EEN 11 – INDUSTRIAL

ELECTRONICS
BSEE III

ENGR. JOEL ANTHONY L. SEVILLA

NOVEMBER 2024
SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

SENSORS - is a device that detects a change in a

physical stimulus and turns it into a signal
which can be measured or recorded.
SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

TRANSDUCERS - is any device that converts

energy in one form to another. The majority
either convert electrical energy to mechanical
displacement or convert some non-electrical
physical quantity, such as temperature, sound
or light to an electrical signal.
Transducer can be classified according to their
application, based primarily on the physical
quantity, property, or condition that is
measured.
The transducer can be categories into:
A) Passive transducers: requires an external
power output is a measure of some
variation, such resistance and capacitance.
ex: condenser microphone
B) Self generating transducers: not requiring an
external power and they produce analog
voltage or current when stimulated by
some physical form of energy.
ex: Thermocouple
I. TEMPERATURE TRANSDUCERS
1. THERMOCOUPLES
When two wires with dissimilar electrical
properties are joined at both ends and one
junction is made hot and the other cold, a small
electric current is
produced proportional
to the difference in the
temperature.
The relationship is nearly linear over the
operating range. The actual characteristic and
suitable operating temperatures depends upon
the metals used in the wires. The various types
are designated in international and national
standards. Typical linear operating ranges are
shown for standard types.
It is important that thermocouples are standard
so that the same EMF will always represent the
same temperature.
Thermocouples come in several forms. They
may be wires insulated from each other with
plastic or fiber glass materials.
For high temperature work, the wire pairs are
put inside a tube with mineral insulation. For
industrial uses the sensor comes in a metal
enclosure such as stainless steel.
Thermocouple have a wide range of
temperature from as low as – 270°C up to as
high as 2700°C.
Magnitude of the thermal EMF depends on the
wire materials used and on the temperature
difference between the junctions.
Standard metals and pairs for thermocouple
constructions

Chromel – Alumel (type K)

Iron – Constantan (type J)
Copper – Constantan (type T)
Platinum – Rhodium-Platinum (type S, R & B)
 Thermocouple Alloy composition

Chromel - 90% nickel and 10% chromium

Alumel - 95% nickel, 2% manganese,
2% aluminium and 1% silicon
Constantan - 45 % nickel - 55% copper
The effective EMF of the thermocouple is given
as:
E = c(T1 – T2) + k(T1² – T2²)
where c & k = constants of the thermocouple materials
T1 = temp of the hot junction
T2 = temp of the cold or reference junction
Example: During experiments with a copper –
constantan thermocouple, it was found that
c = 3.75 x 10¯² mV/°C and k = 4.5 x 10¯⁵ mV/°C².
if T1 = 100 °C and the cold junction, T2 is kept in
ice. Compute for the resulting EMF.
2. RESISTANCE TYPE SENSORS
These work on
the principle that
the electrical resistance of a conductor change
with temperature. If a constant voltage is applied
to the conductor then the current flowing
through it will change with temperature. The
resistivity of the conductor change with
temperature.
This usually means the resistance gets bigger as
the conductor gets hotter.
A basic temperature sensor is made by winding a
thin resistance wire into a small sensor head. The
resistance of the wire then represents the
temperature. This has an advantage over a
thermocouple in that it is unaffected by the
temperature of the gauge end. The main type of
wire used is Platinum.
The sensors are usually manufactured to have a
resistance of 100 W at 0°C and a typical operating
range of -200°C to 400°C. A special type of
resistance sensor is called a Thermistor. They are
made from a small piece of semiconductor
material. The material is special because the
resistance changes a lot for a small change in
temperature and so can be made into a small
sensor and it costs less than platinum wire. The
temperature range is limited.
They are only used for a typical range of -20°C to
120°C and are commonly used in small hand held
thermometers for every day use.
Thermistors are made of oxides of nickel,
manganese or cobalt platinum. The output is not
linearly proportional to any temperature scale.

2 types of Thermistor
NTC – Negative Temperature Coefficient
Resistance goes down when temp goes down
PTC – Positive Temperature Coefficient
Resistance goes up when temp goes up
THERMISTOR
NTC Thermistor
Temperature dependent semiconductor resistors.
Operates at a range of -200°C to 1000°C, supplied
in glass bead, disc, chips or probe formats.
applications:
temperature measurement and control
temperature compensation
surge suppression
fluid flow measurement
PTC Thermistor
Temperature dependent resistors manufactured
from barium titanate and should be chosen when
a drastic change in resistance is required at a
specific temperature or current level.
applications:
temperature sensing
switching of temperature
liquid level sensor
The relationship between temperature and
resistance of conductors can be calculated by:
R = Ro (1 + αΔT)
where R = resistance of the conductor at temperature °C
Ro = resistance of the reference temperature, usually 20 °C
α = temperature coefficient of resistance
ΔT = difference between operating and the reference
temperature
Example: A platinum resistance thermometer
has a resistance of 150 Ω at 20°C. Calculate its
resistance at 50°C, if α20 = 0.00392.
3. LIQUID EXPANSION and VAPOUR PRESSURE
SENSORS
These are thermometers filled with either a liquid
such as mercury or an evaporating fluid such as
used in refrigerators. In both cases the inside of
the sensor head and the connecting tube are
completely full. Any rise in temperature produces
expansion or evaporation of the liquid so the
sensor becomes pressurized.
The pressure is related to the temperature and it
may be indicated on a simple pressure gauge.
The movement may also directly operate a
thermostat. These instruments
are robust and used over a
wide range. They can be fitted
with electric switches to set off
alarms.
4. BIMETALLIC TYPES
It is a well-known principle that if two metals are
rigidly joined together as a two-layer strip and
heated, the difference in the expansion rate
causes the strip to bend.
The strip is twisted into a long thin coil inside a
tube. One end is fixed at the bottom of the tube
and the other turns and moves a pointer on a
dial. The outward appearance is very similar to
the pressure type. They can be made to operate
limit switches and set off alarms or act as a
thermostat.
II. PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS
1. BOURDON TUBE
It is a hollow tube with an elliptical cross
section. When a pressure difference exists
between the inside and outside, the tube tends
to straighten out and the end moves. The
movement is usually coupled to a needle on a
dial to make a complete gauge. It can also be
connected to a secondary device such as an air
nozzle to control air
pressure or to a
suitable transducer
to convert it into an
electric signal. This
type can be used for
measuring pressure
difference.
2. PISTON TYPE
The pressure acts directly on the piston and
compresses the spring. The position of the
piston is directly related to the pressure. A
window in the outer case allows the pressure to
be indicated. This type is usually used in
hydraulics where the ability to withstand shock,
vibration and sudden pressure changes is
needed (shock proof gauge).
The piston movement
may be connected to a
secondary device to
convert movement into
an electrical signal.
3. BELLOWS
A bellows is made of several capsules. These
are hollow flattened structures made from thin
metal plate. When pressurized the bellows
expand and produce mechanical movement. If
the bellows is encapsulated inside an outer
container, then the movement is proportional
to the difference between the pressure on the
inside and outside.
Bellows and single capsules are used in many
instruments. They are very useful for measuring
small pressures.
4. DIAPHRAGMS
These are similar in principle to the bellows but
the diaphragm is usually very thin and perhaps
made of rubber. The diaphragm expands when
very small pressures are applied.
The movement is transmitted
to a pointer on a dial through
a fine mechanical linkage.
III. SPEED TRANSDUCERS
1. OPTICAL TYPES
These use a light beam and a
light sensitive cell. The beam is
either reflected or interrupted so that pulses are
produced for each revolution. The pulses are then
counted over a fixed time and the speed obtained.
Electronic processing is required to time the pulses
and turn the result into an analog or digital signal.
2. MAGNETIC PICK UPS
Uses an inductive coil placed near
to the rotating body. A small magnet
on the body generates a pulse every
time it passes the coil. If the body is made of
ferrous material, it will work without a magnet.
A discontinuity in the surface such as a notch
will cause a change in the magnetic field and
generate a pulse.
3. TACHOMETERS
Very often the tachometer is built into electric
motors to measure their speed. The frequency
of the voltage represents the speed of rotation.
The frequency must be counted and processed.
IV. FLOW METERS
A flow meter or a flow sensor is a type of flow
instrument that is used to indicate the amount
of liquid, gas, or vapor moving through a pipe
or conduit by measuring linear, non-linear,
mass, or volumetric flow rates. Since flow
control is often essential, measuring the flow of
liquids and gasses is a critical need for many
industrial applications – and there are many
different types of flow meters that can be
utilized depending on the nature of the
application. They may be classified as follows:
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT TYPES
INFERENTIAL TYPES
VARIABLE AREA TYPES
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TYPES
1. POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT TYPES
These types have a mechanical element that
makes the shaft of the meter rotate once for an
exact known quantity of fluid. The quantity of
fluid hence depends on the number of
revolutions of the meter shaft and the flow rate
depends upon the speed of rotation. Both the
revolutions and speed may be measured with
mechanical or electronic devices.
Meshing Motor type consists of two rotors with
lobes. When fluid is forced in, the rotors turn
and operate the indicating system.
2. INFERENTIAL TYPE METERS
The flow of the fluid is inferred from some
effect produced by the flow. Usually this is a
rotor which is made to spin and the speed of
the rotor is sensed mechanically or
electronically.
The main types are:
Turbine rotor types Rotary shunt types
Rotating vane types Helical turbine types
TURBINE TYPE

The turbine type has an axial rotor which is

made to spin by the fluid and the speed
represents the flow rate. This may be sensed
electrically by coupling the shaft to a small
electric tachometer.
Often this consists of a magnetic slug on the
rotor which generates a pulse of electricity each
time it passes the sensor.
ROTATING VANE TYPE

The jet of fluid spins around the rotating vane

and the speed of the rotor is measured
mechanically or electronically.
3. VARIABLE AREA TYPES
FLOAT TYPE

The float is inside a tapered tube. The fluid

flows through the annular gap around the edge
of the float. The restriction causes a pressure
drop over the float and the pressure forces the
float upwards. Because the tube is tapered, the
restriction is decreased as the float moves up.
Eventually a level is reached where the
restriction is just right to produce a pressure
force that counteracts the weight of the float.
The level of the float indicates the flow rate. If
the flow changes the float moves up or down to
find a new balance position.
TAPERED PLUG TYPE

A tapered plug is aligned inside a hole or orifice.

A spring holds it in place. The flow is restricted
as it passes through the gap and a force is
produced which moves the plug. Because it is
tapered the restriction changes and the plug
takes up a position where the pressure force
just balances the spring force. The movement
of the plug is transmitted with a magnet to an
indicator on the outside.
4. DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOW METERS
These are a range of meters that convert flow
rate into a differential pressure:
ORIFICE METERS
VENTURI METERS
NOZZLE METERS
PITOT TUBES
Cross section view
The working principle for all these is that
something makes the velocity of the fluid
change and this produces a change in the
pressure so that a difference ΔP = P2 – P1 is
created. It can be shown for all these meters
that the volume flow rate Q is related to ΔP by
the following formula:
Q = k Δ𝑃
k is the meter constant.
Extra instrumentation
heads can be fitted to
produce an:
electrical output
(4 mA – 20 mA) or a
pneumatic output
(0.2 bar – 1 bar).
V. FORCE SENSORS
MECHANICAL TYPES
It is a basic mechanical principle
that the deflection of a spring is
directly proportional to the applied
force so if the movement is shown
on a scale, the scale represents
force.
HYDRAULICS TYPE
Are often referred to as hydraulic
load cells. The cell is a capsule filled
with liquid. When the capsule is
squeezed, the liquid becomes
pressurized. The pressure
represents the force and may be
indicated with a calibrated pressure
gauge. The capsule is often a short
cylinder with a piston.
ELECTRICAL STRAIN GAUGE TYPE
A typical load cell consists of a metal
cylinder with strain gauges fixed to it.
When the cylinder is stretched or
compressed, the strain gauges convert
the force into a change in resistance
and voltage. Since the elements
require a supply voltage, the cell
usually has 4 wires, two for the supply
and two for the output.
VI. POSITION SENSORS
Position sensors are essential elements in the
control of actuators. The position of both linear
and rotary actuators is needed in robotic type
mechanisms.
Three principle types:
RESISTIVE
OPTICAL
INDUCTIVE
RESISTIVE TYPES

A potentiometer is a variable electrical

resistance. A length of resistance material has a
voltage applied over its ends. A slider moves
along it (either linear or rotary) and picks off
the voltage at its position or angle.
The tracks may be made from carbon,
resistance wire or piezo resistive material. The
latter is the best because it gives a good analog
output.
The wire wound type produces small step
changes in the output depending on how fine
the wire is and how closely it is coiled on the
track.
OPTICAL TYPES

Optical types are mainly used for producing

digital outputs. A common example is found on
machine tools where they measure the position
of the work table and display it in digits on the
gauge head.
Light is emitted through a transparent strip or
disc onto a photo electric cell. The strip or disc
has very fine lines engraved on it which
interrupt the beam. The number of
interruptions are counted electronically and
this represents the position or angle.
INDUCTIVE TYPES
The most common of these
is the Linear Variable
Differential transformer or
LVDT. The transformer is
made with one primary coil
and two secondary coils,
one placed above and the
other below the primary.
The coils are formed into a long narrow hollow
tube. A magnetic core slides in the tube and is
attached to the mechanism being monitored
with a non magnetic stem (e.g. brass).
A constant alternating voltage is applied to the
primary coil. This induces a voltage in both
secondary coils. When the core is exactly in the
middle, equal voltages are induced and they
cancel each other out.
When the core moves, the voltage in one
secondary coil grows but reduces in the other.
The result is an output voltage which
represents the position of the core and the
mechanism to which it is attached. With
suitable electronic equipment for phase
detection, it is possible to detect which
direction the core moves and to switch the dc
voltage from plus to minus as the core passes
the center position.
VII. DEPTH GAUGES
Depth gauges measure the depth of liquids and
powder in tanks. They use a variety of principles
and produce outputs in electrical and
pneumatic forms. The type to use depends on
the substance in the tank.
The ultrasonic system reflects sound waves
from the surface and determines the depth
from the time taken to receive the reflected
sound.
The electronic version uses a variety of
electrical affects including conduction of the
fluid and capacitance.
The pneumatic version bubbles air through the
liquid and the pressure of the air is related to
the depth. A simple pressure gauge attached to
a tank also indicates the depth since depth is
proportional to pressure.