rod length to 5.1056
m. What would be the coefficient of linear
expansion of the rod? (Given: Temperature of
the room is 28 °C.)

2. How much heat is needed to change the

temperature of a 125 g of copper from 28 °C to
50 °C? (c = 0.0920 cal/g ∙ °C)?

Change in Temperature
● The motion of molecules changes with
temperature thus changing the average kinetic
energy.
● The movement of atoms (or molecules) is
directly related to temperature.
● When heat is absorbed by a material, its
molecules move faster; when heat is released,
its molecules move slower.
Common Examples
1. The sand is warmer during the day. Change in Phase
2. The sea is warmer at night. ● Heat is needed to break the intermolecular
The Specific Heat forces of attraction between molecules.
● The amount of heat needed to change the States/Phases of Matter
temperature of a substance by 1 °C ● Endothermic – heat absorbed by the system
● 𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇 ● Exothermic – heat is released by the system
○ 𝑄 is the heat absorbed or released Latent Heat
○ 𝑚 = mass of the substance ● The heat required to change the state of a
○ 𝑐 = specific heat of the substance mass of a substance without changing its
○ ∆𝑇 = change in temperature temperature.
Specific Heat of Common Metals ● Latent Heat of Fusion – is a category of
latent heat describing the energy for the phase
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 change between a liquid and a solid to occur
without a change in temperature.
● Latent Heat of Vaporization – is a category
of latent heat describing the energy for the
phase change between a liquid and a gas to
occur without a change in temperature.
Latent Heat of Some Substances

Heat Transfer
● Heat can be transferred from one substance to
another.
Heat Transfer Mechanisms
1. Conduction: (solids–mostly) Heat transfer
Examples
without mass transfer.
1. -10 °C Ice melts then turns into 120 °C steam:
2. Convection: (liquids/gas) Heat transfer with
mass transfer.
3. Radiation: Takes place even in a vacuum.
Calorimetry
2. What is the heat needed to condense a 2 500
● Calorimetry is the science associated with
g steam?
determining the changes in energy of a system
by measuring the heat exchanged with the
surroundings.
Conservation of Energy
● In an Isolated System, the heat gained by cold
object/s is equal to the heat lost by hot
object/s.

ELECTRODYNAMICS
3. How much heat is needed to turn 260 g of 80 STEM 7 (GENERAL PHYSICS 2)
°C water into 115°C steam? Session 4.1-4 | 4th Quarter | 2nd Semester

ELECTRODYNAMICS
● deals with electrical charges in motion
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
● a closed conducting path where charges flow
Three (3) Essential Elements
1. Current
4. How much heat is needed to be removed to 2. Resistance
change the phase of a 220 g of 118 °C steam 3. Voltage
into liquid at 100 °C? ELECTRIC CURRENT
● is the amount of charge passing through any
point in a conductor per unit time or the rate of
flow of charge
● The more charges flow through a cross
section within a given time, the larger the
current is. S.I. unit: ampere (A)

25
 ●
● Where 𝑞 is in coulombs and 𝑡 is in seconds
● 1 A = 1 C/s

2. Calculate the total resistance of a 100 meter

−6 2
roll of 2. 5 𝑥 10 𝑚 copper wire if the resistivity
−8
of copper at 20°C is 1. 72 𝑥 10 Ω𝑚.

RESISTANCE
● is the opposition a materials offers to the flow
of charges
● S.I. unit: ohm (Ω) VOLTAGE
Factors Affecting the Resistance of the Object Electromotive Force
1. Cross sectional area – as the cross-sectional ● is the voltage developed by any source of
area increases the resistance decreases electrical energy such as a battery or dynamo
2. Length – an increase in length increases ● total energy supplied by a cell to move a unit
resistance of charge through a complete circuit
3. Kind of material – specific materials have ● energy transferred per unit charge from
their specific resistivities. chemical (in the case of a battery) to electrical
4. Temperature – as temperature decrease, Potential Difference
resistance and resistivity decrease for ● electric pressure or electric tension is the
conductors difference in electric potential between two
RESISTIVITY points per unit electric charge
● a measure of the resisting power of a specified ● work done or energy to move a unit of charge
material to the flow of an electric current across two points in a closed circuit
● energy transferred per unit charge from
● The effect of the length, area, and material on electrical energy to other forms by a load (e.g.
resistance may be written in the form: light bulb)

● Where R is the resistance in ohms

● L is the length in meters
● A is the cross sectional area in square meter
● 𝜌 is the resistivity in ohm meter

Practice Problems
1. What is the resistance of an aluminum (
−8
ρ = 2. 75 𝑥 10 Ω𝑚) rod 3.0 m long and 0.01
2
m in diameter? (Area of a circle = π𝑟 )
OHM’S LAW
● states that the current flowing in a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference
across its ends, provided that its temperature
and other physical conditions remain constant

26
 ● consists of one positive electrode and one
negative electrode
● These electrodes are immersed in an ion
● Applied to a whole circuit:
conducting medium called electrolyte
○ Where 𝐼𝑇 is the total current
● Alessandro Volta invented the first cell in
○ 𝐸 is the electromotive force 1799.
○ 𝑅𝑇 is the total resistance ○ Primary cells – cannot be recharged
○ Secondary cells – rechargeable
Electric Circuit
● a path in which electrons from a voltage or
● Applied to a portion of a circuit:
current source flow
Common Sources of EMF
Series Circuit
1. electric cells that convert chemical energy to
electrical energy
2. generators that convert mechanical energy to
electrical energy

3. solar cells or photovoltaic cells that convert

light energy to electrical energy

Practice Problems
1. Find the current I through a resistor of ● is one that contains more than one piece of
resistance R = 2 Ω if the voltage across the electrical apparatus connected one after
resistor is 6 V. another in a single line
● In a series circuit, the current flows in a single
path and is the same in all parts regardless of
resistance. Current stops flowing wherever a
part of the circuit fails
Parallel Circuit
2. A motor with an operating resistance of 32.75
Ω is connected to a voltage source. If the
current is 1.5 A, what is the voltage of the
source?

ELECTRICAL CELL
● is one where two or more pieces of electrical
apparatus are connected side by side that the
current is divided between them
● Each apparatus operates independently.
● Even if one apparatus fails, current still flows
on the others.
● Household appliances are usually connected
in parallel.
Resistor
● a passive two-terminal electrical component
that implements electrical resistance as a
circuit element

27
 Practice Problems
1. Three resistors of 2.0 Ω, 3.0 Ω and 4.0 Ω are
connected in a.) series b.) parallel. Find their
total resistance.

Resistors in Series
1. Total resistance is the sum of the individual
resistances: 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 +...
2. The current is the same in all resistors:
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼3 =....
3. The total voltage across the combination is the
sum of all voltages across each resistor: 2. What is the value of a resistor that must be
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 +... connected in parallel to a 60 Ω resistor to
reduce the combined resistance to 15 Ω?
Resistors in Parallel
1. The reciprocal of total resistance is the sum of
the reciprocals of the individual resistances.

2. The main current entering the combination of

resistors divides and part of it goes through
each resistor.

3. Voltages across the resistors are equal.

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