Glacier

China is the world's most populous country and a major emitter of greenhouse gases. Consequently, much research has focused on China's influence on climate change but somewhat less has been written about the impact of climate change on China. China experienced explosive economic growth in recent decades, but with only 7% of the world's arable land available to feed 22% of the world's population, China's economy may be vulnerable to climate change itself. We find, however, that notwithstanding the clear warming that has occurred in China in recent decades, current understanding does not allow a clear assessment of the impact of anthropogenic climate change on China's water resources and agriculture and therefore China's ability to feed its people. To reach a more definitive conclusion, future work must improve regional climate simulationsespecially of precipitation-and develop a better understanding of the managed and unmanaged responses of crops to changes in climate, diseases, pests and atmospheric constituents.

The effect of climate change on snow water equivalent, snowmelt runoff, glacier melt runoff and total streamflow and their distribution is examined for the Spiti river. This is a high altitude Himalayan river located in the western Himalayan region. The total streamflow of this river has a ...

The Tam Pokhari glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF), which occurred in 1998 in the Mt. Everest region of Nepal, was evaluated using hydrodynamic models to gain a better understanding of the flow behaviour. The flood wave was analysed separately under rigid and erodible boundary conditions. In both cases, the calculated dam-breach hydrograph, which had a peak discharge of about 10 000 m 3 /s, was routed through the Inkhu River, which originates from the lake. The morphologic changes along the river were also analysed and the results were compared with satellite images, field observations and recorded data. In the case of rigid boundaries, the routing procedure gradually attenuated the peaks of the hydrographs to account for hydraulic pooling in narrow gorges and storage in the channel. In the case of erodible boundaries, such effects were minimized due to the increment in channel capacity associated with erosion by debris flow. The study revealed that the GLOF event produced a large-scale debris flow. Additionally, the results revealed that erosion and deposition took place intermittently, but that approximately 440 000 m 3 of sediment was deposited about 14 km downstream from the lake mouth. The calculated peak of the water and sediment mixture at 14Ð4 km was found to be 30 000 m 3 /s, which is almost 6 times as large as that observed when the rigid boundary conditions were used. Further, the increase in the peaks of the hydrographs due to sediment transport was the primary reason for the destruction associated with the GLOF. These findings suggest that the local sedimentology and topography, as well as other geo-hazard conditions in the area, should be carefully evaluated before recommending any control measures against GLOFs in the Himalayan region.

The effect of climate change on snow water equivalent, snowmelt runoff, glacier melt runoff and total streamflow and their distribution is examined for the Spiti river. This is a high altitude Himalayan river located in the western Himalayan region. The total streamflow of this river has a significant contribution from snow and glacier melt runoff. Plausible hypothetical scenarios of temperature and precipitation changes based on the simulation of climate change over the Indian subcontinent by the Hamburg climate model are adopted in the present study. The UBC watershed model was used to simulate the hydrological response of the basin under changed climatic scenarios. The adopted changes in temperature and precipitation covered a range from 1 to 3ЊC and from −10 to +10%, respectively.

An inventory of glacier lakes was compiled based on observations carried out for 30 glacier lakes in the northern and northwestern parts of Bhutan in autumn 1998. Risk assessments for glacier lake outburst floods were made for these glacier lakes. Historical variations of glacier lakes and glacier termini were examined using photographs, satellite images, maps and published observations. In the northern region of Bhutan, supraglacial ponds on some debris-covered glaciers in the 1950s have subsequently grown into moraine-dammed lakes. Also, proglacial lakes have expanded substantially as a result of retreat of glacier termini.

This study indicates the possible long-lasting impacts of deep-seated gravitational slope deformation (DGSD) on erosional and mass movement processes. DGSD-features are common large-scale landforms in the crystalline basement rocks of the Central Alps of Austria. Inactive forms are related to paraglacial (nonglacial processes directly conditioned by former glaciation and deglaciation) rock slope adjustment processes acting after glacier retreat towards the end of the Late Glacial period. The near-surface metamorphic bedrock of DGSD-features is generally disintegrated. Such rock type favours erosion and the formation of small landslides. Field data, laboratory analyses, aerial photographs, and GIS-based terrain analyses are used to describe the different geomorphic effects of an extremely disintegrated rock slope. The studied DGSD Hauser Kaibling (13.6 km 2 ) is located in central Austria. During the Last Glacial Maximum the adjacent valley glacier reached an altitude of approximately 1900 m a.s.l. Glacier retreat in combination with the unfavourable tectono-metamorphic setting caused gravity-induced stresses to act. Subsequent sediment build-up in the main valley restabilised the slope. Linear erosion cut a number of gullies into the lower part of the DGSD. Calculated mean erosional denudation rates at incised valley sections range from 0.5 to 2.6 mm a − 1 since deglaciation. Smaller active landslides on the sides of the steep gullies draining the DGSD contribute to high denudation rates. Active landsliding is favoured by: (i) fragmented rock, (ii) steep slopes, (iii) supply of surface and subsurface water by rain and snowmelt, and (iv) human impact. Debris flows and debris-charged flood events occurred frequently in the past. During such events, material was transported from the unstable slopes to the populated alluvial fans. Thus, knowledge about the spatial distribution and the stage of development of DGSDs (active and currently inactive) provides an important basis for risk management measures. Geomorphology j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / g e o m o r p h Fig. 11. High hazard zone at the alluvial fan of the Ennsling Creek: (A) village in close vicinity to the torrent; (B) hazard zoning map of the Austrian Avalanche and Torrent Control for the Village of Ennsling; (C) debris retention dam (constructed in 2002) at the head of the alluvial fan (aerial photograph (1995) source: © GIS-Steiermark).

Meltwater flooding in the valley train of the Bas Glacier d' Arolla, Switzerland ( 1986 and produced significant changes in channel form. The general channel response involved switching from a single thread, low sinuosity stream to a wider channel with zones of braiding. Braiding occurs where the valley sandur is unconfined by valley side bluffs. During floods spatial variations in channel adjustment were considerable and contrasts in channel change during different floods were very marked. In 1986, one flood was characterised by a laterally shifting thalweg and relatively low channel sediment yield ( 1970 tonnes) whilst in July 1987 a flood of similar magnitude was associated with thalweg scour and much higher channel sediment yield (4790 tonnes). Meltwater floods cause periodic sediment flushing events which are not necessarily related to whether the glacier is advancing or retreating.

Glacier and snow cover changes with related impacts on melt runoff can seriously affect human societies which are depending on fresh water from cryospheric sources. Observed trends and projected future evolutions of climatic and cryospheric variables clearly show the need to adapt to these changes. Accordingly, the topics addressed herein have been put on the agendas of many larger funding agencies. This article provides a brief overview on major ongoing activities on glacier, snow and related runoff research in order to then analyze data gaps and research needs from a climate change adaptation perspective. Major data needs are identified with respect to the spatial and temporal coverage of local-scale data and related needs for (data) services that distribute and maintain these data sets. Moreover, clear research needs are also recognized at the local scale where process knowledge needs to be improved (e.g., the influence of albedo on snow and ice or debris cover on glaciers) in order to derive plausible climate change impacts assessments. The paper then discusses directions on how to move forward to better serve the practical needs for climate change adaptation planning. In the future, substantial support by large funding agencies might be key for capacity building in target regions of climate change adaptation programs, for longer-term and more sustainable commitments, and for the development of approaches, which aim at assessing the transferability of data, techniques, and tools.

Glacially deformed pieces of wood, organic lake sediments and clasts of reworked peat have been collected in front of Alpine glaciers since ad 1990. The palaeoglaciological interpretation of these organic materials is related to earlier phases of glacier recession surpassing that of today's shrunken glaciers and to tree growth and peat accumulation in the valleys now occupied by the glaciers. Glacial transport of the material is indicated by wood anatomy, incorporated silt, sand and gravel particles, missing bark and deformed treerings. A total of 65 samples have been radiocarbon dated so far, and clusters of dates provide evidence of eight phases of glacier recession: 9910-9550, 9010-7980, 7250-6500, 6170-5950, 5290-3870, 3640-3360, 27409910-9550, 9010-7980, 7250-6500, 6170-5950, 5290-3870, 3640-3360, -26209910-9550, 9010-7980, 7250-6500, 6170-5950, 5290-3870, 3640-3360, and 15309910-9550, 9010-7980, 7250-6500, 6170-5950, 5290-3870, 3640-3360, -1170 Allowing for the timelag between climatic fluctuations, glacier response and vegetation colonization, these recession phases may lag behind climatic changes by 100-200 years.

Remote sensing has served as an efficient method of gathering data about glaciers since its emergence. The recent advent of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Global Positioning Systems (GPS) has created an effective means by which the acquired data are analysed for the effective monitoring and mapping of temporal dynamics of glaciers. A large number of researchers have taken advantage of remote sensing, GIS and GPS in their studies of glaciers. These applications are comprehensively reviewed in this paper. This review shows that glacial features identifiable from aerial photographs and satellite imagery include spatial extent, transient snowline, equilibrium line elevation, accumulation and ablation zones, and differentiation of ice/snow. Digital image processing (e.g., image enhancement, spectral ratioing and automatic classification) improves the ease and accuracy of mapping these parameters. The traditional visible light/infrared remote sensing of two-dimensional glacier distribution has been extended to three-dimensional volume estimation and dynamic monitoring using radar imagery and GPS. Longitudinal variations in glacial extent have been detected from multitemporal images in GIS. However, the detected variations have neither been explored nor modelled from environmental and topographic variables. GPS has been utilized independent of remote sensing and GIS to determine glacier ice velocity and to obtain information about glacier surfaces. Therefore, the potential afforded by the integration of nonconventional remote sensing (e.g., SAR interferometry) with GIS and GPS still remains to be realized in glaciology. The emergence of new satellite images will make remote sensing of glaciology more predictive, more global and towards longer terms.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. All in-text references underlined in blue are added to the original document and are linked to publications on ResearchGate, letting you access and read them immediately. ABSTRACT Dahl, S. O. and Nesje, A., 1992. Paleoclimatic implications based on equilibrium-line altitude depressions of reconstructed Younger Dryas and Holocene cirque glaciers in inner Nordfjord, western Norway. Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol., 94: 87-97.

This review paper aims at discussing aspects and concepts of the significance of the spatial and temporal distribution of permafrost on glacial and gravitational processes in southern Norway. The study first reviews the distribution of mountain permafrost in southern Norway in comparison with high-relief alpine areas like the Alps, and then discusses the influence of permafrost on gravitational and glacial–geomorphological processes. The basis for the paper is a regional-scale distribution model of mountain permafrost in southern Norway, which is analysed in relation to topographic variations within the same area. The model allows a crude extrapolation to past and future permafrost distribution, which is discussed in relation to geomorphic processes.

The Tam Pokhari glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF), which occurred in 1998 in the Mt. Everest region of Nepal, was evaluated using hydrodynamic models to gain a better understanding of the flow behaviour. The flood wave was analysed separately under rigid and erodible boundary conditions. In both cases, the calculated dam-breach hydrograph, which had a peak discharge of about 10 000 m 3 /s, was routed through the Inkhu River, which originates from the lake. The morphologic changes along the river were also analysed and the results were compared with satellite images, field observations and recorded data. In the case of rigid boundaries, the routing procedure gradually attenuated the peaks of the hydrographs to account for hydraulic pooling in narrow gorges and storage in the channel. In the case of erodible boundaries, such effects were minimized due to the increment in channel capacity associated with erosion by debris flow. The study revealed that the GLOF event produced a large-scale debris flow. Additionally, the results revealed that erosion and deposition took place intermittently, but that approximately 440 000 m 3 of sediment was deposited about 14 km downstream from the lake mouth. The calculated peak of the water and sediment mixture at 14Ð4 km was found to be 30 000 m 3 /s, which is almost 6 times as large as that observed when the rigid boundary conditions were used. Further, the increase in the peaks of the hydrographs due to sediment transport was the primary reason for the destruction associated with the GLOF. These findings suggest that the local sedimentology and topography, as well as other geo-hazard conditions in the area, should be carefully evaluated before recommending any control measures against GLOFs in the Himalayan region.

Logistic regression is applied to a random sample of surface points in the semi-arid Andes of Santiago and Mendoza (Chile/ Argentina, 32°45′-34°30′ S, 12 000 km 2 above 3000 m a.s.l.) to identify local and regional controls on rock glacier and glacier distribution. The study area is among the areas with the greatest abundance of rock glaciers worldwide. The explanatory variables used for model selection are related to local and regional morphometric and climatic characteristics. The models achieve a very good fit (area under the ROC curve 0.84 for rock glaciers and 0.95 for glaciers) and are able to reproduce the regional distribution pattern. Model results are used to determine the optimal morphographic and climatic niche of rock glaciers and glaciers in the study area, and help explain the presence of low-elevation rock glaciers under favorable topoclimatic conditions.

| In the Himalayas, large area is covered by glaciers, seasonal snow and changes in its extent can influence availability of water in the Himalayan Rivers. In this paper, changes in glacial extent, glacial mass balance and seasonal snow cover have been discussed. Field and satellite based investigations suggest, most of the Himalayan glaciers are retreating though the rate of retreat is varying from glacier to glacier, ranging from few meters to almost 50 meters per year, depending upon the numerous glacial, terrain and meteorological parameters. Retreat was estimated for 1868 glaciers in eleven basins distributed across the Indian Himalaya since 1962 to 2001/02. Estimates show an overall reduction in glacier area from 6332 to 5329 sq km, an overall deglaciation of 16 percent. Snow line at the end of ablation season on the Chhota Shigri glacier suggests a change in altitude from 4900 to 5200 m from late 1970's to the present. Seasonal snow cover monitoring of the Himalaya has shown large amounts of snow cover depletion in early part of winter, i.e. from October to December. For many basins located in lower altitude and in south of Pir Panjal range, snow ablation was observed through out the winter season. In addition, average stream runoff of the Baspa basin during the month of December shows an increase by 75 per cent. This combination of glacial retreat, negative mass balance, early melting of seasonal snow cover and winter time increase in stream runoff suggest an influence of climate change on the Himalayan cryosphere. Applications Center, Ahmedabad for last 30 years. His research interest are Snow and glacier investigations using remote sensing methods, glacier mass balance modeling, modeling influence of climate change on distribution of Himalayan snow and glacier extent. Snow and glacier melt runoff modeling.

1] We present a computationally simple, theoretically based parameterization for the broadband albedo of snow and ice that can accurately reproduce the theoretical broadband albedo under a wide range of snow, ice, and atmospheric conditions. Depending on its application, this parameterization requires between one and five input parameters. These parameters are specific surface area of snow/ice, concentration of light-absorbing carbon, solar zenith angle, cloud optical thickness, and snow depth. The parameterization is derived by fitting equations to albedo estimates generated with a 16-stream plane-parallel, discrete ordinates radiative transfer model of snow and ice that is coupled to a similar model of the atmosphere. Output from this model is also used to establish the physical determinants of the spectral albedo of snow and ice and evaluate the characteristics of spectral irradiance over snow-covered surfaces. Broadband albedo estimates determined from the radiative transfer model are compared with results from a selection of previously proposed parameterizations. Compared to these parameterizations, the newly proposed parameterization produces accurate results for a much wider range of snow, ice, and atmospheric conditions. Citation: Gardner, A. S., and M. J. Sharp (2010), A review of snow and ice albedo and the development of a new physically based broadband albedo parameterization,

Assessment of potential future eruptive behaviour of volcanoes relies strongly on detailed knowledge of their activity in the past, such as eruption frequency, magnitude and repose time. The eruption history of three partly subglacial volcanic systems, Grímsvötn, Bárdarbunga and Kverkfjöll, was studied by analysing tephra from soil profiles around the Vatnajökull ice-cap, which extend back to ~7.6 ka. Well known regional Holocene marker tephra (e.g. H3, H4, H5) were utilized to correlate profiles. Stratigraphic positions and geochemical compositions were used for fine-scale correlation of basaltic tephra. Around Vatnajökull ice-cap 345 tephra layers were identified, of which 70% originated from Grímsvötn, Bárdarbunga or Kverkfjöll. The eruption frequency of each volcanic system was estimated; Grímsvötn has been the most active with an average of ~7 eruptions/100 years (range 4–14) during prehistoric time (before ~870 AD); Bárdarbunga has been the second most active with ~5 eruptions/100 years (range 1–8); and Kverkfjöll has remained essentially calm with 0–3 eruptions/100 years but showing periodic activity with repose times of >1000 years. All three volcanic systems experienced lulls in activity from 5 ka to 2 ka, referred to as the “Mid-Holocene low”. This reduced eruption frequency appears to have resulted from a decrease in magma generation and delivery from the mantle plume rather than from changes in ice-load/glacier thickness. In prehistoric time, there was a time lag of 1000–3000 years between a peak of activity at volcanoes directly above the mantle plume versus at volcanoes located in the non-rifting part of the Eastern Volcanic Zone, closer to the periphery of the island. This time-space relationship suggests that a significant future increase in volcanism can be expected there, following increased levels of volcanism above the plume.

Gornersee, Switzerland, is an ice-marginal lake, which drains almost every year, subglacially, within a few days. We present an analysis of the lake outburst events between 1950 and 2005, as well as results of detailed field investigations related to the lake drainage in 2004 and 2005. The latter include measurements of lake geometry, water pressure in nearby boreholes and glacier surface motion. A distributed temperature-index melt model coupled to a linear-reservoir runoff model is used to calculate hourly discharge from the catchment of Gornergletscher in order to distinguish between the melt/precipitation component and the outburst component of the discharge hydrograph. In this way, drainage volume and timing are determined. From 1950 there is a clear trend for the outburst flood to occur earlier in the melt season, but there is no trend in lake discharge volumes. Peak discharges from the lake lie significantly below the values obtained using the empirical relation proposed by Clague and Mathews (1973). The shapes of the 2004 and 2005 lake outflow hydrographs differ substantially, suggesting different drainage mechanisms. From water balance considerations we infer a leakage of the glacier-dammed lake in 2005, starting 1 week prior to the lake outburst. During the drainage events, up to half of the lake water is temporarily stored in the glacial system, causing substantial uplift of the glacier surface.

The basic features and terminology of terrestrial ``rock glaciers'' are reviewed together with associated forms termed ``protalus lobes'' and ``protalus ramparts.'' Two basic models of rock glacier formation and flow invoke either the creep of ice derived from permafrost or glacial/former glacial activity; a third possible mechanism invokes landslide emplacement. Observations on terrestrial rock glaciers and similar forms suggest that the ice component can be produced via ground ice or from a glacier system. Finite element modeling of simple slope systems containing (1) a continuous ice layer buried by debris and (2) a mixture of ice and rigid blocks can both show creep but with very low rates, especially at low temperatures. Possible Martian examples of rock glacier and protalus lobe features are identified from Candor Chasma by wide-angle Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) imagery, although the topography does not allow unambiguous interpretation. Some possible ways in which MOC and Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) and other Mars orbiter data could help future interpretation of rock glaciers, related protalus landforms, and ice presence are discussed.

Airborne and satellite remote sensing is the only practical approach for deriving a wide area, regional assessment of glacier mass balance. A number of remote sensing approaches are possible for inferring the mass balance from some sort of proxy estimate. Here, we review the key methods relevant, in particular to Andean glaciers, discussing their strengths and weaknesses, and data sets that could be more fully exploited. We also consider future satellite missions that will provide advances in our observational capabilities. The methods discussed include observation of elevation changes, estimation of ice flux, repeat measurement of changes in spatial extent, snowline elevation and accumulation-ablation area ratio estimation. The methods are illustrated utilising a comprehensive review of results obtained from a number of studies of South American glaciers, focusing specifically on the Patagonian Icefields. In particular, we present some new results from Glaciar Chico, Southern Patagonian Icefield, Chile, where a variety of different satellite and in-situ data have been combined to estimate mass balance using a geodetic or elevation change approach over about a 25 yr period.

The effect of climate change on snow water equivalent, snowmelt runoff, glacier melt runoff and total streamflow and their distribution is examined for the Spiti river. This is a high altitude Himalayan river located in the western Himalayan region. The total streamflow of this river has a significant contribution from snow and glacier melt runoff. Plausible hypothetical scenarios of temperature and precipitation changes based on the simulation of climate change over the Indian subcontinent by the Hamburg climate model are adopted in the present study. The UBC watershed model was used to simulate the hydrological response of the basin under changed climatic scenarios. The adopted changes in temperature and precipitation covered a range from 1 to 3ЊC and from −10 to +10%, respectively.

Vloraine ridges have formed annually at Skalafellsjokull, south-east Iceland since about A.D. 1912. These ridges alT asymmetrical with a Sleeper distal slope, and their surface morphology reflects their internal structure. �IOSl ridges are formed at the glacier margin, and they form a series of concentric arcs about it. Their plan form reflects small details of the ice-front morphology. Some ridges are composed of boulders released from the ice by ablation and swept together by glacier re-advances, but most have a core of deformed till. Those which were ice-cored have a surface veneer of re sediment cd debris consisting af iee-slope collu\'ium and sediment-now deposits. Lodgement tills at Skalafellsjokuli have a two-layer structure, with a weak upper horizon apparently formed by dilation during subglacial shearing or the tilL Ridges are composed of this shearcd material and o\'erlie undislUrbed lodgement till at deplh, Subglacial shearing results in a discharge of till towards the glacier margin and its accumulation there when glacier retreat ceases in winter, Till may also be extruded from bcneath ice at the margin as a result of loading by the ice, and subsequently bulldozed into a ridge by a winter read\'ancc of the glacier.

This paper provides an overview of the current status of the cryosphere in China and its changes. Up-to-date statistics of the cryosphere in China are summarized based on the latest available data. There are 46,377 glaciers in China, covering an area of 59,425 km2. The glacier ice reserve is estimated to be about 5600 km3 and the annual glacier runoff is about 61.6 × 109 m3. The continuous snow cover extent (> 60 days) in China is about 3.4 × 106 km2 and the maximum water equivalent is 95.9 × 109 m3 yr− 1. The permafrost area in China is about 1.72 × 106 km2. The total ground ice reserve on the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau is estimated to be about 10,923 km3. Recent investigations indicated that glacier areas in China have shrunk about 2–10% over the past 45 yr. Total glacier area has receded by about 5.5%. Snow mass has increased slightly. Permafrost is clearly degrading, as indicated by shrinking areas of permafrost, increasing depth of the active layer, rising of lower limit of permafrost, and thinning of the seasonal frost depth. Some models predict that glacier area shrinkage could be as high as 26.7% in 2050, with glacier runoff increasing until its maximum in about 2030. Although snow mass shows an increasing trend in western China, in eastern China the trend is toward decreasing snow mass, with increasing interannual fluctuations. Permafrost degradation is likely to continue, with one-third to one-half of the permafrost on the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau anticipated to degrade by 2100. Most of the high-temperature permafrost will disappear by then. The permafrost in northeastern China will retreat further northward.

This paper provides an overview of the current status of the cryosphere in China and its changes. Up-to-date statistics of the cryosphere in China are summarized based on the latest available data. There are 46,377 glaciers in China, covering an area of 59,425 km 2 . The glacier ice reserve is estimated to be about 5600 km 3 and the annual glacier runoff is about 61.6 × 10 9 m 3 . The continuous snow cover extent (N 60 days) in China is about 3.4 × 10 6 km 2 and the maximum water equivalent is 95.9 × 10 9 m 3 yr − 1 . The permafrost area in China is about 1.72 × 10 6 km 2 . The total ground ice reserve on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau is estimated to be about 10,923 km 3 . Recent investigations indicated that glacier areas in China have shrunk about 2-10% over the past 45 yr. Total glacier area has receded by about 5.5%. Snow mass has increased slightly. Permafrost is clearly degrading, as indicated by shrinking areas of permafrost, increasing depth of the active layer, rising of lower limit of permafrost, and thinning of the seasonal frost depth. Some models predict that glacier area shrinkage could be as high as 26.7% in 2050, with glacier runoff increasing until its maximum in about 2030. Although snow mass shows an increasing trend in western China, in eastern China the trend is toward decreasing snow mass, with increasing interannual fluctuations. Permafrost degradation is likely to continue, with one-third to one-half of the permafrost on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau anticipated to degrade by 2100. Most of the hightemperature permafrost will disappear by then. The permafrost in northeastern China will retreat further northward.

The interpretation of climate change based on the behavior of small cirque glaciers is not always straightforward or unique. In this study of Sperry Glacier, Glacier National Park, Montana, we model future change of the glacier under 11 different warming scenarios. The scenarios vary from no warming from present conditions to warming at a linear rate of 10°C/century. We assume constant precipitation and only consider change invoked by warming. Our cellular automata model is based on simple rules that account for mass balance gradient, aspect, avalanching, and the flow of ice to redistribute mass. We constrain the model with glaciological data including georadar-measured ice depth, field-measured surface mass balance, and field-mapped ice surface topography. Under the most probable temperature increase based on downscaled OA-GCM output for the IPCC A1B scenario, we conservatively estimate the glacier persisting through at least 2080. By comparing glacier volume responses to different warming scenarios we elucidate a relationship between the magnitude of temperature change and the sensitivity of the glacier to small variations in the temperature increase. We find that the greater the magnitude of the temperature increase, the less sensitive the glacier area and volume become to slight differences in the warming rate. If we generalize this relationship to the region, we expect that a small change in climate will produce varying responses for glaciers throughout the region, whereas the glacier response to a large change in climate will likely be very similar over the entire region.

Airborne and satellite remote sensing is the only practical approach for deriving a wide area, regional assessment of glacier mass balance. A number of remote sensing approaches are possible for inferring the mass balance from some sort of proxy estimate. Here, we review the key methods relevant, in particular to Andean glaciers, discussing their strengths and weaknesses, and data sets that could be more fully exploited. We also consider future satellite missions that will provide advances in our observational capabilities. The methods discussed include observation of elevation changes, estimation of ice flux, repeat measurement of changes in spatial extent, snowline elevation and accumulation-ablation area ratio estimation. The methods are illustrated utilising a comprehensive review of results obtained from a number of studies of South American glaciers, focusing specifically on the Patagonian Icefields. In particular, we present some new results from Glaciar Chico, Southern Patagonian Icefield, Chile, where a variety of different satellite and in-situ data have been combined to estimate mass balance using a geodetic or elevation change approach over about a 25 yr period.

A spatially-distributed snow/ice model is used to simulate the surface mass balance of the Saint Sorlin Glacier (French Alps) over the 1981-2004 period. The modeled mass balance globally reproduces field data except over places where, because of the scarcity of measurements, small-scale features as proposed by the model are smoothed out by the data interpolation. Both measured and simulated mass balance fields are then used to force a 2-D ice flow model and comparison of respective results show similar large-scale glacier flow dynamics. On the other hand, at a smaller scale, the present-day ice distribution computed from the modeled mass balance field sometimes deviates from that obtained with the interpolated field mass balance. It particularly offers a better match to observations by succeeding in reproducing a specific deglaciation pattern in the upper part of the glacier. These preliminary results led us to consider the possibility of substituting modeled mass balance series to measured ones, especially when modeling the future of the glacier. This latter approach is thus applied to simulate the glacier response under the IPCC SRESB1 scenario. Results show a rapid decay leading to a total disappearance of the glacier by the year 2070.

Mid-latitude maritime glaciers are responding quickly and directly to climate change. This response is expected to continue, and will result in maritime glaciers making a large contribution to sea level rise over the coming decades. Maritime glaciers in the New Zealand Southern Alps provide an opportunity to learn more about climate–glacier mass balance relationships in a high precipitation setting, and

We analyze a daily series of rainfall, snowfall, air temperature, and snow water equivalent at fixed dates from 40 high-altitude stations on the Adamello Glacier area (Italian Alps), for the period 1965–2007. Purposes of the study are (1) to investigate significant variation in time, (2) to evaluate effect of temperature changes on cryospheric water cycle, and (3) to evaluate underlying climate patterns and the most significant variables for climate change studies. We detect the presence of a trend using linear regression, moving window average and Mann Kendall test. Linear dependence of water related variables on temperatures is assessed. We find substantially unchanged atmospheric water input along with increasing temperature and rainfall, decreasing snowfall and snow water equivalent at thaw, and shortening of snow cover extent and duration. We carry out a principal components analysis which highlights patterns of precipitation distribution resulting from local temperature and external forcing. A set of the most representative variables for climate and glacier studies is then assessed. A comparison with three nearby Southern Alpine glacierized areas in Italy and Switzerland shows substantial agreement. In spite of the relative shortness of the series, the results here are of interest and can be used as a benchmark for climate change impact assessment for the Adamello Glacier area and southern Alps.

The paper examines the meio-and macrobenthic responses to physical disturbance and sediment instabilities in a small Arctic glacier-fed river estuary. . Dynamic sedimentary environments of Arctic glacier-fed river estuary (Adventfjorden, Svalbard). I. Flux, deposition, and sediment dynamics. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 74(1e2), 285e296] distinguished three zones in Adventfjorden (west Spitsbergen) estuary: the tidal flat, the slope (high sedimentation, frequent sediment slides), the central basin (low sedimentation, stable sediments). The numbers of individuals and species of meio-and macrofauna were very low on the tidal flat. The total densities of meio-and macrofauna were significantly lower on the slope of the glacio-fluvial delta than in the central basin. Only the macrofauna responded to sediment instabilities on the slope by a significant decrease in total biomass. Nematodes inhabiting the slope sediments were larger than those in the central basin, although there was no significant difference in the size of harpacticoids in the two zones. The frequently disturbed, resuspended, and redeposited slope sediments were colonized by the opportunistic polychaete Capitella capitata agg. and by the high sedimentation resistant polychaetes Chaetozone setosa agg. and Cossura longocirrata. Tube-dwelling, sedentary, or suspension-feeding fauna only occurred at the central basin stations. The species richness and ratio of surfacedwelling to burrowing deposit-feeders in the macrobenthic communities decreased towards the river mouths. The differences in the taxonomic composition of communities inhabiting the sediments of the slope and the central basin were less pronounced in meiofauna (studied at a higher taxonomic level) than in the macrofauna (identified to the species level). Nevertheless, the differences were significant for both benthic compartments (ANOSIM test, P < 0.05). The simultaneous survey of meio-and macrobenthic communities in an Arctic glacier-fed river estuary shows that both benthic compartments are sensitive to sediment instabilities and physical disturbance caused by high sedimentation and frequent sediment gravity flows.

In the summers of 2001 and 2002, glacio-climatological research was performed at 4110-4120 m a.s.l. on the Belukha snow/firn plateau, Siberian Altai. Hundreds of samples from snow pits and a 21 m snow/firn core were collected to establish the annual/seasonal/monthly depth-accumulation scale, based on stable-isotope records, stratigraphic analyses and meteorological and synoptic data. The fluctuations of water stable-isotope records show well-preserved seasonal variations. The d 18 O and dD relationships in precipitation, snow pits and the snow/firn core have the same slope to the covariance as that of the global meteoric water line. The origins of precipitation nourishing the Belukha plateau were determined based on clustering analysis of d 18 O and d-excess records and examination of synoptic atmospheric patterns. Calibration and validation of the developed clusters occurred at event and monthly timescales with about 15% uncertainty. Two distinct moisture sources were shown: oceanic sources with d-excess <12%, and the Aral-Caspian closed drainage basin sources with d-excess >12%. Two-thirds of the annual accumulation was from oceanic precipitation, of which more than half had isotopic ratios corresponding to moisture evaporated over the Atlantic Ocean. Precipitation from the Arctic/Pacific Ocean had the lowest deuterium excess, contributing one-tenth to annual accumulation.

1] Viruses are an abundant and dynamic constituent of microbial communities in aquatic ecosystems. In this study we characterized the abundance of viruses associated first with the bottom sediment and overlying water of cryoconite holes and second with shallow ice cores of two different glaciers in Svalbard. Viral abundances were ca. 10-100 times lower than the average for marine and freshwater ecosystems in temperate regions. Virus to bacterium ratios (VBR) (average > 10, range between 0.7 and 74 in the water and ice samples) and a strong positive correlation between viral and bacterial abundance (r = 0.93, p < 0.01, N = 57) indicate that viruses most probably play an important role in controlling bacterial mortality and hence biogeochemical cycling on glaciers. Samples taken along a transect from the glacier ablation area to proglacial ponds in its forefield showed that viral abundance increased in response to a higher host availability, which in turn probably resulted from an increase in temperature and higher mineral levels in the ponds. In a transplantation experiment, viruses from cryoconite holes were incubated with a bacterial community from a proglacial lake. Results from the transplantation experiment showed that viruses from cryoconite holes were able to infect bacteria from proglacial lakes and thus influence biogeochemical cycles across different glacial ecosystems. Our data therefore suggest that viruses in cryoconite holes may be able to infect a broad range of bacterial species.

This paper discusses the Holocene evolution of two sites in the Central Italian Alps, the Foscagno Valley and the Stelvio–Livrio area, in terms of the interaction between permafrost distribution and glacial history. The applicability of phytosociological vegetation survey to investigate recent glacial evolution where geomorphological evidence is poor or totally absent is also illustrated. Bottom temperature of snow measurements and detailed geomorphologic survey and air-photo interpretation were carried out in the Stelvio–Livrio area. Boreholes were drilled in each site, one (24 m deep) in the Foscagno rock glacier (2510 m ASL), the second (100.3 m deep) in dolostone-limestone bedrock at the Stelvio Pass (3000 m ASL). The latter borehole is a component of the PACE European Permafrost Monitoring Network. In Foscagno Valley, the formation of permafrost during a cold and dry phase of the Holocene allowed the preservation of an ice body which otherwise would have disappeared. More recently, a Little Ice Age glacier advance, whose exact location and extension were defined by means of the analysis of vegetal associations, induced some degradation in the permafrost. In the Stelvio–Livrio area, a cold-based glacier apparently had much less influence on the local permafrost evolution and thermal regime. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.This paper discusses the Holocene evolution of two sites in the Central Italian Alps, the Foscagno Valley and the Stelvio–Livrio area, in terms of the interaction between permafrost distribution and glacial history. The applicability of phytosociological vegetation survey to investigate recent glacial evolution where geomorphological evidence is poor or totally absent is also illustrated. Bottom temperature of snow measurements and detailed geomorphologic survey and air-photo interpretation were carried out in the Stelvio–Livrio area. Boreholes were drilled in each site, one (24 m deep) in the Foscagno rock glacier (2510 m ASL), the second (100.3 m deep) in dolostone-limestone bedrock at the Stelvio Pass (3000 m ASL). The latter borehole is a component of the PACE European Permafrost Monitoring Network. In Foscagno Valley, the formation of permafrost during a cold and dry phase of the Holocene allowed the preservation of an ice body which otherwise would have disappeared. More recently, a Little Ice Age glacier advance, whose exact location and extension were defined by means of the analysis of vegetal associations, induced some degradation in the permafrost. In the Stelvio–Livrio area, a cold-based glacier apparently had much less influence on the local permafrost evolution and thermal regime. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.RÉSUMÉL'évolution holocène de deux sites des Alpes centrales italiennes, la vallée de Foscagno et la région de Stelvio-Livrio, est discutée pour contribuer à la compréhension des relations entre la distribution du pergélisol et l'histoire glaciaire. Un autre but de l'étude était de vérifier la possibilité d'utiliser des relevés phytosociologiques pour comprendre l 'évolution récente glaciaire de zones où des évidences géomorphologiques sont maigres ou totalement absentes et de mieux comprendre ainsi la distribution du pergélisol. Des mesures BTS, des levés géomorphologiques détaillés et des interprétations de photos aériennes de la zone Stelvio-Livrio ont été réalisés. Enfin, deux sondages ont été implantés : l'un (24 m de profondeur) dans le glacier rocheux de Foscagno (2510 m) et l'autre dans le substratum rocheux (100.3 m de profondeur) du Col du Stelvio (3000 m). Ce dernier sondage fait partie du réseau européen PACE de surveillance du pergélisol. Des levés phytosociologiques ont été réalisés dans les deux zones. Dans la vallée de Foscagno, la formation du pergélisol pendant une phase froide et aride de l'Holocène a permis la conservation d'un corps de glace qui, autrement, aurait disparu. Plus récemment, une avancée glaciaire pendant le Petit Age Glaciaire (dont la localisation et l'exacte extension ont été reconnues par les études phytosociologiques) a provoqué la dégradation du pergélisol. Dans la zone de Stelvio-Livrio, un glacier à base froide a apparemment beaucoup moins influencé la distribution du pergélisol et son régime thermique. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.L'évolution holocène de deux sites des Alpes centrales italiennes, la vallée de Foscagno et la région de Stelvio-Livrio, est discutée pour contribuer à la compréhension des relations entre la distribution du pergélisol et l'histoire glaciaire. Un autre but de l'étude était de vérifier la possibilité d'utiliser des relevés phytosociologiques pour comprendre l 'évolution récente glaciaire de zones où des évidences géomorphologiques sont maigres ou totalement absentes et de mieux comprendre ainsi la distribution du pergélisol. Des mesures BTS, des levés géomorphologiques détaillés et des interprétations de photos aériennes de la zone Stelvio-Livrio ont été réalisés. Enfin, deux sondages ont été implantés : l'un (24 m de profondeur) dans le glacier rocheux de Foscagno (2510 m) et l'autre dans le substratum rocheux (100.3 m de profondeur) du Col du Stelvio (3000 m). Ce dernier sondage fait partie du réseau européen PACE de surveillance du pergélisol. Des levés phytosociologiques ont été réalisés dans les deux zones. Dans la vallée de Foscagno, la formation du pergélisol pendant une phase froide et aride de l'Holocène a permis la conservation d'un corps de glace qui, autrement, aurait disparu. Plus récemment, une avancée glaciaire pendant le Petit Age Glaciaire (dont la localisation et l'exacte extension ont été reconnues par les études phytosociologiques) a provoqué la dégradation du pergélisol. Dans la zone de Stelvio-Livrio, un glacier à base froide a apparemment beaucoup moins influencé la distribution du pergélisol et son régime thermique. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A critical analysis of 34 radiocarbon dates, selected from a total of 42 published and unpublished dates from Holocene fluvial environments in Basilicata (southern Italy), has identified eight periods of increased fluvial activity in this area, namely: 7200–6800; 4800–4550; 4300–4100; 3400–3100; 2350–1850; 1700–1320; 1050–800 and 300–120 cal years BP. Many of these phases coincide with the main flooding events recorded elsewhere in the Mediterranean. The record is discussed in relation to high-resolution central-southern Italy pollen and lake level records and Alps and Apennine (central Italy) glacier variations to identify relationships between geomorphic activity and Holocene environmental change. The data comparison suggests that aggradational and incisional episodes were primarily climatically driven, whereas flooding coincided with colder and moister phases, while incision (i.e. gully formation) occurred during dry-warm periods due to high magnitude, low frequency alluvial events. Phases of widespread fine-grained aggradation occurred in the last 2000 years, also suggesting that anthropogenic impact has intensified these processes, adding its effects to the climate impact.

We mapped surficial deposits, soils and permafrost features in the central-western Wright Valley, Antarctica, from Lake Vanda in the east to near the mid-part of the South Fork in the west. Outstanding features of the landscape include two large rock glaciers covering approximately 323 ha with a volume of 0.14 km 3 , and the sinuous Upper Wright III moraine in the South Fork with typifying yellowish brown (10YR 5/6) subsoil colours. Soil morphology and weathering stage indicate the features are early Quaternary age and younger than Alpine III deposits. Soils are dominated by sodium and chloride ions, and the total salt content increases with age except where profile soil water is recharged either by subsurface flow from streams, melt water production at high elevation or sporadic surface flow. Ice-cemented permafrost at less than 70 cm depth is common, being associated with relatively young alluvial soils of the Onyx River, and with soils on the steep slopes of the south valley wall near the Dais where melt water from high elevation recharges soil water.

1] The mass balance in the Inner Tibet Plateau (ITP) derived from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) showed a positive rate that was attributed to the glacier mass gain, whereas glaciers in the region, from other field-based studies, showed an overall mass loss. In this study, we examine lake's water level and mass changes in the Tibetan Plateau (TP) and suggest that the increased mass measured by GRACE was predominately due to the increased water mass in lakes. For the 200 lakes in the TP with 4 to 7 years of ICESat data available, the mean lake level and total mass change rates were +0.14 m/yr and +4.95 Gt/yr, respectively. Compared those in the TP, 118 lakes in the ITP showed higher change rates (+0.20 m/yr and +4.28 Gt/yr), accounting for 59% area and 86% mass increase of the 200 lakes. The lake's mass increase rate in the ITP explains the 61% increased mass (~7 Gt/yr) derived from GRACE [Jacob et al., 2012], while it only accounts for 53% of the total lake area in the ITP.

Ice thickness data collected between 1993 and 1999 using a coherent icepenetrating radar system developed at the University of Kansas have been combined with data collected by the Technical University of Denmark in the 1970s to produce a new ice thickness grid for Greenland. Crossover analysis was used to assess the relative accuracy of the two data sets and they were weighted accordingly and interpolated onto a regular 5-km spacing grid using a kriging interpolation procedure. A high-resolution land-ice mask was used to help constrain the interpolation of the ice thickness data near the ice sheet margins where, in the past, the relative errors have been largest. The ice thickness grid was combined with a new digital elevation model of the ice sheet and surrounding rock outcrops to produce a new bed elevation data set for the whole of Greenland. The ice thickness grid was compared with the currently available data set. Differences in the center of the ice sheet, where the ice is thickest, were of the order of a few percent. Near the margins, however, large differences, of as much as a factor of 10, were found. The total volume of ice contained in the ice sheet was reestimated and found to have a value of 2.93 x 106 km 3. The ice thickness grid was used to calculate the spatial pattern of gravitational driving stress over the ice sheet. Anomalous patterns of stress were found in areas that appeared to be associated with areas of rapid flow.