Public Law

Se la struttura sociale assume un volto sempre più frammentato e quasi disarticolato, il ruolo delle istituzioni rappresentative non può più essere quello di imporre politiche, ma deve divenire, invece, quello di discutere le politiche, in modo che la visione collettiva su di esse possa effettivamente maturare. La democrazia rappresentativa oggi non è solo questione di voti e di elezioni, è anche capacità di interrogare, di consultare, di discutere pubblicamente, di sorvegliare e correggere. La tutela degli interessi durevoli richiede allora al Parlamento, come sede della rappresentanza nazionale, di diventare una struttura di conoscenza capace di individuare le priorità, di imputare le responsabilità, di misurare i risultati prodotti e di creare un senso di continuità volto a pacificare e coordinare le ragioni di oggi con quelle di domani. La valutazione delle politiche pubbliche è lo strumento che può accostare le istituzioni rappresentative a un’efficace tutela degli interessi durevoli: attraverso funzioni valutative l’organizzazione pubblica può cercare di essere un fattore di rigenerazione della società non perché impone decisioni, ma perché innesca un costante processo di autoapprendimento in cui il decisore politico assume il ruolo di immettere la conoscenza nel sistema istituzionale e renderla oggetto di un vero allargamento egualitario.

Handbook produced with co-author Varda Bondy. This handbook is intended to address the gaps in legal practitioners’ understanding
of how mediation can be used as an alternative to, or alongside, judicial review and to provide practical assistance to those practitioners who are, or who may be, considering mediation as a route for resolving public law disputes, particularly judicial review claims. Includes mediated case studies.

Esta pesquisa investiga o período de formação do direito administrativo brasileiro, procurando compreender o modo como ele se desenvolve e as funções que cumpre no país, em comparação com as sociedades européias onde ele foi construído originariamente. Parte-se da premissa de que, surgindo na Europa como racionalização a posteriori de uma realidade já existente, a lógica de formação do direito administrativo em seu continente natal é presidida por uma racionalidade disciplinar/normalizadora, que exprime as novas formas de organização do governo dos homens que surgem com a consolidação do Estado Administrativo moderno no ocidente. Pretende-se, então, compreender de que maneira se desenvolve um direito administrativo brasileiro, diante das especificidades do dispositivo de poder vigente no país durante todo o período Imperial, e especialmente no Segundo Reinado. Para isso, será investigada a hipótese de que a ciência do direito administrativo, no Brasil, não cumpriu a função de fortalecimento do Estado que cumpriu na Europa do século XIX; importado principalmente da França, o conjunto de conceitos, teorias e vocabulários do discurso jurídico administrativista, ao ser recebido no Brasil é reterritorializado, passando a desempenhar uma função diversa: em vez de regular o exercício das funções executivas visando ao fortalecimento de um Estado já existente, fundar a legitimidade de um Estado inexistente e ainda por ser construído. Para testar essa hipótese será necessário compreender o processo que deu origem à formação de um discurso científico sobre o direito administrativo no Brasil, examinar o conteúdo desse discurso, e verificar de que maneira as características próprias da realidade brasileira aparecem em seus interstícios.

The policing of football supporters in the UK is resource-intensive and expensive, with football crowds seen by many forces as inherently prone to misbehaviour, disorder and violence. As a result they are regularly subjected to high-profile, heavy-handed and intrusive policing strategies that are often designed with the imposition of a civil “banning order” on supposed “risk supporters” in mind. This article analyses underlying assumptions about the nature and risk of football crowds and, drawing comparisons with the ways in which political protests are policed and applying jurisprudence from a series of high-profile protest cases, questions the legality of dominant policing approaches to football crowds under both English public law principles and the European Convention on Human Rights. It concludes by proposing how strategies could be developed in a way that both protects the public and the rights of supporters who may on occasion associate with those suspected of engaging in football-related disorder

In Constitutional and Administrative Law, the authors draw upon their extensive teaching and research experience to provide a contemporary and engaging account of the key topics which make up a typical Constitutional & Administrative or Public Law syllabus. Controversial issues and academic debates are also highlighted throughout making this the ideal textbook for anyone requiring a strong understanding of both the black letter principles and the wider socio-political context in which the constitutional arrangements of the UK have developed.

Fully updated with all the latest constitutional and legal developments in this area, this second edition contains:

- A dedicated chapter on ‘Political Freedoms and Democratic Participation’ which offers expanded coverage of important civil liberties, including freedom of expression and the right to vote.
- A new section providing an overview of police powers.
- Extensive coverage of the implications of the Brexit referendum decision, including the European Union (Withdrawal Bill) 2017 and the ongoing exit negotiations.
- Discussion of the implications of the 2017 general election and proposed changes to the Westminster parliamentary constituency boundaries.
- An outline of the Strathclyde proposals on the powers of the House of Lords.
- Discussion of the mooted replacement of the Human Rights Act 1998 with a British Bill of Rights.
- Detailed analysis of a number of significant cases include the Miller decisions, R (Evans) v Attorney General, HS2, and R (UNISON) v Lord Chancellor.

Il volume raccoglie i contributi presentati e discussi all'interno del Convegno internazionale Italoiberoamericano di diritto costituzionale, tenutosi tra il 4 ed il 7 aprile 2016 in Abruzzo. Tre atenei organizzatori (Università "G. d'Annunzio" di Chieti-Pescara, Università di Teramo, Università dell'Aquila), quattro giornate di studio in altrettante città, 60 relatori ordinari, 76 giovani studiosi: Costituzione economica e democrazia pluralista è stato anzitutto un contenitore collettivo di idee e luoghi. La collaborazione, poi, con la sezione italiana dell'Istituto iberoamericano di Diritto costituzionale presieduta dal Prof. Luca Mezzetti, ha offerto al dibattito preziosi spunti in tema di interazione tra modelli costituzionali.

The Football Banning Order was the first Civil Preventive Order (CPO), predating the many similar measures that followed the election of New Labour to government in 1997 by 10 years. CPOs have been held by the domestic courts to be preventive rather than punitive measures that do not need to follow criminal procedures to be compliant with Arts.6 and 7 of the European Convention on Human Rights. After three decades of amendment and imaginative application, however, the original CPO has evolved into a punitive measure that is rarely utilised against those who orchestrate football-related violence and goes far beyond what is necessary to prevent low-level football disorder. It will be argued that in order to avoid breaching Arts.6 and 7, the imposition of this evolved CPO - a ‘super-Football Banning Order’ - should be restricted by amendment of ss.14A and B Football Spectators Act 1989. Further, and of wider interest, its previously undocumented incremental evolution should serve as a warning of how other CPOs could evolve similarly punitive impacts on their recipients.

Malgré le récent amendement de 2011 qu’a connu la Constitution haïtienne, il a été présenté au grand public le 29 mars 2017 une commission spéciale sur l’amendement de la constitution au niveau de la Chambre des députés. Le but principal de ladite commission est de produire un rapport devant servir à justifier un amendement dont la procédure sera entamée à la dernière session ordinaire de la 50ème législature, soit entre juin et septembre 2019, conformément à l’article 282-1 de la Constitution. Si Pour certains, un amendement est nécessaire pour corriger certaines lacunes, pour d’autres, il faut une nouvelle constitution et non simplement un amendement. Ce dernier parait plus réaliste et justifié qu’un changement de Constitution. En effet, les lacunes que l’on peut reprocher au texte constitutionnel ne sont pas assez graves pour justifier l’adoption d’une nouvelle Constitution. Il suffit de faire une grande réforme constitutionnelle par le biais d’un amendement. Cependant, dans la mesure où en Haïti il y a une propension des gouvernants à ne pas appliquer la Constitution dans toute sa teneur, les dispositions résultant de l’amendement à venir risque de rester lettre morte. Sur ces entrefaites, il y a une urgente nécessité de résoudre le problème de l’inapplication de la Constitution. Sinon, Ce sera un vain travail de l’amender.

Cyprus Administrative Law and Procedure

Costas Paraskeva, Assistant Professor of Public Law at the University of Cyprus, Advocate

Abstract

Article 146 of the Cyprus Constitution introduced the judicial review of administrative acts in the Cypriot legal order. The structure of judicial control of administrative action in Cyprus is founded on the principles of civil administrative law. The development of Cypriot administrative law is mainly based on the case law of the Greek Conseil d’ Etat (Symvoulio tis Epikratias). This book provides a detailed and systematic analysis of the main issues regarding the application for annulment of an administrative act which is brought before the Administrative Court. Each chapter discusses in a comprehensive and critical manner the basic aspects of the process for annulment of an administrative act such as the admissibility criteria, the grounds for annulment, the proceedings following the submission of an application before the Administrative Court, interim judicial protection, as well as the issue of appeal before the Supreme Court.

The aim of this paper is to show the limits of the discretionary power that EU primary law provides for public authorities in determining the polluter in order to allocate the costs of pollution under the polluter pays principle. According to the ECJ, the polluter is a person who by his activity contributes to the risk that pollution occurs. Hence, public authorities may not classify someone as a polluter if he did not cause the pollution. Causation in the polluter pays principle can be compared to causation in civil liability. When the legislator predetermines the polluter in the legislation, he uses ex ante causal probabilities, but when public administrations or national courts identify the polluter in a concrete case they should use the condition sine qua non theory. This is confirmed by secondary legislation and case law, especially in the fields of waste management, environmental liability.

The authors question whether the Supreme Court of Canada has a grander agenda in its formulation of Aboriginal Title in Tsilhqoti'n Nation v. British Columbia than that of merely ensuring financial utility. While private ownership certainly does not reflect the territorial nature of Aboriginal title, it is pertinent to ask if the decision aims to satisfy more than the financial goals of private ownership. Is the Court in Tsilhqot’in attempting to indirectly politically empower Indigenous peoples as collectives by recognizing their private control over vast tracts of lands? The clarity of the court regarding the beneficial interest in Title land, the scope of territory to be included, the commonality of holding, and the right to decide on its uses are key themes that could indicate this intention. Taken together with its overall trend towards conceptualizing reconciliation through consultation that ensures compensation, these characteristics authorize titleholders to directly exclude non-consensual users and indirectly imposes a cost on government infringement so high as to be prohibitive or, at least, a serious disincentive to unilateral action by governments or industry proponents

Il volume raccoglie gli atti del XVIII incontro del gruppo che si è svolto a Padova dal 10 al 12 maggio 2018 con la partecipazione di oltre quaranta studiosi dei due Paesi. Nel corso del colloquio si è discusso della crisi migratoria dell'Unione euro-pea nella prospettiva tedesca e italiana, delle sfide e delle innovazioni del proce-dimento amministrativo, nonché agli sviluppi del diritto pubblico dei due Paesi.
Der Band präsentiert die Beiträge des letztjährigen XVIII. Deutsch-Italienischen Verfassungskolloquiums, das vom 10. bis 12. Mai 2018 in Padua unter Beteiligung von mehr als 40 Wissenschaftlern aus beiden Ländern stattfand. Das Kolloquium befasste sich mit der Migrationskrise in der Europäischen Union aus deutscher und italienischer Perspektive, mit den Herausforderungen und Innovationen im Verwaltungsverfahrensrecht sowie mit aktuellen Entwicklungen im Öffentlichen Recht der beiden Länder.

Conspiracy is the agreement of two or more individuals to perform an illegal act or or cause it to be done by illegal means. The actual agreement alone is conspiracy and it is not necessary to prove that the act was actually committed. In Nigeria, it is mainly regulated by the Penal Code and the Criminal Code, in India, the offence is regulated by the Indian Penal Code and in the Australian State of Queensland, the primary legislation is the Criminal Code of 1899 from which the Nigerian Criminal Code is derived. In discussing the crime of conspiracy, an examination of the statutory provisions and case law in selected jurisdictions was attempted. It was found that all the jurisdictions make use of the same common law principles. The only exception is England which has two kinds of conspiracy that is statutory and common law conspiracies.

This study analyzes the organizational, technological and societal changes of Gdansk in the process to become a smart city. The Gdansk's planning to climate change to reconcile social, cultural and environmental pillars. Finally analyzes the challenges of the Polish government to build participatory governance with companies and citizens.

Parish, town and community councils raise a precept that enables money to be spent on matters that are important to and benefit the local community. There is, however, confusion over whether or not a parish, town or community council may grant-aid a place of worship. The paper calls for clarification of the law.

In questo articolo l’autore analizza i viaggi di Montesquieu, dove si manifesta il trionfo del piacere della scoperta. Il viaggio è indagine della realtà sociale, politica e istituzionale. Le certezze e le nozioni iniziali sono riconsiderate o temprate dalle conferme dell’osservata realtà. Il viaggio con una vena di disincanto porta con sé il fascino di nuove idee e diventa strumento originale di analisi comparativa della realtà europea dell’epoca. L’autore vuole sottolineare l’imprescindibilità del viaggio nella formazione delle riflessioni di Montesquieu. La teoria da sola non è sufficiente, il barone de La Brède trova nel suo cammino per l’Europa l’ispirazione che solo l’osservazione empirica può dare. Scrutare la realtà da vicino diviene fondamentale, fa comprendere a Montesquieu come siano numerose le variabili che influenzano gli eventi e la politica di uno Stato. L’autore, dopo l’attenta analisi effettuata, giunge alla conclusione che alcune delle riflessioni contenute nel De l’Esprit des Lois, oltre che di derivazione libresca, sono figlie dell’originale metodo d’indagine costituito dai viaggi di Montesquieu.

Markus Appenzeller is an architect, urban designer and thinker on related subjects. With his company MLA+ he is working on projects in Europe, Asia, South America and Africa. Markus work focusses on strategic urban design on all scale levels and larger scale urban residential architecture. His particular interest lies in the integration of these different scales. Markus was an associate professor at ITMO St. Petersburg, a consultant to municipalities in China and Africa and a frequent lecturer at universities and in conferences worldwide.

Im Freistaat Sachsen gibt es einen Streit zwischen dem Verwaltungsgericht Dresden und dem Oberverwaltungsgericht Sachsens um die Rechtmäßigkeit von Kopfnoten auf Abschlusszeugnissen. Insbesondere geht es um die Frage, ob das Sächsische Schulgesetz eine ausreichende Rechtsgrundlage für die Erteilung von Kopfnoten darstellt.

There has been several reports of hospitals and health practitioners declining to attend to persons seeking medical attention brought before them. This article discusses generally medical negligence and whether the raging Covid 19 pandemic sweeping through the country relieves medical and health practitioners of their duty of care to patients or maintain the same or a higher duty of care. The aim of this article is not only to create awareness of the rights of patients during this period of the rampaging Covid 19 pandemic but also to beat the path for a revision of judicial and legislative attitude towards medical negligence in Nigeria.

Labour law is generally conceived of as private law. Yet from its very inception labour law includes elements of public, and perspectives of public law have influenced private law developments over time. This contribution addresses such issues in a Norwegian context.

There is a consensus among courts and commentators on the grounds for a duty to give reasons in administrative law. Traditionally, the duty has been justified as a way to promote good decision-making, show respect for the parties, and reveal potential grounds for a challenge to the decision. We argue that this traditional picture is incomplete, because it omits two important considerations that favour giving reasons. Giving reasons can provide evidence that an administrator is an expert relative to a reviewing or appellate body, and thus provide evidence of a reason to defer to the administrator. Giving reasons can also indicate an administrator's findings on specific issues, making it possible for an appellate or reviewing body to selectively defer to it. Together these points show that concerns of deference are relevant to when administrators should give reasons.

Il volume raccoglie gli atti del convegno tenutosi a Macerata il 25 e 26 febbraio 2010 e fa il punto sul ruolo dei Comitati regionali per le comunicazioni nell'ordiamento giuridico italiano, indagandone la posizione istituzionale nel complesso sistema dell'informazione nazionale sotto il profilo strutturale - con particolare riguardo alla loro composozione e ai rapporti che essi intrattengono con l'Autorità per le garanzie nelle comunicazioni, da un lato, e con le Regioni, dall'altro - e sotto il profilo funzionale, specialmente in riferimento all'esercizio delle competenze relative alla comunicazione politica locale e alla conciliazione nelle telecomunicazioni, ambiti operativi strettamente legati alla salvaguardia di precisi diritti di libertà costituzionali e caratterizzanti i Comitati nella loro duplice veste di organi funzionali dell'Autorità centrale e di organi regionali.

Indice

9 Presentazione del volume di Simone Calzolaio, Barbara Malaisi
11 Introduzione di Giulio M. Salerno

Profili istituzionali
17 Alessandra Valastro, Il Co.re.com. nel sistema dell’informazione nazionale e regionale: promesse e sfide
37 Andrea Cardone, Composizione dei Co.re.com. e requisiti di indipendenza, autonomia e specializzazione dei membri: profili problematici
57 Luigi Pianesi, La natura degli atti del Co.re.com.
69 Giorgia Pavani, Autorità radiotelevisive nazionali e "locali" di regolazione e controllo in alcuni ordinamenti decentrati. Una panoramica comparata

117 Andrea Collina (a cura di), Tavola rotonda. L’esperienza del Co.re.com. come istituzione regionale
Coordina e conclude Andrea Morrone. Interventi di Corrado Bellora, Paolo Caretti, Maria Pia Caruso, Gianluca Gardini, Marco Moruzzi

Profili funzionali
La comunicazione politica
163 Barbara Malaisi, Co.re.com. e comunicazione politica
189 Matteo Timiani, L’attività in materia di comunicazione politica dei Co.re.com.
233 Massimo Rubechi, La par condicio nelle più recenti proposte di modifica
247 Roberto Borrello, Livello nazionale e locale della comunicazione politica
253 Licia Califano, Pari opportunità e par condicio
259 Giuseppe Ugo Rescigno, Conclusioni

La conciliazione in materia di telecomunicazioni
263 Monica De Angelis, La conciliazione in materia di telecomunicazioni: spunti problematici e possibili sviluppi
315 Vittorio Fusco, La conciliazione nell’esperienza di un dirigente d’azienda di telecomunicazioni
325 Simone Calzolaio, La «conciliazione telefonica». Spunti dall’esperienza del Co.re.com. Marche nel 2009

347 Paolo Caretti, Conclusioni del Convegno

351 Indice degli Autori

SINTESI Il saggio ripercorre le trame costituzionali della giurisdizione amministrativa, quale giurisdizione soggettiva, per affrontare i temi dell'ampiezza della legittimazione ad agire, quello degli interessi diffusi e dei regimi giuridici speciali (contenzioso in materia di contratti pubblici e legittimazioni speciali in capo a pubbliche amministrazioni), fino a ricondurre la riflessione al tema della pienezza del controllo e nell'ambito dello spazio comune europeo.

La Historia nos enseña que las catástrofes han asolado nuestro planeta desde tiempos inmemoriales. Incendios devastadores, arrasadoras inundaciones, erupciones volcánicas, guerras de todos los colores, atentados terroristas, accidentes nucleares, entre otras crisis naturales o humanas, se han sucedido a lo largo de los siglos con parámetros sorprendentemente similares. Extraordinariamente parecidas han sido también las medidas adoptadas para prevenirlas antes de que aconteciesen, para intentar hacerles frente una vez que su crudeza se estaba desplegando y para procurar un restablecimiento de la vida ordenada una vez que habían finalizado. En la lucha contra las más diversas situaciones de crisis, las respuestas jurídicas han ocupado siempre un lugar preponderante. Estas Lecciones jurídicas para la lucha contra una epidemia nacen durante la cuarentena vivida entre los meses de marzo y junio con motivo de la declaración en nuestro país del estado de alarma para la gestión de la situación de emergencia sanitaria ocasionada por el COVID-19. Los autores se propusieron entonces explicar de forma mínima las bases que fundamentaron tal situación excepcional: la teoría general del Derecho de necesidad, nuestro Derecho constitucional de excepción y la legislación ordinaria con previsiones para la lucha contra las emergencias. Ahora todas esas Lecciones, que se publicaron diariamente en distintos medios académicos intentando ofrecer una explicación en tiempo real de los acontecimientos que estábamos viviendo durante el largo confinamiento sanitario, se han ordenado para esta edición. El lector encontrará además en estas Lecciones una cronología sobre la vigencia del estado de alarma (su declaración, sus sucesivas prórrogas y las medidas adoptadas), así como, trascendiendo más allá de nuestras fronteras, algunos ejemplos del Derecho de necesidad en el ámbito comparado más cercano, y, por último, el papel jugado por la Unión Europea ante la pandemia.

This latest book from former South African Constitutional Court judge Albie Sachs is an unconventional look at judicial practice and the workings of the judicial mind. It is a book written from the viewpoint of both a highly influential judge and a life-long activist with a genuine passion for the promise of law. Yet the book also raises many questions and contradictions – about the book itself and about the possibilities and limits of the law it espouses.

The defence of superior orders is not new. However, within Australia, its statutory codification is lamentably underexplored. The 2018 Amendments to Part IIIAAA of the Defence Act 1903 (Cth) provides a neat catalyst to expand the defence and look at possible manners in which it can be constructed. Utilising a theoretical case study of Australian Defence Force members killing a possible terrorist, this article addresses the key elements of the defence-what an order is, when can it be constructed as being manifestly unlawful and what does reasonable and necessary force mean for Australian Defence Force members.

This thesis aims to establish the presence of influence of EU procurement law and the hierarchy between different legal regimes applicable in contractual relations of procurement. Characteristic features of public contract relations are studied: the extremely limited pre-contractual freedom and compiling of public contract terms; consequences of a breach in the contract award stage upon the validity of contract and specific features of public contract modifications. While all procurement contracts are subject to the general principles of procurement law, the applicable private law is within the competency of the national legislator. In case of a conflict between national private law and EU public procurement law, the latter is superior to the former. However, if a conflict occurs between national private and public law regulation that is not based on EU law, the conflict must be solved on a case-by-case basis and the result may well be the opposite. The study offers suggestions for drafting public contracts and proposes amendments to the Estonian Public Procurement Act in order to facilitate the pursuit of secondary purposes through special contract terms. Concerning the influence of breaches occurring in pre-contractual relations in procurement, the author suggests a more flexibly approach towards contract validity and termination. The conflicting nature of different legal regimes in private law relations of procurement is best illustrated by rules applicable to amending of public contracts. Here, the regulation should aim to achieve a reasonable balance between the rules of EC procurement law, national private law and public interests.

Resumen: El Derecho de la Unión Europea ha diseñado una serie de instituciones, procedimientos y recursos destinados a hacer efectivo el Derecho a tutela judicial efectiva. En lo relacionado con la contratación pública por medio de las directivas 89/665 y 2007/66 se ha regulado el entramado de procedimientos de recursos en materia de adjudicación de los contratos públicos de suministros y de obras, lo que ha sido incorporado por los ordenamientos nacionales a través de distintos institutos. En el caso italiano, la incorporación del Derecho europeo se ha efectuado respetando su cultura jurídica, de modo que el recurso en contratación pública se ventila dentro de la jurisdicción contencioso administrativa, dotándose de competencia a los tribunales administrativos regionales y al Consejo de Estado, para que conozcan y resuelvan, por medio de un procedimiento especial. Igualmente, es relevante la existencia de un procedimiento de tipo precontencioso ante la ANAC, con fuertes medidas contra la corrupción, así como la creación de medidas de control preventivo de la litigiosidad, tales como la existencia de tasas de acceso a la jurisdicción y sanciones a los litigantes temerarios. Finalmente, se analizarán las herramientas de restablecimiento del Derecho, donde se contemplan facultades para los procedimientos posteriores a la adjudicación del contrato.


Abstract: European Union law has designed a number of institutions, procedures and remedies aimed at enforcing the right to effective judicial protection. In the area of public procurement through Directives 89/665 and 2007/66, the structure of resource procedures for the award of public supply and works contracts has been regulated, which has been incorporated by national systems through various institutes. In the Italian case, the transposition of European Law has been carried out in respect of its legal culture, so that public procurement’ remedies are subject to the contentious-administrative jurisdiction, giving competence to Regional Administrative Courts, and also to the Council of State, through a special procedure. Similarly, the existence of a pre- contentious procedure before the ANAC is relevant, with strong anti-corruption measures, as well as the creation of preventive control measures of litigiousness, such as the existence of access rates to jurisdiction and sanctions against reckless litigants. Finally, tools for the restoration of law will be analysed, where faculties are contemplated for the procedures later to the awarding of the contract.

ÖZ:
Temel hak ve özgürlükler ile kamu güvenliği arasındaki dengenin nasıl sağlanacağı konusu, insanlığın toplum halinde yaşamaya başlamasından bu yana tartışılmaktadır. Temel hak ve özgürlüklerin, kamu güvenliğinin sağlanması için nereye kadar kısıtlanabileceğine yönelik çeşitli ilke ve yorumlar getirilmiş olsa da siyasi iktidarların kamu güvenliği anlayışı ve yaklaşımı daha çok önem kazanmaktadır. Kamu gücü kullanma tekeline sahip olan devletin, kamu güvenli-ğinden ilk derece sorumlu olması yanında, tedbir ve uygulamalar sonrası kamu özgürlükleri etkilendiğinde, "özgürlük-güvenlik gerilimi" hangi ilkesi ve yaklaşımlarla aşılabilecektir? Kamu güvenliği ilke veya ölçütü kapsamında, toplumun güvenliğini sağlamak için sürekli bir savaşma durumunda olan ve bu sebeple toprakları üzerinde yaşayan bireyleri dost ve düşman olarak ayıran ve düşman olan bireylerle bir mücadele yürüten bir devlet modeli mi? Yoksa kamu güvenliğinin bozulması sonucu artan anarşik ortamın özgürlükleri kullanılmaz hale getirmesini izleyen ortada kalmış bir devlet modeli mi? sorusunun cevabını ararken kamu güvenliğini "hukukun bir parçası olarak" kabul etmekle başlamak gerekecektir. Hukuka bağlı devlet anlayışı ne kadar esnetilir ve işlevsizleştirilirse, devlet; hukuku, her açıdan bir amaç değil kamusal bir araç diye görürse, hukuk üreten organlar; hukuka bağlılığı sağlamada öncü olmayı düşünmezlerse, aynı şekilde kamu güvenliği de kalıcı ve sürekli şekilde sağlanamayacağından hem özgürlüğünü ve hem de güvenliğini kay-beden bir toplumla karşılaşma ihtimali artacaktır. Sözü edilen gerekçelerle şekillenen bu çalışma, kamu güvenliği sorunu ileri sürülerek, kamu özgürlüklerinde yapılacak kısıtlamaların, devletin ancak adil bir hukuk düzeni ile bütünleşmesi ve işlerlik kazanması halinde meşru hale gelecekleri, bunun için de kamu güvenliği kavramı açısından "hukukiliğinin" ilk planda ele alınması gerektiği düşüncesini savlamaktadır. Çalışmada ayrıca kamu güvenliğinde hukukiliğin nasıl sağlanabileceğine yönelik uluslararası ve ulusal yöntem ve uygulama örnekleri verilmektedir. ABSTRACT The issue of how to ensure the balance between fundamental rights and freedoms and public security continues to be discussed since the beginning of living in human society. Although various principles and interpretations have been introduced on how to restrict the fundamental rights and freedoms to ensure public security, public security understanding and approach of the political powers is becoming more important. What principles and approaches can the freedom security tension be overcome when the state is responsible for public security and he has the monopoly of public power, and when the public freedoms are affected after this kind of measures and practices? Is it a state model under the principle or criterion of public security that is in a state of constant warfare to ensure the safety of the community and therefore engages in combat with individuals who are enemies and hostile to individuals who live on their land as friends and foes? Or is it an obscure state model that follows an anarchic environment that has increased as a result of the deterioration of public security, making the freedoms ineffective? It will be necessary to start by accepting public safety as part of the law.

The fruit of a referendum should be political clarity. The people have spoken; the state will act in accordance with their wishes. Yet the Brexit referendum had the opposite effect. After a majority of the UK electorate who voted in the referendum indicated a preference to leave rather than remain in the European Union, the representative government fell into divisive conflict over what policy should be adopted as a response to the expression of popular will. This is the antithesis of the clarity that a referendum should produce. Why has this happened? This Essay argues that, beyond the political and social complexities of Brexit, the subsequent instability can be traced to the humble realities of referendum question design. The referendum pitted a concrete proposal with clear legal consequences (Remain) against a question of principle with no explicit indication of subsequent government action (Leave). In doing so, the Brexit referendum deviated from well-established principles of referendum design by presenting voters with two non-comparable alternatives. Damningly for post-referendum governance, the result of the referendum offered the government little clear legal guidance, but rather simply constrained its policy-making flexibility. Such a referendum outcome forces representative government to exercise general policy-making discretion, but with a constrained palette of policy options which specifically exclude the first-choice preference of many voters. This Essay uses classical tools of political science to interpret this confusion in democratic governance, and draw forth general lessons regarding the interaction between referendum design and representative politics. Specifically, it applies spatial modelling of political competition to identify how flawed referendum design upsets the relationship between representatives and voters.