Education Law

Readers of a certain age will undoubtedly remember Choose Your Own Adventure children's books. In a normal novel, the author leads the reader through a series of fixed events and experiences lived by some other person. Choose Your Own Adventure books were different because they made the reader the protagonist. Every few pages, options were proposed about what to do next so that the story unfolded in different ways depending on the reader's choices. The net effect, enhanced by the uncustomary use of the second person throughout, is that readers themselves determine the reading experience. We offer this six-volume book series on educational foundations in much the same spirit. It does not have to be read sequentially, but rather can be delved into according to one's personal, academic or professional interests and informational needs. These are books made for exploration.

Im Freistaat Sachsen gibt es einen Streit zwischen dem Verwaltungsgericht Dresden und dem Oberverwaltungsgericht Sachsens um die Rechtmäßigkeit von Kopfnoten auf Abschlusszeugnissen. Insbesondere geht es um die Frage, ob das Sächsische Schulgesetz eine ausreichende Rechtsgrundlage für die Erteilung von Kopfnoten darstellt.

Both authors contributed equally to this work. Abstract The study examined Israeli teachers' knowledge and perceptions of student's rights, and their reports on their actions in rights-related cases. Semi-structured interviews with teachers revealed that although teachers encounter frequent legal questions, most of them were only minimally knowledgeable, expressed reluctance to seek out information, and perceived themselves as lacking the capacity to do so. Moreover, due to legal myths that purportedly limit teachers' autonomy, teachers reported feeling helpless and acknowledged violating rules that in actuality do not exist. The conclusions discuss the interface of legal literacy, Israeli teachers' low social status, and their perceptions of teachers' professionalism.

In this submission to the consultation on the RVE guidance, I argue that clarity is required in respect of the following seven issues:  (1) The place of RVE within the Humanities AoLE given that it is a statutory requirement
(2) The position of the opt out for teachers
(3) The nature of RVE in schools with a religious character where it is taught in accordance with trust deeds or ethos
(4) The definition of RVE
(5) The definition of religion
(6) The definition of philosophical convictions
(7) The position of sixthformers

Complex issues in education today require research approaches that would contribute to new understandings of how education law can contribute to the realisation of educational rights and aspirations.1 Examples of such problems include issues of gender inequality, ethnic and
religious discrimination, managing learner behaviour and making education more inclusive, to mention a few. This highlights a need to identify the kind of approaches that would take understanding of the field of education law forward. The aim of this article is to explore the essence
of education law research. In doing so it attempts to
grapple with and move beyond the apparent tension between legal and educational approaches towards collaborations and approaches that will address the current issues in education more holistically. In comparing South African with international approaches this article will contribute towards discourses about education law
epistemologies and methodologies.

L’evoluzione della politica scolastica, in Italia, si è sempre caratterizzata per la forte tensione tra due diverse prospettive: quella finalizzata a concepire l’istruzione come luogo neutrale per la crescita della persona; e quella, viceversa, tesa a vedere nella scuola anche un momento strategico per realizzare politiche ulteriori. Negli ultimi vent’anni, il diritto europeo ha sicuramente influito a favore della prevalenza della seconda prospettiva. Il presente contributo si propone di illustrare quali siano le regole, i principi e gli strumenti di cui dispone l’Unione europea per realizzare le proprie politiche sull’istruzione e di verificare quale sia stato l’impatto di tale azione sulle riforme promosse dal legislatore italiano dalla fine degli anni Novanta del secolo scorso ai giorni nostri.

A major challenge confronting educators in South Africa, in a fashion similar to what occurs in schools throughout the world, is the tension that can arise when they apply learner discipline. On the one hand, The South African Schools Act (SA, 1996b, section 8) and the Guidelines for the Consideration of Governing Bodies in Adopting a Code of Conduct for Learners (SA, 1998) recognise the authority of educators to control learner behaviour in order to maintain safe and orderly learning environments. On the other hand, in a culture that arguably places too much emphasis on the rights of learners (Rossouw, 2004:50; Carstens, 2007:17), the same South African Constitution (SA,1996a) and national laws (National Education Policy Act, 1996c; South African Schools Act, 1996b) confer a variety of rights on learners. In light of this simmering conflict, this article is divided into four sections. The first section examines the rights of learners while the second part reviews the powers and duties of educators and governing bodies to maintain safe and orderly learning environments. The third section reviews the boundaries of permissible discipline. The fourth and final substantive section offers practical guidelines for educators and governing bodies.

The rights to both free speech and participation present two normative frameworks for analyzing children's expressions in school. This Article examines the differences between these normative frameworks, to explore how they apply in different situations, and to assist in shaping just and educative policies for coping with children's controversial expressions in school. The data sources are 56 American cases concerning school children's free speech. The analysis highlights the distinctions between participatory and non-participatory expressions in educational environments. The right to participation captures only expressions that have a dialogic character, which are also supported by stronger justifications. The Article assists in identifying those expressions that are invaluable for democracy, and thus deserving of greater protection.

במאמר זה אבקש להתחקות אחר תהליכי ההסדרה של החינוך החרדי בשני העשורים האחרונים. בפרט, אבקש לעמוד על יחסי הגומלין בין הרשות המחוקקת, הרשות המבצעת והרשות השופטת במסגרת תהליכי ההסדרה ועל האופנים בהם השפיעו על עיצוב הנורמות המסדירות את בתי הספר החרדיים ועל יישומן. אעסוק בשני נושאים מרכזיים בתהליכי ההסדרה של החינוך החרדי – גיבושה ויישומה של תכנית ליבה בבתי הספר החרדיים ומיון תלמידות ותלמידים על רקע עדתי בבתי ספר אלה. אבקש לטעון כי ככלל התנהגותם של בתי המשפט העידה על זהירות ומודעות לקשיים הכרוכים במעורבות שיפוטית במדיניות חינוך. אף על פי כן, יחסי הגומלין בין שלוש הרשויות התאפיינו בכשלים שהביאו ליצירת נורמות אשר נועדו להסדיר באופן נקודתי ומזורז קשיים שהתעוררו עקב פסיקת בית המשפט והליך חקיקתן נעדר חשיבה מערכתית על פרשנותן ועל השלכותיהן. עוד אטען כי אופיים השטחי של תהליכי ההסדרה של החינוך החרדי הביא לכך שההסדרים שגובשו בעקבותיהם לא יושמו בבתי הספר. תהליכים אלה ממחישים כי לצורך יישומה של רפורמה בתחום החינוך החרדי נדרשת מעורבות מלאה של כוחות רבים. לפיכך, על ארגונים חברתיים המעוניינים לקדם שינויים בחינוך החרדי לשלב מגוון של אסטרטגיות ולא לתלות את יהבם בבתי המשפט בלבד.

Through evidence embedded in legal determinants and empirical research, this paper explores the interpretation and application of dignity, equality and freedom with reference to diversity, pluralism and inclusivity. Empirical evidence will indicate that student-teachers understand human rights and have undergone an attitude change towards enhancing a human rights culture and inclusion. Evidence, however, also indicates that 20 years after the adoption of the new Constitution of South Africa, this knowledge is at times superficial while uncertainties about the praxis still exist. Nevertheless, student-teachers seemingly have internalised human rights to such an extent that they are able to critique the current school system and evidently appreciate the role of teachers as change agents in this regard.

Following the 2007 Supreme Court decision in PICS and Meredith, this study investigated the efficacy of ensuing proxy policies replacing race-based student assignment strategies. Highlighting one urban school district—Chicago Public Schools—we examined differences in racial composition at their elite, " selective enrollment " schools before and after such strategies became unconstitutional. Using repeated measures ANOVA, we found the transition to socioeconomic criteria are inadvertently resegregating Chicago's top schools—significantly reducing African American enrollment. We argue the Supreme Court's decision to strike down race-based student assignment policies directly contributed to local policy changes for urban districts like Chicago, marking a distinct change in K-12 desegregation jurisprudence.

Cet article explore les liens qui s'articulent entre le rapport que les élèves développent aux règles scolaires comme cadre proto-légal faisant partie du curriculum caché et la formation citoyenne. La robustesse du concept de rapport au droit (legal consciouness), défini selon le modèle de Ewick et Silbey (1998), ainsi que la typologie de citoyenneté de Westheimer et Kahne (2004) pour décrire ces liens est évaluée dans une étude de deux cas où les élèves sont appelés à résoudre une situation relative au droit. Les résultats de l'analyse portent à conclure que le dernier niveau du modèle de Ewick et Silbey ne permet pas de distinguer entre une contestation légitime des lois (ou des règles) et un rejet anomique de la loi et qu'il importe de distinguer le droit des droits. ABSTRACT. This article explores the relationship between how students conceive school rules and codes as a protolegal framework of the hidden curriculum and citizenship education. The robustness of Ewick and Silbey's legal consciouness model, as well as Westheimer and Kahne's citizenship typology in describing this relationship is evaluated through the study of two cases where high school students must resolve a legal situation. The results of the analysis lead to conclude that the third level of Ewick and Silbey's model does not allow for a distinction between legitimately contesting a law and an anomic rejection of the law. It further highlights the importance of distinguishing legal education from rights education. MOTS-CLÉS. éducation à la citoyenneté, éducation au droit, socialisation politique, école secondaire, rapport au droit, curriculum caché.

South African learners are often subjected to harassment, bullying and other forms of victimisation and abuse in schools. A duty rests of educators, schools and the Department of Basic Education to provide and maintain safe school environments that are free from harassment, bullying and other forms of victimisation and abuse. Having a clear understanding of the concepts that describe different forms of bullying and harassing behaviour can be regarded as one of the key-measures for preventing and addressing harassment, bullying and other forms of victimisation and abuse in schools is. Without a clear understanding of each of the concepts as well as what behaviour constitutes each form of misconduct, educators will be unable to identify and act on harassment and bullying when it occurs. However, a great variety of definitions and conceptualisations exist for bullying and harassment. Moreover, the Protection from Harassment Act came into effect in 2013, highlighting the need for a clear conceptualisation of harassment and related concepts within the school setting. This article analysed legal documents as well as theoretical conceptualisations of harassment, sexual harassment and bullying in an attempt to provide a clear conceptualisation that will aid schools to identify behaviour that amounts to harassment or bullying. Differences between the respective concepts as well as differences between permitted and prohibited behaviour received particular attention with a view to aid educators and schools in understanding which behaviour constitutes bullying and which behaviour constitutes harassment, including sexual harassment. The article concludes with guidelines for handling harassment and bullying in the school environment

The aim of this article is to analyse a short period in the life of Karl Marx when he was a student at the Law Faculty at the University of Bonn, and then at the Law Faculty at the University of Berlin. During the period of these, ultimately uncompleted, legal studies, his attention was absorbed by the notions of "state" and "law", the analysis of which in his later work - as a philosopher, economist and revolutionary activist - was an important element of his academic delibarations. This article therefore analyses issues related to Karl Marx's first steps as a young student of law. The author  presents selected threads of Karl Marx's statements, mainly those concerning the political and legal system, which  appeared in his publications, both during the period in question and later.

O objeto deste artigo, que se vale da estrutura das duas publicações de
2017, consiste (i) na análise de dois modelos da pós-graduação em Direito, os quais poderiam ser também identificados nas Humanidades e, em certa medida, em algumas das áreas de Ciências Exatas e de Ciências da Vida: o renascentista e o fordista. Expressões essas que utilizei de modo inédito (ao menos para o Direito) em 2017 e que têm sido utilizadas em alguns artigos sobre o tema, concedendo-me os créditos por essa terminologia ou ignorando minha contribuição. Em uma segunda parte, (ii) examinarei a aplicação desses modelos na produção de periódicos e de livros. Na terceira e última parte (iii), demonstrarei a alteração radical do modelo de avaliação da Área do Direito no que se refere a essa mesma produção, a partir da Ficha de Avaliação do Direito de 2020. O peso específico da produção bibliográfica (livros e periódicos) caiu de 33% da Ficha
de Avaliação anterior para 6% do total da Ficha de 2020.

L’articolo parte dall’analisi del contesto costituzionale nell’ambito dell’istruzione e della scuola, incentrandosi in particolare sul rapporto tra funzione scolastica, centralità della persona e ruolo dei pubblici poteri. Su tale base, verrà proposta
la qualificazione della scuola come comunità, intesa quale formazione sociale attraverso la quale si forma e svolge la personalità degli individui. Il quadro teorico proposto verrà quindi messo alla prova attraverso l’analisi di due ambiti specifici del settore scolastico, all’interno dei quali la tenuta della rete costituzionale costituita dagli articoli 33 e 34 e 2 e 3 Cost. raggiunge il livello di “rottura” più elevato. I casi analizzati sono la disciplina dell’accesso all’istruzione degli studenti
disabili e degli studenti stranieri. In sede di conclusioni, il quadro normativo verrà riconsiderato sulla base dell’analisi dei due casi di studio, inserendo la variabile, decisiva nel determinare il livello di corrispondenza tra quadro costituzionale e quadro normativo di attuazione, del finanziamento del “diritto allo studio”, la cui effettiva realizzazione risulta condizionata dagli investimenti finanziari garantiti in tale ambito dall’intervento pubblico, anche alla luce della giurisprudenza costituzionale (ed europea) in termini di natura economicamente condizionata del diritto all’istruzione.

This paper examines the moral and legal justifications for leveling down in education. Leveling down occurs when equality is pursued by taking away advantage, or limiting it, rather than by improving the situation of the worse off. Leveling down may seem irrational and immoral, an action motivated wholly by envy. This paper argues that in the realm of education, this intuitive reaction should be rejected and restricting advantage is crucial for achieving justice.
The article is comprised of two parts. The first puts forward a philosophical argument in support of leveling down in education. This argument is based on the contemporary philosophical debate concerning distributive justice in education, which recognizes that education is a “positional good”, meaning that its value for individuals is determined according to their relative standing compared to others. This relative nature entails that it is not enough, in terms of justice, to promote the education of the disadvantaged and limiting the ability to gain advantage is indispensible. 
In the second part of the paper I perform a comprehensive analysis of the protection Israeli Education Law grants the principle of equality in education, and whether it extends also to measures of leveling down.  The analysis focuses on two issues that are the subject of frequent legal attention: resource allocation and student assignment. The conclusion is that while legislation and court cases purport to offer a strong protection to educational equality, this protection does not, for the most part, include measures of leveling down such as limiting parental ability to invest additional resources, or choose segregated schools for their children. As a result, I argue that Israeli education law in Israel is unable to ensure meaningful educational justice. The article points to a few recent regulations and court decisions that do recognize the need for limiting advantage in education. These decisions suggest a more robust interpretation of the principle of educational equality that should be further developed.

This paper focuses the attention of the right to basic education in the Constitution on the priorities identified in the South African Schools Act. The paper identifies underperformance as one of those priorities and proceeds to analyse the legislation, compliance with the legislation and various strategies that can be engaged to ensure that underperformance is addressed so as to advance the right to basic education.

Καθώς η Κοινωνία της Πληροφορίας αναπτύσσεται με ταχύτατους ρυθμούς, οι τεχνολογικές κατακτήσεις από τον χώρο της επιστήμης των υπολογιστών και τηλεπικοινωνιών αποτελούν σημαντικό κεφάλαιο σε αρκετούς επιμέρους τομείς του κοινωνικού βίου, ανάμεσα στους οποίους είναι και ο πολιτισμός. Η πολιτισμική ποικιλομορφία του υπάρχοντος υλικού και η διάθεση για
αξιοποίηση της επιπρόσθετης εκπαιδευτικής του αξίας, σε συνδυασμό με την απαίτηση για διάσωση των πρωτότυπων έργων, συνθέτει ένα πολύπλοκο τεχνολογικό πρόβλημα με νομικές και κοινωνικές προεκτάσεις. Είναι πολύ σημαντικό το να μαθαίνουν οι μαθητές από την αρχή τον σεβασμό στη δημιουργία, στην προστασία της πνευματικής ιδιοκτησίας, αλλά και στην προφύλαξη
από διάφορους παράγοντες όπως το παράνομο κέρδος.
Στην ΣΤ΄ τάξη του 1ου Δημοτικού Σχολείου Κρυονερίου και σε συνεργασία με τον Οργανισμό Πνευματικής Ιδιοκτησίας υλοποιήσαμε ένα πρόγραμμα για την Πνευματική Ιδιοκτησία. Το πρόγραμμα αυτό εγκρίθηκε από το Υπουργείο Παιδείας και Θρησκευμάτων, με σκοπό την ενημέρωση και ευαισθητοποίηση των μαθητών της του Δημοτικού και ιδιαίτερα των μαθητών των δύο τελευταίων τάξεων για τη σημασία του έργου των δημιουργών  (συγγραφέων, εικαστικών,
φωτογράφων, μουσικοσυνθετών, δημιουργών λογισμικού, κ.λπ.) και των δικαιούχων συγγενικών δικαιωμάτων (τραγουδιστών, μουσικών, ηθοποιών, εκδοτών, παραγωγών ταινιών και δισκογραφικών εταιρειών).
Γενικός σκοπός ήταν οι μαθητές να συνειδητοποιήσουν ότι το δικαίωμα πνευματικής ιδιοκτησίας και τα συγγενικά δικαιώματα αποκτούν μια ολοένα αυξανόμενη σημασία στη σύγχρονη κοινωνία και οικονομική πραγματικότητα, ενώ συνιστούν καθοριστικό παράγοντα για την προώθηση της δημιουργικότητας και του πολιτισμού.

This Article is devoted to one of the most fascinating contemporary developments in American public education – the phenomenal rise of religious charter schools. Religious charter schools are established by a religious or cultural community with the aim of providing an education saturated with their respective values and culture. Despite their growing prevalence and the significant legal challenges they pose, they have, thus far, not been given sufficient attention by legal scholars. What little discussion there is focuses solely on religious charter schools’ incompatibility with the First Amendment’s Establishment Clause. This Article complements the discussion, highlighting another crucial aspect of religious charter schools: their negative impact on the educational opportunities of children from racial minorities and lower socioeconomic classes. The Article argues that because of their unique characteristics, religious charter schools are especially likely to have negative effects on educational equality, and makes the case for legislative intervention in order to prevent this outcome. First, the Article exposes and explores the central detrimental effects of religious charter schools: racial and socioeconomic segregation, and the twin-processes of ‘creaming’ and ‘cropping’. Then, based on a comprehensive critical survey of all charter legislation in the U.S. aimed at preventing segregation in the different States, the Article argues that charters’ antidiscrimination rules have the surprising effect of worsening inequality instead of alleviating it, and that the legislative measures aimed at ensuring integration cannot fully promote equality. Therefore, the Article supports a different strategy, adopted recently in Delaware, according to which religious charter schools should be authorized only if they do not compromise the education of students in traditional public schools.

South Africans have been afforded various rights as enshrined in the Bill of Rights (SA 19961) for the past 18 years. The right to equality (section 9), dignity (section 10), privacy (section 14), to be free from all forms of violence (section 12) and to enjoy
one‘s own culture and religion (sections 30, 31, 15) forms part of this package of rights. Whereas the South African Constitution protects individual rights such as
the right to dignity and bodily integrity, collective rights of cultural and religious groups are also protected, including the right to practice a culture or religion collectively and to ensure its survival. In some instances conflict may arise between the rights of the individual and the collective rights of the cultural group to practice its culture. Well-known examples of such conflicts within the African context are forced marriages and some aspects of initiation practices. Children and the girl-child in particular, often find themselves within these conflicts and are, therefore, in need of special protection. In a study funded by the South African Netherlands Project for Alternative
Development (SANPAD) (Roux 2009) which explored religious and cultural practices that are meaningful to girls in the South African context, the possible conflicts between religious and cultural rights on the one hand, and the individual rights of the child on the other hand were specifically probed. This chapter
explores and reflects on findings that relate specifically to those religious and cultural practices that girls reported in their narratives and the conflicts that exist between the rights of the community to practice its culture and religion and the
individual rights of the learners to, inter alia, equality, dignity and bodily integrity. A picture is formed of the dilemmas learners and their educators are faced with in their communities and some recommendations are made for Human Rights Education.

This article studies the privatization of education in Israel in the past ten years, focusing on three important processes that have not been sufficiently addressed in the legal and educational literature: the incorporation of private schools into the public education system; publicization of Ultra-orthodox schools; and delegation of the management and operation of public schools from local authorities to private education networks.The examination of these processes show that Israel’s education policy in the past ten years does not comply with the typical characteristics of privatization. In fact, some of these even constitute, officially at least, a retreat from privatization, by widening the public sector’s involvement in education. However, these processes do not contribute to the realization of the goals of public education in a democratic state, including promoting equal opportunity, providing civic education and ensuring all students receive an adequate education. Instead, the processes have eroded the distinction between public and private education, which is no longer a helpful indicator for the strength of the public education system in Israel.   

המאמר עוסק בהפרטת מערכת החינוך בישראל ומתמקד בניתוח התהליכים שהתרחשו בעשר השנים האחרונות. המאמר מנתח שלושה מקרי בוחן חשובים מהשנים האחרונות שטרם זכו לליבון מספק בספרות המשפטית וחלקם גם לא בספרות המחקר החינוכי: הטמעת מרבית בתי הספר המוכרים שאינם רשמיים בתוך מערכת החינוך הממלכתית; הצברה של החינוך החרדי; וניהול בתי ספר ממלכתיים והפעלתם על ידי גופים פרטיים. הניתוח מראה שמדיניות החינוך בישראל בעשור האחרון אינה מתנהלת על פי המאפיינים הטיפוסיים של הפרטה כפי שהיה בעבר, וחלק מן התהליכים אף מהווים, פורמלית, נסיגה מהפרטה והגדלת הסקטור הציבורי-ממלכתי בחינוך. יחד עם זאת, מבחינה מהותית תהליכים אלה אינם תורמים להגשמת המטרות החברתיות של חינוך ציבורי במדינה דמוקרטית, ובכלל זה שוויון הזדמנויות, חינוך לערכים דמוקרטיים, והבטחת חינוך איכותי לכלל התלמידים. תהליכים אלו שחקו את ההבחנה בין חינוך ציבורי ובין חינוך פרטי כך שהיא אינה מועילה עוד לשם הערכת חוסנו של החינוך הציבורי בישראל.

This chapter begins by outlining the routes through which children 'drop out' of school. It then draws on the failings of the English system to suggest six key 'lessons' for other jurisdictions. The first centres on how academic results-driven accountability measures push schools and decision-makers into unjustifiably excluding children. The second demonstrates the vulnerability of discretionary frameworks to perverse incentives and unintended negative consequences for children at risk of 'drop out'. The third highlights the difficulties created by increased autonomy for teachers and schools. The fourth reveals how additional protections for particularly vulnerable children are constrained by the broader exclusion regime. The fifth and sixth demonstrate the need for jurisdictions to revisit the conceptual and empirical basis of their legal frameworks for exclusion, whether grounded in 'best interests', competing 'interests', or 'children's rights'. It concludes by emphasising the need to develop empirical evidence to underpin decisions around 'drop out'.

The role that international human rights mechanisms play in strengthening the sense of accountability of states for respecting, protecting and fulfilling human rights of people within their jurisdiction is tremendous. The whole plethora of methods from dialogue, awareness raising and capacity-building to monitoring of compliance with binding human rights instruments and supranational judicial review – all count towards reinforcing national systems of realisation and protection of human rights.
The purpose of this paper is to reveal (1) how international human rights mechanisms contribute to shaping normative content of the right to education  that can be effectively enforced through available system of judicial and quasi-judicial protection, and (2) how these mechanisms can be used to indicate and address inadequacies of implementation of the internationally recognised right to education and to bridge existing gaps of protection of this right.

In education, talk of "the teaching profession" and "educational professionals" is commonplace. Teaching also belongs to the category of profession according to the United Nations' International Standard Classification of Occupations International. Yet all are keenly aware that teachers do not enjoy the social prestige, generous salaries and flexible working conditions typical of professions like medicine, law and dentistry. There may be legitimate debates over the relative social or economic importance of different occupations and whether certain fields of work receive the appreciation they deserve. The fact remains, however, that being a "professional" is a legal designation. For whatever reason, in all of Canada except for Ontario, as in most other countries in the world, teachers are not professionals in the eyes of the law. Why, then, do people in the field of education continue to speak as if teachers were professionals? Is "professional" used in some non-legal sense, perhaps as a figurative turn of phrase? Or is describing teachers as professionals a way of asserting that teachers deserve to be recognized by society as true professionals and teachers should have the right to regulate themselves in the ways that legally recognized professions do? To answer these questions, one has to go beyond dictionary definitions of "professional" and explore the meaning of the term as it applies to teachers and the work they do helping young people learn and develop in schools.

Human rights should not ony be respected an protected but should also be promoted and fulfilled.It is argued in this article that a punitive approach to school discipline can at best, and with several safety measures, ensure that  human rights are respected and protected. It is very hard to imagine that human rights can be promoted and fulfilled through punitive measures. On the other hand a restorative approach to discipline not only respect and protect the human rights of learners but also promote and fulfill their human righs.

As evidenced by countless reform recommendations, current educational policies, and the amount of education research dedicated to student achievement, it is clear the U.S. educational system is meant to provide equal access to academic achievement opportunities for all students. Teachers are one of the pivotal components of this system, but there is substantial variation in their effectiveness. While it is essential that classrooms be led by well-educated, competent, and high-quality teachers,176 low-achieving students are often taught by teachers who are less qualified and less effective than are high-achieving students. Poor and minority students are also disproportionately assigned less qualified and less effective teachers. This inequitable distribution of effective teachers further compounds the disadvantage that high-poverty and high-minority students are faced with in school. Children most in need of strong teachers are being denied what arguably might be their most invaluable resource—teachers, which is reinforcing the inequalities.

This Article examines whether incorporating data mining technologies in education can promote equality. Following many other spheres in life, big data technologies that include creating, collecting and analyzing vast amounts of data about individuals, are increasingly being used in schools. This process has already elicited much interest among scholars, parents, and the public at large. Yet this attention has largely focused on aspects of student privacy and data protection, and overlooked the profound effects data mining may have on educational equality. The Article embarks on this task by focusing on one educational practice, namely ability grouping, that is already being transformed by educational data mining. 
Ability grouping is the practice of separating students into classes or tracks according to their perceived academic abilities. While some educators support the practice, arguing that it allows teachers to adjust themselves to the needs of their students, critics argue that ability grouping reinforces educational inequalities. Implicit biases that pervade educational decision-making processes result in the stratification of students from racial and ethnic minorities and students from poor families to lower tracks in which they receive inferior education and limited opportunities.
Given the well documented biases in traditional ability grouping, Data Driven Ability Grouping – the use of algorithms to inform assignment decisions – may be a step in the right direction. However, as the Article demonstrates, the use of data mining technologies for ability grouping creates a whole host of unique challenges in terms of educational equality.
The Article argues that traditional doctrines of equal protection will be unable to contend with the biases that data driven ability groping is likely to create. Instead, the Article offers a novel approach to the legal regulation of data driven ability grouping that involves integrating legal and technological expertise and creating equality-sensitive algorithms. The combination between legal and technological solutions can ensure that data driven ability grouping decreases biases in ability grouping and promotes educational equality.

Since its emergence as a coherent field of study a half century ago, legal socialization has moved to the forefront of conversations about legal reform across multiple fields. Amidst all this work, however, there is surprisingly little scholarship on an obvious, but understudied question: Does the law itself recognize legal socialization? Knowing whether, and how, American law recognizes its need to legally socialize the citizenry toward democratic norms is a critical step for bridging the divide between legal socialization scholarship and social policy reform. For this essay, we consider all 50 state constitutions, including all previous versions. Our analysis focuses on several specific areas where the text explicitly or implicitly addresses the law as a socializing agent. What we find is a diverse landscape of state law that ranges from silence to indirect and direct endorsement of legal socialization as a purpose of law, an obligation of the state, and a right of the individual citizen. Yet we also find that these acknowledgments are complex and at times contradictory, reflecting deep fissures between the law's commitments to democratic republicanism and its anti-democratic commitments to the maintenance of privilege and overt oppression.

Niall FERGUSON (Glasgow, 1964), profesor de la Universidad de Harvard y de la de Stanford, es, probablemente, uno de los intelectuales más influyentes en la actualidad al mundo anglosajón. En el año 2012 publicó una de sus monografías más populares, titulada "The great degeneration: how institutions decay and economías die". Se trata de un ensayo brillante sobre la prosperidad de las naciones y las causas de su decadencia. Ferguson mantiene que numerosos países de Occidente han iniciado una lenta decadencia por el estancamiento de los cuatro pilares sobre los cuales, en su opinión, se ha sustentado el progreso: democracia, economía de libre mercado, imperio de la ley y sociedad civil. En este sentido, al referirse a este último "pilar", diagnostica que el debilitamiento del capital social y el insatisfactorio rendimiento académico en muchas sociedades desarrolladas, entre otras muchas causas, tienen origen en el casi monopolio estatal en el mundo educativo no universitario. Llega a afirmar, no sin cierta polémica, que «el problema es que los proveedores monopolistas de la enseñanza pública sufren los mismos problemas que afligen los proveedores monopolistas del que sea: la calidad disminuye a causa de la falta de competencia y lo subrepticios poderes de los intereses creados de los productores». Es cierto que durante aproximadamente 100 años la expansión de la enseñanza estatal fue una política acertada. Ahora bien, hoy es necesario reconocer los límites de las políticas monopolistas en la enseñanza, especialmente para aquellas sociedades que hace ya tiempos que han conseguido la alfabetización masiva. Este autor escocés, con acierto, señala que los países inteligentes están alejándose del monopolio educativo del Estado y permitiendo a la sociedad civil asumir más protagonismo.

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Niall FERGUSON (Glasgow, 1964), professor de la Universitat de Harvard i de la de Stanford, és, probablement, un dels intel·lectuals més influents en l'actualitat al món anglosaxó. L'any 2012 va publicar una de les seves monografies més popu-lars, titulada The great degeneration: how institutions decay and economies die. Es tracta d'un assaig brillant sobre la pros-peritat de les nacions i les causes de la seva decadència. Ferguson manté que nombrosos països d'Occident han iniciat una lenta de-cadència per l'estancament dels quatre pilars sobre els quals, en la seva opinió, s'ha sustentat el progrés: democràcia, economia de lliure mercat, imperi de la llei i societat civil. En aquest sentit, en referir-se a aquest últim "pilar", diagnostica que l'afebliment del capital social i l'insatisfactori rendiment aca-dèmic en moltes societats desenvolu-pades, entre moltes altres causes, tenen origen en el quasi monopoli estatal en el món educatiu no universitari. Arri-ba a afirmar, no sense certa polèmica, que «el problema és que els proveïdors monopolistes de l'ensenyament públic sofreixen els mateixos problemes que afligeixen els proveïdors monopolistes del que sigui: la qualitat disminueix a causa de la falta de competència i el subreptici poder dels interessos creats dels productors». És cert que durant aproximadament 100 anys l'expansió de l'ensenyament estatal va ser una política encertada. Ara bé, avui és necessari reconèixer els límits de les polítiques monopolistes en l' en-senyament, especialment per a aquelles societats que fa ja temps que van acon-seguir l'alfabetització massiva. Aquest autor escocès, amb encert, assenyala que els països intel·ligents estan allunyant-se del monopoli edu-catiu de l'Estat i permetent a la societat civil assumir més protagonisme

This book is the collection of essays resulting from a series of workshops and a conference held in 2013 and 2015, organized to draw attention to legal problems arising out of linguistic diversity in education. It explores the question ‘How do education policy makers regulate language and linguistic diversity in education?’ and the legal framework underpinning policy making in this area by conducting a comparative examination of education law regulating the use of  language in education.  In doing so, the book reveals the diversity of language policies in education from a legal perspective.

This study aims to respond to the question of whether the implementation of government-sponsored e-governance legislations and plans by school organizations affects the unionization perspective of the leaders of principals' professional associations in Quebec. The findings suggest that participants do not support the idea of unionizing their professional associations because they are satisfied with the current course of their employment relationships with the government and the quality of the present collective bargaining system.

This paper delineates the conflicts that can arise between students' participation rights and other human rights and presents a model that conceptualises these conflicts. It fills a gap in the developing literature on participation rights in education, which has yet to systematically address the possible ramifications of practices that implement these rights. The paper describes how students' participation may constrain various other children's rights: the right not to participate, not to be discriminated against, and to be protected from violence and abuse. In addition, it discusses possible clashes between the one-size-fits-all model of student participation and the rights of children and parents to culturally adaptable education. The paper also analyses how neoliberal practices of participation, such as high-stake student perception surveys, may undermine the social interest to empower teachers, which is intertwined with children's best interest and their right to education.

In this course, education professionals examine legal and ethical issues within the context of an educational setting. Supporting development of their legal reasoning skills, education professionals discuss the laws and statutes that inform the operation of educational organizations. They also engage in assignments that emphasize the ways ethics affect decision making, professional conduct, and educational policies when analyzing critical issues in educational leadership. (Prerequisite(s): Core courses EDUC 8113, EDUC 8114, EDUC 8115, EDUC 8116, EDUC 8117, and EDUC 8118.)

ABSTRACT
The right to education is among the human social rights and requires the passive attitude of the State as well as its active participation. The Covid-19 pandemic has paved the way for the digitalization of education. That transformation has affected future jurists together with all students. Law education does not consist of merely providing access to knowledge. Graduates should be equipped with the essential qualifications required for being a jurist. Law students undergo a serious and carefully designed formation process that consists of theory, practice, and ethics because knowledge alone is not enough for a jurist. Jurists must also pay attention to their appearance, express themselves with care, and emphasize the priority of the honour of the law profession in all areas of their life. Considering both field and elective courses, the law faculty curriculum is primarily weighted toward the civil law department. This department greets students with preliminary provisions and the law of persons in the first semester, concluding with the law of inheritance in the final year. This department also teaches family law and law of obligations to first-year and second-year students. Contact with third-year students in this department is also quite intense with two extra field courses. Effective and sincere communication between the faculty members of the civil law department and the students is of utmost importance for law students to absorb both the essence of law and professional ethics. Law student’s right to education can only be satisfied by the professional maintenance of civil law courses. As the education system was confined to the computer due to the pandemic, law faculties took a step towards education over the internet. The principal problem of online education for law faculties is the inability of faculty members in civil law department to communicate effectively with their students. The development of sincere, close, and respectful relations between faculty members who teach civil law courses and the students is the basis of adequately satisfying the right to law education. Although blended education will be increasingly adopted in the future, the hybrid education model is not applied uniformly in all universities. The definition of blended education in the educational sciences is clear, however. Blended education in the courses offered by the civil law department can strengthen the connection between faculty members and students. Blended education explanations in the educational sciences should be utilized. Thus, significant quality improvement at the core of the right to law education through faculty members of the civil law department can be envisaged at the national level.
ÖZET
Eğitim hakkı, sosyal-ekonomik-kültürel haklar arasında yer alır ve Devletin aktif katılımı kadar pasif tutumunu da gerektirir. Salgın, eğitim-öğretimin dijitaleşmesine zemin hazırlamıştır. Bu dönüşüm tüm öğrenciler kadar müstakbel hukukçuları da etkilemiştir. Hukuk öğretimi ve hukukçunun eğitimi bilgilere erişimin sağlanmasından ibaret değildir. Mezunlar hukukçuluğun gerektirdiği elzem niteliklerle bezenmelidir. Hukuk öğrencilerine, ciddî ve programlı formasyon yüklenmektedir. Bu formasyon, teorik, pratik ve etik üçlüsünden oluşur. Hukukçunun bilmesi kâfi gelmez. Hukukçu, dış görünüşüne titizlik göstermeli, kendisini ifadede asil duruş sergilemeli ve hayat alanlarının tamamında hukuk meslek onuru önceliğini dışa vurmalıdır. Gerek alan dersleri gerek seçimlik dersler dikkate alındığında, hukuk fakültesi müfredatında yoğunluk, evvel emirde medenî hukuk anabilim dalındadır. Medenî hukuk anabilim dalı, öğrenciyi ilk sınıfta, başlangıç hükümleri ve kişiler hukukuyla karşılar; son sınıfta ise, miras hukukuyla uğurlar. Bu anabilim dalının birinci ve ikinci sınıf öğrencilerine aile ve borçlar hukuklarını aktardığı hatırlatılmalıdır. Ayrıca, üçüncü sınıf öğrencileriyle teması, iki alan dersiyle yine oldukça yoğundur. Hukuk öğrencilerinin hem hukukun özünü hem de meslek etiğini hazmetmesinde, medenî hukuk anabilim dalı öğretim üyeleriyle öğrenciler arasında etkin ve içten iletişim azamî önem arz eder. Hukuk öğrencisinin eğitim hakkı, medenî hukuk derslerinin profesyonel idamesiyle ancak tatmin edilebilir. Salgın üzerine bilgisayara hapsolan eğitim sisteminde, hukuk fakülteleri internet üzerinden öğretime adım atmıştır. Hukuk fakültelerinde çevrimiçi öğretimin başat sorunu medenî hukuk öğretim üyelerinin öğrencileriyle etkili irtibat kuramamasıdır. Oysa medenî hukuk derslerini yürüten öğretim üyeleriyle öğrenciler arasında sıkı, yakın ve saygılı ilişki geliştirilmesi hukuk eğitimi hakkının layıkıyla tatmin edilmesinin temeli sayılabilir. İlerleyen süreçte, harmanlanmış öğretim modeline geçilse de hibrit yöntem üniversitelerde yeknesak uygulanmamaktadır. Aslında eğitim bilimlerinde harmanlanmış öğretim tanımı açıktır. Medenî hukuk anabilim dalı tarafından yürütülen derslerde harmanlanmış öğretim, öğretim üyesi ve öğrencilerin irtibatını kuvvetlendirebilir. Eğitim bilimlerindeki harmanlanmış öğrenme açıklamalarından medenî hukuk derslerinde istifade edilmelidir. Böylece, medenî hukukçular vasıtasıyla hukuk eğitimine yönelik hakkın özünde anlamlı kalite artışı ulusal düzeyde öngörülebilir.

ABSTRACT In this article we problematise the fact that human rights legislation, whether intentionally or otherwise, reinforces binary categories such as ‘heterosexual’ or ‘homosexual’. This form of ‘othering’ highlights the incongruence between what the legislation offers and sexual minorities’ lived experiences. We argue that human rights thus constitute a double-edged sword that may discourage ‘coming out’. Our critique of human rights is based on the findings of a research project in which 1 086 pre-service teachers across six national public tertiary universities in South Africa participated in a survey and/or in focus-group discussions (FGDs). The survey findings suggested that participants see human rights as implying freedom, dignity and equality for all, irrespective of sexual identity. Yet, a closer analysis of the data revealed that gay and lesbian participants do not necessarily experience the freedom, equality and dignity entrenched in human rights documents. An analysis of the data from the FGDs supported this notion as it revealed homophobic ‘othering’ attitudes on the side of pre-service teachers. Finally, we reflect on the ways in which the boundaries of ‘the closet’ have been reinforced through the ‘othering’ of sexual selfhood and consider how pre-service teachers grapple with some of the complexities surrounding issues of sexual diversity in education contexts.

This chapter considers the legal aspects of the standpoint of pedagogical impartiality required by Quebec’s Ethics and Religious Literacy curriculum. Because the guidelines on teacher impartiality were designed in part to protect the curriculum against legal challenges, a better understating of their legal underpinning has implication for other Canadian provinces and territories wishing to implement similar rules on impartiality for public sector teachers or introduce teaching and learning about religion into the curriculum. The chapter shows that the curriculum’s requirement that teachers avoid expressing their personal opinions in class and adopt a descriptive, non-critical approach to teaching about religion has grounding in international jurisprudence on religious education in public schools and in Canadian jurisprudence on the legal obligation of public schools to maintain a welcoming environment. Based on this analysis, the chapter draws out four lessons about teacher neutrality for Canadian educators: (1) teacher impartiality is a sine qua non of compulsory religious education; (2) the legal shelter afforded by impartiality depends on teacher compliance; (3) impartiality is an obligation of teacher conduct, not public school systems as such; (4) the state’s ability to mandate teacher impartiality is limited in the case of confessional schools.

Education is one of those non-economic sectors which have entered the EU competences recently. Vocational training, on the other hand, has been involved since the beginning in the European integration process, in the view of industrial and productive cooperation. These two areas are formally distinct, but they are actually deeply connected thanks to the material policies operated by the European institutions, as well as to the European Union Court of Justice case law. Both of them are sensitive policy sectors, as they traditionally belong to a sphere of national choice. This is reflected by the creation in the Lisbon treaty of the category of the “support, coordinate and supplement” competences, where any harmonization of laws and regulations is excluded. In this context, the legally binding nature of the acts adopted in this field is uncertain and they have often been acritically labelled as “soft law” tout court. The European institutions have adopted a variety of acts and legislation, followed by several programmes and actions. Moving from the overview of the relevant treaties provisions, a deeper analysis of the subsequent operative acts may clarify their hypothetical attitude to produce legal obligations. Keeping in mind the literature about “soft law” in the EU administrative system, it is possible to investigate if the binding nature of other EU and national legal instruments indirectly involves the education and training sector. This way, the thesis will discuss the functioning of those relations, their impact on the national education systems and policies and, in prospective, the distinction between what is actually law and what is not in this field.