Electronics & Control

Analogue Electronics

Introduction
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
 Know the difference between a series and parallel circuit
 Measure voltage in a series circuit
 Measure voltage in a parallel circuit
 Measure current in a series circuit
 Measure current in a parallel circuit
 Work out the value of resistors
 Simulate electronic circuits
 Use Ohm’s Law
 Calculate total resistances in circuits
 Calculate voltages in different parts of a circuit
 Calculate current in different parts of a circuit
 Recognise a variety of electronic components and their symbols
 Connect circuits on a breadboard
 Calculate power consumed by components/appliances
 Understand how voltage dividers work
 Build circuits using analogue and digital components
Basic Circuits
To make something work in electronics, electric current must flow in a complete
circuit. Conventional electric current flows from the positive (+) connection to
the negative (-) connection.

Drawings are alright for simple circuits but it would be too complicated to draw
a circuit for a TV like this. To make life easier we use simplified circuit diagrams
as shown below.

2
Practical Task 1
You will build a simple series circuit.
You will need the following components:-

Switch 3 Lamps Power supply 2 wires

Connect the components as shown in the diagram below.

Check with your teacher before you switch it on.

Draw this circuit and write one sentence explaining how the circuit works.

Add a third lamp to your circuit.

Notice what happens.
Write down what you think would happen if you added a forth lamp?

3
Practical Task 2
You will build a simple parallel circuit.
You will need the following components:-

Switch 3 Lamps Power supply 2 wires

Connect the components as shown in the diagram below.

Check with your teacher before you switch it on.

Draw this circuit and write one sentence explaining how the circuit works.

Add a third lamp in parallel and comment on the difference between both
circuits.
What do you think would happen if you added a forth lamp?

4
Measuring Voltage
A typical digital multi-meter is shown below. It is a very useful piece of
equipment and can be used to measure current, voltage and resistance.

To measure a DC voltage, firstly check the connections.

The black probe should be connected to the ‘COM’
terminal. The red probe should be connected to the ‘V’ to
measure Voltage. Secondly, the dial selector should be
pointing to the 20V as shown below.

Practical Task 3
Rebuild the first series circuit with one lamp and measure the voltage from
the power supply as shown below.

Now place the two probes on either side of the lamp and check the reading on
the multi-meter. The two readings should be the same or very close to one
another.

5
Switch off the power supply and add a second lamp in series with the first.

Now measure the voltage drop across each lamp.

These two voltages should be the same or very similar. They should also
add up to give the amount of voltage that you measured from the power
supply.

Copy the circuit and record your measurements.

Voltage supply = Voltage 1 + Voltage 2

Add a third lamp in series with the first and second lamp.
Draw the circuit diagram and measure the voltage drop across each lamp.
Record your measurements.

6
Measuring Current
To measure current, firstly check connections.
The black probe should be connected to the ‘COM’ terminal.
The red probe should be connected to the ‘10A’ to measure
current.
Secondly, the dial selector should be pointing to the 10A as
shown.

Practical Task 4
With one lamp in the series circuit ‘break the
circuit’ as shown.
Then connect the probes from the multi-meter to
complete the circuit.
You should now have a current reading on the
multi-meter.

Add a second lamp in series then measure the current in the same way as
before.
Try measuring the current in different parts of the circuit.
You should discover that the readings are all the same.
Draw the circuit and record your readings.

7
Practical Task 5

Build a circuit with two lamps in parallel.

Now measure the current in the positions indicated in the circuit diagram.

Draw the circuit and record your results. Write down a conclusion that you have
proved.

8
Resistors
Resistors are probably the most common and the cheapest of all electronic
components costing less than 1p each. They are used to resist (reduce) or control
the current through other devices and to create voltage “drops” in circuits. A
typical fixed resistor is shown below with its colour coded bands. You will meet
other special types of resistors later.

A fixed resistor The circuit symbol

The coloured bands indicate the value of the resistor in Ohms (Ω). The three
coloured bands together represent the actual value of the resistor.

First Band - the first number

Second Band - the second number
Third Band - number of zeros

Tolerance Band

The band on its own is called the tolerance band. This tells you how accurate the
value of resistance will be. Here for example the gold band means that the
tolerance is ±5% of its value. This means that a 100 Ω resistor could be anything
between 95 Ω and 105 Ω.

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The value of each colour is shown in the table. Band Colour Number

Black 0
The resistor shown below is yellow-violet-red, so its Brown 1
value is 4700 Ω.
Red 2

Orange 3

Yellow 4
Common sizes of resistors go from 100 Ω to 1 MΩ
(1 mega ohm is 1 000 000 Ω). Green 5

Blue 6

Violet 7

Other examples: Grey 8

White 9
Green-blue-brown = 560 Ω
Yellow-violet-yellow = 470 000 Ω - this should be written as 470 KΩ
Red-red-red = 2200 Ω - this should be written as 2K2 Ω
Brown-black-green = 1 000 000 Ω - this should be written as 1 MΩ

Practical Task 6
Copy the table below into your jotter and complete it by
calculating the values of these resistors. Then using a
multi meter, measure their actual values.

Colour Calculated Measured

1st 2nd 3rd Value Value

10
Computer Simulation Task 1
Using Yenka, build the circuits for measuring voltage which are shown below. You
must show the circuit when it is switched off and when it is switched on. This will
then be printed out and stuck into your jotter.

Circuit 1

Circuit 2

Circuit 3

11
Computer Simulation Task 2
Using Yenka, build the circuits for measuring current which are shown below. You
must show the circuit when it is switched off and when it is switched on. This will
then be printed out and stuck into your jotter.

Circuit 1

Circuit 2

Circuit 3

12
Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s law is a formula which gives the relationship between voltage, current and
resistance.

Voltage = Current x Resistance

V=IxR

Voltage is measured in Volts (V).

Current is measured in Amps (A).
Resistance is measured in Ohms (Ω).

In many electronic circuits 1A is a very big current so we often use milliamps

instead (1mA = 0.001A).

V IR

V
V
I 
R
I R
V
R
I

13
Worked example
Calculate the voltage supplied to the circuit shown below if a current of 50 mA
flows through the buzzer which has a resistance of 200 Ω.

I = 50 mA Buzzer 200 Ω

Note: a good habit is to draw your diagram as part of your solution.

V IR I  50mA
I  0.05 A
V  0.05  200
V  10V

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Assignment 1
A battery and a single resistor of 150Ω are connected in series. If the current
flowing in the circuit is 12mA, calculate the voltage supplied by the battery.

Assignment 2
A motor is connected in series with a battery. If the motor has a resistance of
800Ω and the current flowing through it is 15mA, calculate the voltage supplied
by the battery.

Assignment 3
A voltage of 9V makes a current of 0.02A flow through an unknown resistor.
Calculate the value of its resistance.

Assignment 4
What current will flow through a resistance of 10KΩ if an 8V supply voltage is
applied across it?

Computer Simulation Task 3

Build and test the following circuit using Yenka. Measure the voltage and current
in this circuit using various sizes of supply voltage. Copy and complete the table
below using your findings. Then use calculations to confirm that your findings are
accurate and to see if Ohm’s Law is really true.

V (V) R (kΩ) I (mA) I x R (V)

5 10 0.5 5
10 10
15 10
20 10
25 10

The first line has been done for you. You should have found that the current was
0.5mA (more or less), hence I x R = 5 Volts which was also the supply voltage.
15
Resistors in Series
Start by building the following circuit on Yenka using any resistors of the same
value and a 6V supply voltage. Notice that we are calling the resistors R1, R2 and
R3 with the respective voltages across each of them V1, V2 and V3 (that is V1 is the
voltage dropped across R1, etc). The respective currents through each of the
three resistors are I1, I2 and I3.

V1 V2 V3

A1 R1 A2 R2 A3 R3

I V

V is the supply voltage (that is, the total voltage available), I is the total current
in the circuit and RT is the total resistance. You should find the following:

V  V1  V2  V3

I  I1  I 2  I 3

RT  R1  R2  R3

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Assignment 5
For the circuit shown, calculate:
A) the total resistance of the circuit
B) The circuit current

Assignment 6
A 1KΩ resistor is connected in series with an electric motor which has a resistance
of 600Ω. If the voltage supplied is 12V, calculate:
A) the total resistance of the circuit
B) The circuit current
C) The current through the motor

Assignment 7
For the circuit shown calculate:
A) the total resistance
B) The circuit current
C) The voltage dropped across
each resistor

17
Resistors in Parallel
Once again, use Yenka to build and test the circuit shown below. To keep the
calculations simple, use a 6V battery and three 100Ω resistors. The voltage (V),
current (I) and resistance (R) labels are just the same as last time but the
formulae are very different.

V1

I1 R1

V2

I2 R2

V3

I3 R3

I 6V

You should find the following:

V  V1  V2  V3

I  I1  I 2  I 3

1 1 1 1
  
RT R1 R2 R3

Assignment 8
From your building and testing of the above circuit, explain what happens to the
voltage, current and resistance in a parallel circuit.

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You should have seen that in parallel circuits it is the voltage that stays the same
in each branch of the circuit. It is the current this time which splits up according
to the size of the resistor. The larger the resistor, the smaller the current flowing
through it.

Worked Example 1
The complication with parallel circuits is the resistance formula. We will work it
out using the actual values from the last circuit.

1 1 1 1
  
RT R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
  
RT 100 100 100
1
 0.01  0.01  0.01
RT
1
 0.03 To find RT you must invert both sides of
RT
the equation (flip it upside down).
1
RT 
0.03
RT  33.3

Worked example 2
In the circuit shown below calculate:
A) the total resistance A)
R1  R2
RT 
R1  R2
B) the voltage across R2
200  400
RT 
200  400
80000
R1=200Ω RT 
600
V2
RT  133 
R2=400Ω

B) V2  VS  5V

VS=5V 19
Worked Example 3
Three resistors are wired up in parallel and then connected to a 12V supply. Their
resistances are 150Ω, 300Ω and 600Ω respectively. Calculate the total circuit
resistance and the current flowing through the 300Ω resistor.

R1=150Ω
1 1 1 1
  
RT R1 R2 R3
R2=300Ω
1 1 1 1
  
RT 150 300 600
1 4 2 1
R3=600Ω   
RT 600 600 600
1 7

RT 600
RT 600

1 7
VS=12V
RT  85.7

Voltage across the 300Ω resistor = supply voltage = 12V

V 12
Current through the 300Ω resistor = circuit current    0.04 A
R 300

Assignment 9
For the circuit shown below, calculate:
A) the total resistance
B) The circuit current

R1=100Ω

R2=200Ω

VS=6V 20
Assignment 10
Three resistors are connected in parallel and then connected to a 10V supply
voltage as shown. R1 = 2KΩ, R2 = 5KΩ and R3 = 10KΩ. Calculate:
A) the total resistance
B) the circuit current
C) the current through R1 VS=10V R1 R2 R3

Assignment 11
The circuit for a burglar alarm is shown. 200Ω 300Ω
Calculate:
A) the circuit resistance
B) the circuit current
8V
C) the current through the 200Ω buzzer

Assignment 12
A student needs a 50Ω resistance to complete her electronics project.
Unfortunately she only has two 100Ω resistors available. Draw a solution to her
problem and explain your answer by providing proof that it is correct.

Assignment 13
The circuit shown below has three resistors in parellel connected to an unknown
supply voltage. The size of the resistors R1, R2 and R3 are respectively 3K3, 4K7
and 8K2. If the total current flowing through the circuit is 1mA, calculate:
A) the circuit resistance
B) the supply voltage (VS)
C) the current flowing through R1

R1 R2 R3 VS

I = 1mA

21
Switches

It is a good idea to use a switch when designing circuits, this allows you to switch
on and off the current as required. Most switches are simple on-off devices but
they come in all sorts of different types and sizes.

Push Button Slide Switch Toggle Switch

Rocker Switch Reed Switch Mercury Tilt Switch

Some of the above switches can be single-pole single-throw (SPST), single-pole

double-throw (SPDT) or even double-pole double-throw (DPDT). Their symbols are
shown below.

Single-Pole Single-Throw Switch (SPST)

Single-Pole Double-Throw Switch (SPDT)

Double-Pole Double-Throw Switch

(DPDT)

22
Practical Task 7
Build the following circuits to see how the different types of switches work. Then
draw them in your jotter and write a sentence to explain what happens in each.

SPST Circuit

SPDT Circuit

DPDT Circuit 0V

M
5V

Once you have completed these circuits, build them using Yenka.

23
Introduction to Breadboards

The main things to know about how a breadboard works are:

The top and bottom rails run horizontally, so if you were to connect 5V into the
top left hole, the entire top rail running across the board would be 5V.

The middle rails run vertically, so if you were to connect 5 V into this one here
every hole below that one would also be 5V.

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Controlling Voltage

The speed of motors and the brightness of bulbs etc. can be changed or
controlled by the amount of voltage supplied to it. Batteries have a fixed voltage
so the easiest way to control the voltage is with a resistor. Using the breadboards
build the following circuits to prove the point.

200Ω

Circuit 1

6V

1000Ω

Circuit 2

6V

By applying the rules for series circuits (V=V1+V2+V3) we can see that the lamp in
circuit 2 will be less brightly lit. Most of the voltage will be dropped over the
1000Ω resistor leaving only a small voltage to light the lamp. The smaller the
voltage across the lamp, the less light it will produce.

Full control of the voltage can be achieved by using a pre-set variable resistor
where the resistance may be changed by rotating the centre screw with a small
screwdriver. In a circuit one of the wires should be connected to the centre pin
and the other one to one of the other pins.

Circuit Symbol
25
Another different looking variable resistor is a potentiometer which is usually
much bigger than the pre-set. The resistance of this one can usually be altered by
turning the centre shaft by hand. Note that the circuit symbol is slightly
different.

Circuit Symbol

Try building the circuit as shown.

Once you have completed the circuit, build it using Yenka.

26
Diodes & Light Emitting Diodes

Another commonly used electronic component is a diode. It is a one-way device

in that it allows current to flow in one direction only. A diode is a polarity
conscious device in that it has a positive and negative end and it must be
connected the right way round. Diodes are about the size of a resistor and you
can recognise the positive and negative ends by looking for the single band
around it. They are often used to stop current going through a part of a circuit
you don't want it to go through. Try building the two circuits shown below to help
you understand which way round it goes.

Anode (+) Cathode (-)

Circuit Symbol

Anode (+) Cathode (-)

Diode

Circuit 1
No current flows

6V

Circuit 2
Current flows

6V

27
A special type of diode is the Light Emitting Diode (or LED as it is commonly
called). First of all, it does the same job as any other diode - it stops current
flowing in one direction but it also illuminates or lights up when a current flows
through it.

Anode (+) Cathode (-)

Circuit Symbol

Light Emitting Diode

LEDs come in different sizes and different colours but the 5mm red ones are
probably the most popular. They are often used as little indicators to tell you if
an appliance is on or off. You must have seen them on radios, televisions, music
systems, etc.

NOTE - you cannot connect the LED directly to a 6 volt supply or it will “blow”.
For this voltage you must put a 330Ω resistor (which is often called a “current
limiting resistor”) in series with it to reduce the current to a level that can safely
pass through the LED.

Practical Task 8
You are now going to build and test the following circuit using the breadboards.

330Ω

6V

28
Combined Series & Parallel Circuits

In real life, electronic circuits may have components wired up in a combination of

series and parallel.

Worked example
Study the circuit shown below. The supply voltage VCC is 12V. A 100Ω and a 150Ω
resistor are connected in parallel with a 200Ω resistor in series. Calculate the
total resistance of the circuit.
R2 = 100Ω

R1 = 200Ω

R3 = 150Ω

12V
1 1 1
For the parallel branch  
RT R2 R3
1 1 1
 
RT 100 150
1 3 2
 
RT 300 300
1 1

RT 60
RT  60 

The equivalent resistors now become

R1 = 200Ω RP = 60Ω

RT  R1  R P
Total circuit resistance
RT  200  60
RT  260

29
Assignment 14
For the combined series circuit below, calculate:
A) the total resistance of the circuit
B) the circuit current
C) the voltage dropped across R3
D) the current through resistor R1

R1 = 30Ω

R3 = 10Ω

R2 = 20Ω

6V
Assignment 15
For the circuit shown below calculate:
A) the total circuit resistance
B) the circuit current
C) the voltage dropped across R3
D) the current through resistor R2

R1 = 60Ω

R3 = 40Ω

R2 = 30Ω

6V

30
Electrical Power
If you have reached this page, you must have at least a reasonable understanding
of the importance of voltage, current and resistance in electric circuits. However,
there is more to it than that. Sometimes we have to be concerned about how
much power is being consumed.

Electrical Power is measured in watts (W). You can find the amount of power (P)
consumed in a component or in any electrical appliance by multiplying the
voltage (V) applied and the current (I) flowing through it.
P  I V
Worked Example
A small table lamp has a power rating of 40W and is connected to the 230V mains
supply. Calculate the current flowing through the lamp and its resistance.

P  I V
P 40
I    0.174 A
V 230
40 watts
V  IR
V 230
R   1320
I 0.174

230V

Assignment 16
An electric drill draws a current of 2A when connected to a 110 volt supply.
Calculate the power rating of the drill.

Assignment 17
An electric iron is rated at 2100W and is designed to be operated in the UK using
mains voltage. Calculate the current drawn by the iron. Suggest which size of
fuse should be used in the plug.

Assignment 18
A technology student has a choice of using resistors rated at 0.25W and 0.5W
respectively. Calculate the maximum current that each one can safely take when
connected to a 6V supply voltage.
31
Voltage Dividers

Look at this new circuit below and see how the two resistors in series divide the
voltage. As both resistors are equal in value, the supply voltage (VS) is divided in
two with half of it dropped across the top resistor and the other half dropped
across the bottom one. We always take the voltage dropped across the bottom
one as the output voltage (VO) of the voltage divider.

VS = 6V

R1 = 10kΩ

R2 = 10kΩ
Vout = 3V

The way we calculate the voltage is as follows:

V  I  RT
V
I 
RT
6
I 
20000
I  0.0003A

V  I  R2
V  0.0003  10000
V  3V

32
Worked Example
In the circuit shown below, calculate the voltage dropped across R2.

VS = 12V

R1 = 40kΩ

R2 = 80kΩ
Vout = ?

V  I  RT
V
I 
RT
12
I 
120000
I  0.0001A

V  I  R2
V  0.0001 80000
V  8V

33
Assignment 19
Calculate the output voltage from the voltage divider sub-system shown below.

VS = 6V

R1 = 7.5kΩ

R2 = 1.5kΩ
Vout

Assignment 20
If the output voltage in the circuit shown below is 3.2 volts, calculate the value
of the resistance of the variable resistor R1.

VS = 10V

R1

R2 = 100kΩ Vout

34
The Light Dependant Resistor (LDR)

So far our voltage divider doesn't actually sense anything. What we need is an
input transducer. Let’s start sensing light level by using a Light Dependent
Resistor (LDR).

An LDR is just what is says, a resistor whose resistance changes according to how
much light shines on it (it is sometimes called a photoresistor). The most common
one is called an ORP12 and it is shown below.

Light level is measured in a unit called lux and a graph of light level plotted
against resistance is given below. In bright sunlight (for example) the LDR’s
resistance is very low and in complete darkness it is very high.

A Light Dependant Resistor (LDR) Circuit Symbol

35
Assignment 21
Find the light levels for the LDR at each of these resistances:
A) 3kΩ
B) 40kΩ
C) 0.9kΩ
D) 7kΩ
E) 20kΩ

Assignment 22
Find the resistances for the LDR at each of these light levels:
A) 10 lux
B) 40 lux
C) 100 lux
D) 400 lux
E) 900 lux

The Thermistor
Another commonly used analogue input transducer is the Thermistor. The
thermistor is a device whose resistance varies with temperature and it could be
called a temperature dependant resistor. If it is very hot, for example, the
thermistor resistance is very low and when it is very cold the resistance is very
high. A typical one and its circuit symbol are both given below.

Circuit Symbol

A typical Thermistor

36
Assignment 23
Using the graph for the Thermistor, find the temperature for each of these
resistances:
A) Type 2 at 1kΩ
B) Type 4 at 20kΩ
C) Type 5 at 300kΩ
D) Type 1 at 200Ω
E) Type 3 at 800Ω

Assignment 24
Find the resistances for each of these temperatures:
A) Type 1 at –50°C
B) Type 2 at 30°C
C) Type 4 at 200°C
D) Type 5 at –10°C
E) Type 1 at –25°C

37
The Transistor

The transistor can be used as an electronic switch and it can be used as a current
amplifier. A typical one and its circuit symbol are shown below.

A typical transistor Circuit Symbol

Notice that the circuit symbol has three letters on it. They stand for Collector,
Base and Emitter. The transistor will switch on, or saturate, once the voltage
between the base and the emitter reaches 0.7V. This is known as the saturation
voltage.

Output Devices
We have already met several output transducers such as lamps, motors and
buzzers. Other output devices might include loudspeakers, solenoids and relays.
Relays are especially useful in electronic and electrical engineering.

Loudspeakers are needed in radios, televisions and mobile phones to

convert the amplified output from the transistor into sound.

A Solenoid is like an electric bolt. When a current is applied to the

copper coil inside the solenoid, it becomes magnetic and the central
core, or bolt, is shot outwards.

A Relay is used when you need a small signal voltage to control a much larger
voltage. A transistor is a great current amplifier but there is a limit to how much
it can amplify.

38