RAN HYDROGRAPHIC SCHOOL

HMAS PENGUIN

Handout 102

OSCILLATORY MECHANICS

Published: Jun 83
Revised: Jun 02
Intended for: AHS/OHS
Contents:

1. Theory_of_Oscillation

2. Simple_Harmonic_Motion

3. Modulated_Oscillation

4. Composite_Oscillation

5. Damped_Force

6. Pulsations

7. A Square Pulse Train

8. Forced_Oscillations

9. Wave_Theory

10. Propagation_Equation

11. Vibrations

12. Gyroscopic_Theory

Handout 102 2
Oscillatory Mechanics
1. THEORY OF OSCILLATION

1.1. Any motion which repeats itself in equal time intervals is called periodic motion. As
this motion can be expressed in terms of sine and cosine curves it is also known as harmonic
motion.

1.2. If the particles in periodic motion move back and forth over the same path, then their
motion is known as oscillatory. The motion of a violin string, a pendulum, atoms in a solid
lattice, and the water molecules as a wave passes by, are examples of oscillatory motion. In
short, an oscillation is defined as a periodic energy variation in a mechanical, electrical or
atomic system.

1.3. The time interval required for the system to complete a full cycle is called the
PERIOD of the oscillation. The number of cycles per unit time defines the FREQUENCY
(eg, 5 cycles/second), and the maximum displacement of the system from its position of
equilibrium is called the AMPLITUDE.

2. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

2.1. An oscillation is referred to as being harmonic when the restoring force varies
linearly with the displacement of the system from its equilibrium position. Hence the
acceleration is proportional to the displacement and in the opposite direction.

2.2. Consider a heavy weight hanging on a long light thread. If the weight is displaced a
distance, x, out of the equilibrium position, the force of gravity will induce it to swing back to
its original position once it is released. But as the weight will have attained a certain speed, it
will swing through the equilibrium position. In the absence of losses due to friction, the
weight will be displaced a distance -d from the equilibrium position at the time that it stops
swinging in the opposite direction. It will continue to swing to and fro from d to -d and back
indefinitely. This is the principle of the pendulum clock. Due to external forces, like friction,
the pendulum will eventually stop swinging.

When the weight reaches +d or -d it will stop swinging in

that particular direction. Here its kinetic energy is zero, but
it has maximum potential energy (energy due to its
position). Conversely, when the weight or pendulum is
-d d passing through the equilibrium position, that is, when x =
0, it possesses no potential energy but maximum kinetic
energy.

2.3. The general formula for harmonic motion is:

x = Acos t + Bsin t

where x is the displacement of a given point, A and B are constants, and t is the phase at
time B.
In the above example, the displacement against time is a simple sine wave, so we can rewrite
the above with A = 0, ie x = Bsin t

Handout 102 3
Oscillatory Mechanics
3. MODULATED OSCILLATION

3.1. Modulation is defined as the process, or the result of the process, whereby some
characteristic of a wave or oscillation is varied in accordance with some characteristic of
another wave.

3.2. Returning to our idea of a pendulum consider now the motion of two weights
suspended on a fine string as follows:

Pivot
3.3. If there is just one weight and the displacement is small the
motion will be simple harmonic. In this ‘two weight’ case, if the
pendulum is let swing and one of the weights is given a ‘tap’ changing
String its wave motion it will ‘modulate’ the motion of the other weight
changing its frequency period and displacement. Both weights will
still oscillate but the motion will not be harmonic; it will be
Weights modulated motion.

4. COMPOSITE OSCILLATION

4.1. A composite oscillation is the resultant wave motion of a particle where there is more
than one force acting on it. To visualise this, consider a series of pendulums in a row such
that the weight of each is connected by a spring.

Composite Motion

4.2. If one of the weights is displaced from the equilibrium position the wave motion that
will result in each weight will be ‘composite’ ie. composed of the individual motion due to
each force acting on each weight.

4.3. As the individual motions can be described as transverse sinusoidal waves when
graphed against time, this composition can be described as interference. Interference of wave
motion is defined as the effects resulting from the superposition of coherent (ie distinct) wave
trains of the same or nearly the same frequency. The interference may be constructive or

Handout 102 4
Oscillatory Mechanics
destructive depending on whether the waves are in or out of phase. This is best explained
diagrammatically.

4.4. Constructive Interference

Below is an example of constructive interference. Consider two sinusoidal waves of identical

phase and amplitude:

Wave A

Wave B

If the two waves are superimposed, then the resulting wave will have identical wavelength
but twice the amplitude:

Combined A and B

In the above example, if two equal oscillatory forces are applied, then the whole system will
oscillate with twice the amplitude

4.5. Destructive Interference

If the two waves A and B arrive at the same point out of phase, ie:

Wave A

Handout 102 5
Oscillatory Mechanics
 Wave B

The destructive interference between the two waves will result in:

Combined A and B

4.6. In our spring example, if we had oscillatory forces on A and C that were equal in
magnitude, but opposite in direction, then the resultant force on B would be nil, and B would
remain stationary.

5. DAMPED FORCE

5.1. In the case of a real pendulum, friction is a damped force. It progressively dies away
as a function of the wave motion. The oscillation is then also said to be damped as the
amplitude of the oscillation progressively decreases. The following diagrams show the effect
of damping:

6. PULSATIONS

6.1. A pulse is defined as a single transient disturbance occurring as an isolated wave, or

one of a series of transient disturbances recurring at regular intervals. In the case of an echo
sounder or radar the term is applied to a short train of high frequency waves.

Handout 102 6
Oscillatory Mechanics
6.2. The pulse may consist of a voltage or current which increases from zero to a
maximum value and then decreases to zero in a comparatively short time and they are often
described by their general geometric shape such as ‘rectangle’ and ‘triangle’.

7. A SQUARE PULSE TRAIN

7.1. In reality the shapes are never perfectly geometrical. There is always a finite rise and
decay time. A rectangular pulse will look more like the following:

8. FORCED OSCILLATIONS

8.1. When the motion is maintained by the action of the restoring forces only, it is said to
be free vibration. If there is a periodic driving force, it is called forced vibration. The
driving force is often necessary to overcome the effects of damping on a system. It may be a
continuous force, or present as a pulse.

9. WAVE THEORY

9.1. Wave motion appears in all branches of physics. Energy is transmitted through elastic
media in the form of waves that cause the particles of the medium to oscillate.

9.2. The waves in elastic media, known as MECHANICAL WAVES, are caused when
some portion of the elastic medium is displaced from the normal position. As the medium is
elastic the particles will oscillate about an equilibrium position. The disturbance is transmitted
in the form of a wave from one layer to the next. Consequently, the disturbance progresses
through the medium.

9.3. Sound waves travel through air and water in this manner. The transducer of an
echosounder undergoes an oscillatory motion, or vibration, creating a sound pulse. The sound
pulse from the transducer displaces the water causing the molecules to oscillate. This

Handout 102 7
Oscillatory Mechanics
disturbance is transferred through the water for some distance, losing energy as it goes.
Energy is lost as water is not perfectly elastic. Inter-molecular forces damp the vibrations.
The energy in waves is the kinetic and potential energy of the matter. The transmission of the
energy comes about as the disturbance passes through the medium, not by long range motion
of the matter itself. For example, sound energy in the sea does not cause great swirling
currents. The water molecules do not move appreciably but the energy is still transferred. The
water molecules merely oscillate back and forth as the waves pass. There is no bulk
disturbance of the water. (Electromagnetic waves such as light will pass through a vacuum, as
no elastic medium is required, they are not mechanical waves).

9.4. Transverse Waves. Transverse waves are waves in which the particles in the elastic
medium are displaced perpendicular to the direction of propagation of a wave. For example,
water waves. As the energy passes, the water molecules move up and down forming ridges
and troughs.

9.5. Longitudinal Waves. In these, the motion of the particle is back and forth in the
direction of travel of the wave. Sound waves in a gas or liquid (water) are of this type.

minimum maximum
minimum Direction of
vibration vibration wave travel
vibration
Note that when these waves are plotted as vibration displacement versus time, they can be
considered as a transverse wave.

10. PROPAGATION EQUATION

10.1. As sound waves propagate, their velocity v can be described by the wave equation:

v = f

where f is the frequency, and  is the wavelength. The frequency of the sound waves is
determined by the source, as we have seen above. The velocity depends on the medium of
propagation. In the case of water, it is affected by temperature, pressure, and salinity, as all of
these will determine how much the water molecules can vibrate for a given amount of energy
input. This will be covered later in basic sonar theory.

10.2. The wavelength of the sound wave, which is the distance between two points of
maximum vibration, can hence be found using the wave equation.

11. VIBRATIONS

11.1. A mechanical vibration is the motion of a particle or body that oscillates about a
position of equilibrium. Vibrations are generally undesirable in machines and structures as
they result in increased stresses and energy losses.

11.2. Vibrations are used continuously by the Hydrographic Surveyor. Echo sounder pulses
are sound vibrations transmitted through the sea, while dGPS and MicroFix operate on radio
waves that result from the vibrations of electrons in an aerial of appropriate length. Seawater
and the atmosphere have respective damping effects on these two types of vibrations.

12. GYROSCOPIC THEORY

Handout 102 8
Oscillatory Mechanics
12.1. A gyroscopic force is a force perpendicular to the direction of motion and
proportional to the speed (it is the force produced as a result of the angular momentum of the
body). A spinning wheel produces a gyroscopic force in a direction in line with the direction
of the wheel axis. The faster the wheel spins, the greater the gyroscopic force becomes. As
with all forces, gyroscopic forces are vectors, possessing magnitude and direction. To change
the direction of the gyroscope force work must be done.

12.2. A spinning wheel such as the wheel on a bike produces a gyroscopic force in line
with its axis. As a bike produces the force, it has no effect on a bikes motion until such time
as the rider attempts to 'steer' the bike. Work must be done to change the direction of the axis
of rotation. Also it becomes more difficult to tip the bike on its side the faster it goes.

12.3. In a gyroscope, a small wheel is kept spinning in an environment engineered to

reduce the effects of friction. As the wheel keeps spinning, its axis will point in the direction
of the gyroscopic force through it. As negligible frictional forces are transmitted to the axis,
no work is done on the axle and it will continue to point in a constant direction regardless of
how the mounting may move.

12.4. In the case of a gyroscopic compass, the axis of rotation is designed to point North.
Generally speaking, in the absence of friction (no rough movements), the gyro will continue
to point North regardless of the movement of the vessel.

The direction of the gyroscopic force is that of the right thumb when the wheel turns in the
direction of the fingers of the right hand.

Handout 102 9
Oscillatory Mechanics