Caie Igcse Evm 0680 Theory v1

CAIE IGCSE EVM (0680)
1. Rocks and minerals and

their exploitation
1.1. Formation of rocks
The rock cycle: a representation of the changes between
the
three rock types and the processes causing them.
Exploring for minerals:

Prospecting: a process of searching for minerals by
examining
the surface of the rocks.
Remote sensing: a process in which information is
gathered about
the Earth’s surface from above.
Photographs of the area are taken from air.
The images are carefully analysed for mineral
presence.
Aerial photography can cover more ground than a
person on the
surface.
Radiation detection:
Mineral deposits are weathered at the Earth’s surface,
forming
mineral oxides.
They can be detected by their unique radiation
Types of rocks: pattern
(recorded by a satellite and downloaded to a
Igneous rocks: computer for
analysis).
Made when liquid magma cools to form solid rock. Satellite signals:
Molten rock below the surface is called magma, Some satellites send signals to the Earth’s surface and
and lava when
it reaches the surface. collect the reflected signals, indicating the presence of
Extrusive igneous rock: if the rock cools quickly, minerals.
small
crystals are formed e.g. basalt. The system works in all weather conditions.
Intrusive igneous rock: if the rock cools slowly, Satellite images:
large
crystals are formed e.g. granite. Computers are used to process the data from a
Sedimentary rocks: region of
interest to check for mineral presence.
Formed by the weathering of existing rocks at the Geologists confirm the presence of the mineral by
Earth’s
surface. visiting the
location (recorded by the satellite’s
Fossils may be present. positioning system).
Sediments (small particles of rocks) accumulate
into layers and get pressurized due to the newer
deposits above them.
The sediments are transported by water and wind
(erosion).
Particles like clays, silts, sands, gravels and small
boulders
are found in sediments.
Examples: limestone, sandstone and shale.
Metamorphic rocks:
Formed from existing rock when heat and/or
pressure causes
changes in the rock crystals
without melting it.
The changes can be physical, chemical or both.
Examples: marble and slate.
1.2. Extraction of rocks and minerals

from the Earth Geologists can further check the availability of the
mineral
in nearby areas.
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Using satellites saves time and costs less. The vegetation is cleared and topsoil removed.
Geochemical analysis: analysing the chemical
properties of
rocks (by taking samples).
The samples can be taken from stream sediments,
soil or rocks
(using shallow drilling).
The location of the sample points can be accurately
found
using the Global Positioning System (GPS).
Geophysics: method to identify mineral ores present in
rocks
using their physical properties.
A series of vibrations (seismic waves) are sent through
the
Earth’s surface.
Several sensors are placed at different distances from
the
source of vibrations on the surface.
The rocks are broken up and loosened with

explosives.
The vibrations create shock waves that travel down The loose rock is removed using diggers.
into the
rock layers. The rock or mineral is tipped into trucks or railway
They are reflected back to the sensors on the surface. wagons.
The shock waves record different patterns depending Building materials such as sand, gravel and stone are
on the
mineral present in the rock layers. removed
from open pits called quarries.
Methods of extraction: Strip mining is used to mine a seam of mineral.
Surface mining: includes open-cast (open-pit, open-cut) The overburden (overlying rock and soil) is removed
and
strip mining. as a thin
strip.
Open-pit mining is used when a valuable deposit is
located
near the surface.
It is mainly used to mine coal.

Sub-surface mining: includes deep and shaft mining.
A vertical shaft is sunk down to the rock layer
containing
minerals.
A horizontal tunnel is made, following the mineral
layer.
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The profit from a working mine depends on changes

in supply
and demand.
If the demand is too high, mines that were not
profitable
before become worth mining.
If the demand falls, working mines may get into a loss
due to
the transport and extraction expenses.
1.3. Impact of rock and mineral

extraction
Environmental impacts:
The minerals are extracted by digging (by machines
Ecological impacts:
and
miners).
The loose rock is brought from the mine and piled up Loss of habitat as the vegetation is cleared
∴ plants
on waste
heaps on the surface. do not have a place to grow,
so the animals
depending on them for food and shelter are
affected.
The minerals are brought to the surface and
transported in
trucks or trains. After deep mining has been working for several years,
more
habitats will be destroyed due to the increased
Factors that affect the decision to extract rocks and
overburden
aboveground.
minerals:
The costs of exploration and extraction: Pollution:
Probable cost of extracting one tonne is calculated. Noise pollution: due to machinery and explosives
∴
There are fewer technical difficulties of mining on a disturbs the behaviour of animal
species and causes
large
scale using open-pit mining as there’d be low hearing problems for people.
extraction costs
per tonne. Water pollution: water supplies may also be polluted,
Shaft mining is costlier to set up and maintain as the making it unsafe for people to drink.
cost
per tonne will be higher. So, only deposits of The water may become acidic and dissolve toxic metal
higher value
can be mined in this way. ions-this
combination kills many aquatic organisms.
Bioaccumulation: organisms absorb the ions and
Geology:
High-grade ores yield more of the required chemical retain them
in their body, reaching concentration
elements
than low-grade ores. higher than that in
water.
Biomagnification: the concentrations increase higher
Small deposits of high-grade ore are worth mining.
Small deposits of low-grade ore that cannot be mined up in
the food chain and cause the death of top
at a
profit are left as reserves. consumers.
Accessibility: Land pollution: toxic nature of the waste doesn’t allow
Transporting the ore from the mine to processing plant growth even years after the mining is stopped.
plants can be
difficult and expensive. Air pollution: dust particles settle on the vegetation,
The cost of building road or rail links to the processing not allowing sunlight to reach the leaves and thus,
plant or to the nearest port for export has to be reducing
the rate of photosynthesis.
considered. Breathing in dust that remains in the lungs can cause
Carrying out some processing at the mine reduces serious
lung diseases.
transport
costs. Visual pollution: landscape is damaged.
The mining company must be given a licence before Waste management: (refer to section 1.4 Managing
the
impact of rock and mineral extraction)
extracting a
deposit.
A long-term agreement between the government and Economic impacts:
mining
company must be reached to avoid rapid rises Provides employment for people and taxes for the
government.
in the tax, which
makes the mining unprofitable.
Environmental impact assessment: Jobs are created directly to extract the mineral;
For a licence application to be approved, the company Further jobs are created to supply transport and
must
have a plan to keep the loss of habitat minimal, mining
equipment;
followed by
the restoration of land proceeding the More jobs are created when the mineral is refined to
completion of mining. make
products;
The choice of site for mine waste should also be If all these activities occur in the same country, it will
considered. generate the most income;
Supply and demand: the relation between how much of a Earn foreign exchange.
commodity
is available and how much is needed or The income earned can be used for buying goods and
wanted by the consumers. services and
investing in infrastructure projects.
Increase in world demand for any mineral ore will Improvements to transport;
elevate the
prices.
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Improvements to services, like healthcare and These nature reserves become valuable green spaces for
education; human
recreation and help in maintaining biodiversity.
These services can be helpful for miners and their If the rock lining the hole (created by the extraction) is
families
too; non-toxic
and impervious to water, it can be filled with
Investing in infrastructure projects can help the water to form a
reservoir or lake.
country in
building more well-designed communities. It is used for irrigating farmland or processed to provide
clean,
safe drinking water for humans.
1.4. Managing the impact of rock and Using as landfill sites:
Landfilling: the waste is tipped into a hole; from time to
mineral extraction time
it is levelled off and compacted.
Sanitary landfilling: As in landfilling, the waste is used to
Safe disposal of mining waste: fill the hole, but alternating layers of waste and sand are
Mine waste must be stored to prevent collapse. used.
Site of the mine must prevent the chances of water
pollution.
The waste must be monitored to detect any movement or
1.5. Sustainable use of rocks and
further
pollution. minerals
Land restoration:
Soil improvement: Sustainable resource: a resource that can be continuously
After (sanitary) landfilling, mine waste can be covered replenished e.g. agriculture, forestry, etc.
by a
layer of soil, that can be enriched with fertilisers. Sustainable development: development that meets the

needs of the
present, without compromising the ability of
future generations to
meet their own needs.
Strategies for the sustainable use of rocks and minerals:
Increasing the efficiency of the extraction of rocks and
minerals:
Mine wastes must be processed for the second time.
Tree planting: This allows the valuable minerals to be recovered and
After improving the soil fertility, plants and trees can reduces
the risk of pollution due to mine waste.
be
grown in that area, helping an ecosystem to be Chemical treatment of the waste and biological
reborn. treatment
(using microorganisms) extracts much of
Bioremediation: a process of removing pollutants from the valuable mineral
still within it.
waste
using living organisms. Improvements in the performance of the machines
In situ treatment: treatment of contaminated waste used in mining
and processing.
where it’s
left. Greater use of data analysis by computers (to predict
Ex situ treatment: removal of contaminated waste from a geological conditions).
site to
a treatment plant. Increasing the efficiency of the use of rocks and minerals:
Often happens slowly (can be sped up by providing Engineering solutions e.g. design steel beams with
oxygen and
nitrogen). same
strength but using less steel.

The need to recycle rocks and minerals:

Recycling uses less energy than processing the ores.
Recycling also produces less waste and thus, reduces
the risk
of pollution.
Legislation:
The governments pass laws that require
manufacturers to become
responsible for recycling
and reuse.
Microorganisms, like bacteria, can absorb pollutants and
metabolise
them into less harmful substances.
Some plants have the ability to bioaccumulate toxic 2. Energy and the
metals.
After these plants grows for a while, the parts of the environment
plants
aboveground are removed so the waste in the
ground becomes less
toxic. 2.1. Fossil fuel formation
Making lakes and natural reserves:
Several tree and herb species are introduced. Fossil fuels: carbon-based fuels, formed over millions of
As their populations grow, they create habitats for many years ago from the decay of living matter.
species. Coal: formed from plants.
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Oil and natural gas: formed from sea creatures. Non-renewable Renewable
Formation of coal: Fossil fuels (coal, oil and
Huge forests grew millions of years ago covering most Geothermal power
natural gas)
of the
Earth.
Nuclear power (using
Hydro-electric power
uranium)
Tidal power
Wave power
Wind power
Solar power
Biofuels e.g. bioethanol,
biogas and wood
Nuclear fuels last for centuries and are a good

replacement for
fossil fuels, but the source material
The vegetation died and formed peat. (uranium) is limited.
The peat was compressed between layers of Biofuels may become limited, but it can be renewed by
sediments to form lignite
(low-grade coal). replacing the
cut-down trees with new ones to obtain
Further compression formed coal. bioethanol and wood.
Formation of oil and natural gas: Biogas can be obtained by recycling waste products.
Small animals and plants die and fall to the bottom of How energy sources are used to generate electricity:
the sea. Turbine: a machine, often containing fins, that is made to
Their remains are covered by sediments. revolve by gas, steam or air (it is connected to a
As the sediments start forming layers, they start to generator).
change into
sandstone as the temperature and Generator: a machine that converts mechanical energy
pressure increase. into
electrical energy.
Fossil fuels and biofuels:
The heat and pressure turn the remains into crude oil
and natural
gas.
They separate and rise through the sandstone, filling
in the pores.
The rock above the oil and gas is impervious (non- These produce a massive amount of energy during
porous). combustion
that is used to heat water and convert it
So, they get trapped underneath it. into steam, which
thereby drives the turbines.
Nuclear power:
2.2. Energy resources and the Uranium, a radioactive element, releases huge
amounts of
energy when nuclear fission (splitting of
generation of electricity the atom) occurs.
This energy is used to heat the water, produce steam,
The demand for energy is increasing worldwide due to: and
rotate the turbines.
Increasing population size. Geothermal power:
Increasing industrialisation and urbanisation.
Improvements in standards of living and expectations.
Types of energy sources:
Non-renewable Renewable
Can be used over and over
Limited
again
Take millions of years to get Can be replenished in a short
replenished period of time
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Uses photovoltaic cells that produce a small electric

charge
when exposed to light.
A bank of cells organised into solar panels produce a
significant amount of electricity.
Tidal power:
Cold water is pumped under pressure into a layer of

hot rocks.
The rocks heat the water.
The hot water returns to the surface under pressure
and heats
the second supply of water using a heat
exchanger. Uses the natural rise and fall in the level of water in an
The steam produced in the second supply moves the area.
turbine,
generating electricity. When the levels drop, water is held back by a tidal
Wind power: barrage (a
small dam that releases water back
through a turbine).
Wave power:
Also uses turbine and generator.
Uses the smaller differences in water levels that are
caused
by wind.
Hydro-electric power:
Wind turbines have shafts (blades) that rotate due to Uses a dam on a river to store water in a reservoir.
wind. Water is released from the reservoir that flows
Gearbox maximises the rotation of the shaft. through the
turbine, rotating it.
Brakes slow down or stop the rotor in very windy The turbine then activates a generator that generates
conditions,
preventing damage to the blade. electricity.
As the turbine rotates, the generator produces Advantages and disadvantages of:
electricity. Fossil fuels:
Solar power:
Advantages Disadvantages
Carbon dioxide and toxic
gases are released when
Plentiful supply;
burnt contributes to global
warming;
Provides job opportunities
Damages local area;
(mining and processing);
The technology used is well-
Limited supply (non-
known and the methods of
renewable).
extraction are well-practised.
Biofuels:
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Advantages Disadvantages Decrease in the price of oil (energy source).

Carbon dioxide and toxic Climate:
Renewable source; gases are released when The demand for energy with regard to climate depends
burnt; on the country.
People living in a temperate climate are likely to
Lot of land needed.
Growing more plants uses experience colder
winters, so the energy demand for
Shortage of land for
carbon dioxide; heating would be far higher.
agriculture ‫؞‬
They also experience fewer hours of daylight.
Removal of natural This increases the usage of electrical lighting.
Plentiful supply.
ecosystems ‫؞‬ Climate change (excessive heat or cold) increased the
energy
consumption (particularly in urban areas).
2.3. Energy demand Need for additional heating.
Installation and operation of air-conditioning units.
Domestic demand:
Created by affordability, availability and social status. 2.4. Conservation and management of
Most of the purchases that are considered as necessities
now
increase the demand for energy supplies, notably
energy sources
electricity.
Strategies for the efficient management of energy
Example:
resources:
Fruits and vegetables, that aren’t naturally available in
Reducing consumption:
the
season locally, are produced in glasshouse or in

areas with a
favourable climate and are then
Reducing the amount of energy used to heat a
transported.
building.
In both the scenarios (glasshouse operation and
transport),
the energy cost is significant.
Industrial demand:
Manufacturing requires the use of large amounts of
energy throughout
the production e.g. iron and steel
production.
Advanced manufacturing techniques made the products,
that were once
luxury items, cheaper.
So, more people want to buy them.
The demand for the product increases.
The demand for energy (needed for production) also
increases.
Transport:
Manufacturers supply customers across the globe. Insulation: constructing using material with good
This decreases production costs in countries that import, insulation properties prevents loss of heat.
but
increases the transport costs as they require large Loft insulation: adding an insulation layer into the roof
amounts of
fossil fuels to operate. space.
Personal and national wealth: Underfloor insulation: adding an insulation layer on
If economic conditions are good: the
floor e.g. carpet.
Higher employment; Cavity wall insulation: a gap between inside and
More money to spend on luxury items; outside
walls is filled with an insulating material,
Increase in demand for the product; causing the heat
to pass through more slowly.
Increase in demand for energy (for production). Double glazing: two panes of glass with a gap in the
If economic conditions are poor: middle to act as an insulator.
Families have less money to spend on luxury items; This sealed gap is usually filled with air or an inert gas
Need to make savings; e.g. argon.
Reduce the use of fuel; Triple glazing can also be used, but it is too expensive.
Reduce the purchase and use of electrical items; Electrical devices must be turned off when not in use.
Decrease in the demand for energy. Devices can be left in ‘standby’ mode and can be
Decline in the economy of one country can have a global accessed
rapidly.
impact. More energy-efficient devices must be bought.
Reduction in the economy of China meant a worldwide: Developing alternative fuels for vehicles and further
Reduction in production of steel. development in engine technology.
Decrease in the amount of manufactured goods
(transported by
ships).
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
‘Scrappage’ schemes: remove inefficient machines backup when weather

conditions are not suitable.
from use
(electrical appliances or vehicles).
Energy from waste:
Reusing existing materials to extract energy from
them before
they are disposed.
Anaerobic digestion: breaking down of organic matter
(waste food and vegetation) using bacteria.
This process takes place in a sealed container and
releases
methane (a flammable gas) that can be used
for heating
purposes.
The composted waste can be used as organic matter
to improve
soil structure.
Household rubbish can be incinerated (burnt) to
produce heat,
that can be used to generate electricity;
Waste from burning (ash) is
Produces poisonous gases
small in volume. Thus, it This is a reliable source for industry and households
during combustion.
doesn’t take up much space. and
reduces the amount of fossil fuels used.
Transport policies:
Vegetable oils, once used, should be disposed; Regulations regarding the quality of exhaust gases
These oils can be collected and recycled into biofuels from
vehicles;
suitable
for running vehicles; Check on the fuel efficiency;
It can be used exclusively or as an additive. Restrictions on where vehicles may go;
Taxation on fuels;
Education: Surcharges for travelling to certain places at peak
Benefits of the technology must be communicated to times;
others; Improving public transport so it is easier and cheaper
Promote new ways of thinking; than
using cars;
The message must be that significant savings in Improving routes for cyclists and pedestrians;
energy bills
can be made over the longer term, Encouraging car-sharing;
reducing energy use; Restricting when cars can be used e.g. odd even rule
Energy-efficiency ratings must be provided for new in Delhi;
products to
compare with the old ones. Providing incentives to buy more fuel-efficient
Laws passed by the government to make changes vehicles and
for vehicles using cleaner technology.
rapidly: Development of new resources:
Stricter building regulations: new constructions must Fracking: obtaining oil or gas from shale rock by splitting
be
more energy efficient. them
open using water, sand and chemicals.
Preventing the sales of inefficient types of electrical A vertical hole (2-3 km deep) is drilled to reach the fuel-
devices. rich
rocks (shale rocks).
Incentives to encourage the purchase of more
efficient
technologies:
Insulating older houses that are energy efficient;
Replacing older, inefficient electrical devices;
Scrapping older, inefficient cars, that emit more
pollutants.
Exploiting existing energy resources:
The type of energy source used depends on social,
environmental and economic factors.
The current solution is to use a renewable resource as

a
primary energy source when possible and have a
fossil-fuel (or
biofuel) powered station available as a
Water, sand and chemicals are pumped down into the

shale rock layer.
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
This causes the rock to fracture, releasing oil and natural Organism or habitat Impact of oil
gas,
which are forced back to the surface and collected. Organisms in shallow water and
Purpose of the three components: rock pools may die due to toxic
Water: easy to handle (in high pressure).
effects of the oil;
Chemicals: stop the blockage of pipes.
Animal food sources and tourism
Sand: keeps the cracks in the rock open.
are affected.
Access to more oil and gas;

Risk of toxins entering the 2.6. Management of oil pollution
water table;
Less pollution than burning Chemicals are toxic and may Reducing oil spills in marine environments:
coal; affect local residents; MARPOL (Marine Pollution): International Convention for
the
Prevention of Pollution from Ships.
Uses a lot of water; may
The need to import reduces; Regulations of the MARPOL:
cause water scarcity;
Supervise the transport of oil at sea;
Noise pollution;
All tankers must be certificated to show they have
Natural areas damaged;
Provide many jobs locally. appropriate
systems in use;
May cause additional Earth Else, it can result in a heavy fine or the ship may not
tremors. be
permitted to leave port.
Tanker design:
2.5. Impact of oil pollution Oil spill can be caused by damage to the hull (a hole in
the
hull of the boat causes its contents to leak).
Main causes of marine oil spills: Increase in the number of compartments within the
Offshore oil extraction: leakage from the rigs. hull of
the ship: if one of the compartment’s damaged,
Oil pipelines: leaks in the oil pipework. the contents
of the whole ship aren’t lost.
Shipping: risk of collision or damage to oil tankers. Double-hulled tankers: if the outer layer’s damaged,
Effects of an oil spill: the
contents are still secure by the inner plate.

Organism or habitat Impact of oil

Oil floats on the surface of the
water and blocks the sunlight from
Phytoplankton
entering. The phytoplankton can’t
photosynthesise, so they die.
Shortage of food; reduction in
Fish
phytoplankton.
Though double-hulled tankers cost more than single-
Oil floating on the surface prevents
hulled, the
risks of oil spill are far less.
gas exchange. Fish become short of
Minimising the impact of oil spills:
oxygen and die; Direct contact of
Floating booms: a floating barrier is used to surround
the fish with oil affects their gills.
the
oil slick, preventing it from spreading.
Shortage of food as fish and other This process works well when the spill covers a
Birds
creatures die; relatively
small area and the sea is calm.
May consume oil when eating fish Detergent sprays: detergents help break down the oil
(toxic); slick
into smaller droplets, that eventually degrade,
When hunting for food, feathers and disperse
it.
get covered with oil, affecting their They are effective on smaller spills, but cause damage
ability to fly. to the
coral reefs themselves as they’re not tolerant to
Mammals Food sources are depleted; detergents.
Skimmers: clean the water using a material that oil
Mammals may also swallow oil
easily
attaches to.
while feeding (toxic);
Coating of oil will affect their skin.

Complete devastation of the reef
Reefs
due to lack of oxygen (species die);
Areas may be covered in oil.
Beaches Oil (washed by tides) coats rocks;
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Size of the mineral particles.

Soil can be classified into three groups:
Type Size Texture

Sand 2.0-0.02 mm Gritty
Silt 0.02-0.002 mm Silky or soapy
Sticky when wet and Hard when
clay <0.002 mm
dried
3.2. Soils for plant growth

The skimmer drags oil off the seawater surface, that is Soil is the cheapest and most abundant medium in which
then
scrapped off into a container. water,
mineral nutrients, anchorage and oxygen can be
This system is used when oil slick is contained within a supplied to a plant.
boom
and the sea is calm. Plants require a supply of nitrogen, phosphorus,
When the oil reaches beaches, it can only be removed potassium and a
range of other elements to construct
by hand
(difficult and time-consuming). proteins and carry out life
processes.
Element Supplied as
3. Agriculture and the Nitrogen Nitrate ions (NO3-)
environment Phosphorus Phosphate ions (PO43-)

Potassium Potassium ions (K+)
3.1. Soil composition
Organic content: decomposers that produce humus (rich
Mineral particles: combination of rock fragments and in
nutrients):
other
inorganic substances. Earthworms: break down vegetation; mix the soil; aerate
They are formed due to physical, chemical and biological the
soil; spread organic matter through the soil.
weathering
of the parent rock. Fungi: feed directly on dead matter; digest hard woody
Organic content: mixture of living plants, animals, items;
aid plants to take up nutrients through their roots.
microorganisms and their dead remains. Bacteria: work on organic matter; convert waste products
Air: held within the pore spaces (between the mineral to
simple chemicals; some convert nitrogen to nitrates
‫؞‬
particles
and organic content). important in nitrogen cycle.
Air enters the soil by diffusion. High levels of organic matter:
Increase the water-holding capacity (like a sponge);
Increase air spaces in the soil;
Increase no. of decomposers, tunnels and burrows in
the soil,
providing additional drainage and less compaction;
Prevent the loss of mineral nutrients (humus holds on
to mineral
nutrients).
Soil pH:
Depends on the type of parent rock and pH of water
that flows into
the area;
Affects the uptake of nutrients by plant roots;
Affects the availability of nutrients;
Farmers can try changing the pH of the soil either to
Water: held within the pore spaces (water that is available acidify it
for
plant growth). (using fertilisers that have an acidic effect) or make it
Water enters the soil when there’s precipitation or when alkaline
(adding ground limestone).
the soil is
irrigated.
The proportion of these components depends on: Sand Clay
Type of soil; Larger air spaces Poor air spaces
Way it has been managed;
Drains well Poor drainage
Local climatic conditions;
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Sand Clay Type Advantages Disadvantages

Poor retention of humus Retains humus Supplies organic matter Harder to transport
Easier to cultivate Hard to cultivate Variable in composition
Inorganic Meet a particular need Cost of manufacture
Drainage: capacity of the soil to drain water must be Easier to store Transportation costs
medium (no
water loss; no surplus amount of water).
quick Deficiency problems are Easily leach out in heavy
Ease of cultivation: how easily the soil can be ploughed.
acting dealt with swiftly rain
slow
3.3. Agriculture types acting
No need to reapply Little immediate impact
Subsistence Commercial Irrigation: supplying water to the crops.

Cultivation of food to meet Cultivation of food with the Large percentage of a plant is made up of water;
the needs of the farmers and main aim of selling them for Essential for cell activity;
their families; cash; Used in photosynthesis;
Surplus is bartered for other Some food may be used by Mineral nutrient uptake requires water in the soil;
goods (or cash). the farmers. The water must be free from pollution and low in salt.
Examples: tea, coffee, cocoa, Common water application methods:
Examples: wheat and rice. sugarcane, cotton, rice, Overhead Sprinklers
wheat and corn.
Large droplets may cap the
Arable Pastoral Easy to setup
soil
Production of plants for Production of animals or
Can cover a large area from Small droplets may be blown
consumption by humans. animal-related products.
one sprinkler away by wind
Examples: grass/grain (to
Examples: rice, wheat, maize No need to attach pipes to Water lands on leaves and
feed the animals), milk, wool
and soybeans. each plant soil, which evaporates quickly
and eggs.
Clay Pot Irrigation System

Mixed:
Farms that grow crops for food and rear animals.
Only suitable for permanent
3.4. Increasing agricultural yields Simple technology;
plants;
Easy to check the amount of
Crop rotation: the principle of growing different types of Large labour cost.
water;
plants in different plots each year.
Legumes: have nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their root High efficiency.
nodules.
Leafy crops: vegetables that are required for their leaves Trickle Drip System
(require a lot of nitrogen left by legumes).
Root crops: have deep root systems. Advantages Disadvantages
Fallow: the land is ploughed but left barren for a period to Water placed directly at the Expensive to install; complex
restore soil fertility and to avoid surplus production. base of the plant; to maintain.
Advantages of crop rotation: Automated and controlled via
Grit can block tubes;
Diseases in the soil affecting the plant are left behind; computer;
Pests need to find a new site ‫
؞‬their population is Inflexible; cannot be moved
reduced; Water is used very efficiently.
easily.
The soil in the new plot is likely to have the essential
nutrients;
Flood Irrigation
Crops ready to harvest at different times
‫ ؞‬less
potential waste, less
labour and machinery needed. Advantages Disadvantages
Fertilisers: contain minerals such as nitrogen, potassium Inexpensive; Inefficient use of water;
and
phosphorus. Add on to the nutrients available in the
Can cover large areas quickly. Damages soil structure.
soil.
Type Advantages Disadvantages Pest: an animal that attacks or feeds upon a crop plant.
Pesticide: used to control pests.
Organic Uses natural resources Unpleasant to handle
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Weed control: weed-killing chemicals are known as Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO): the DNA of one
herbicides. organism is
inserted into another.
They must be controlled because they:
Compete with crops for light, water and nutrients; Advantages Disadvantages
Reduce the quality of a seed or grain crop; Unknown impact of the new
Disease and pest-resistance
Might be poisonous; characteristics on human
may increase
Make cultivation difficult; health
Can block drainage systems with excessive growth; Nutritional value may
Can be a source of pests and diseases; Products are not natural
increase
Can look untidy (impact on tourism areas).
Genes might get into wild
Advantages of herbicides:
Crops can be grown in plants if they interbreed with
Easier to manage;
inhospitable areas GMOs spanreducing/<‫؞‬
Alternatives may be less effective;
biodiversity
Cheaper;
Results are more predictable; Herbicide resistance may
Reduction in the gene pool
Less labour needed; increase
Effect is more rapid. Crops with longer storage
Alternatives to herbicides are cultural controls: lives
Hand weeding and hoeing;
Weed barriers; Controlled environments:
Flame guns. Greenhouse: used to manage the environment for plant
A crop disease is caused by fungi, bacteria or viruses growth.
(pathogens).
The most common are fungal diseases and are Growth
How to increase How to Decrease
controlled by
fungicides. factor
Insect control: insect-controlling chemicals are called Operate
insecticides. temperature heating system (e.g. Open roof ventilators.
Alternative to insecticides: insulation).
Supplementary Shading material in the
biological control: find natural light
lighting. roof.
predators
humidity Misting units. Open roof ventilators.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Supplementary Shading material and
Not as instant as day length
No chemical residues; lighting. curtains.
chemical control;
Drainage material
Pests may breed faster water Sprinkler or irrigation.
No impact of sprays; underneath.
than the predator;
Predator may feed on an
No need of reapplication; 3.5. Impact of agriculture
unintended plant.
The predators will die naturally
Overuse of herbicides and insecticides:
when the pests are controlled.
Regular use of one insecticide can cause resistance
within the
pest population. Solution: use a range of
Mechanisation:
different
pesticides.
Larger area can be cultivated; Unintended environmental damage: beneficial insects
Reduces labour cost;
like
bees are also affected and food web is disturbed.
Ploughing can be done even when soil is heavy Spray drift: herbicides stay longer in the soil and may
Additional attachments can be done to apply
affect the next crop.
fertilisers and
pesticides.
Selective breeding: Heavy rainfall can cause leaching of the chemicals into
Choose parents that exhibit the desired nearby
lakes.
characteristics of the
species;
Raise the offspring from these parents; Overuse of fertilisers:
Select the best offspring that shows the desired Addition of extra mineral nutrients is waste of money and
characteristics; resources
if the soil has reached its maximum level;
Repeat the process. Heavy rain can dissolve the nutrients and cause leaching;
Examples: beef cattle, dairy cattle, wheat and rice. Excess water containing dissolved fertilisers drain into
Drawbacks: slow process; less success rate. nearby
lakes and rivers, leading to eutrophication;
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Nitrates from fertilisers if consumed can cause diseases Causes of soil erosion:
such as
blue-baby syndrome; Removal of natural vegetation: no more roots to bind
Large quantities can affect the pH of the soil and in turn, the soil
together or slow down the torrents of water,
the
availability of minerals; so flash flooding and
rainwater run-off pick the soil
Too much of trace elements can be toxic to the plant. and carry it away.
Too much fertiliser dehydrates the plant (scorching); Overcultivation: ploughing breaks the soil into smaller
Imbalance of nutrient makes the plant produce lots of and
lighter particles. These are more easily carried
foliage, but
no flower. away by wind.
Solution: strict limits on where, when and how the Overgrazing: livestock reduces the vegetation to
fertilisers
must be applied; can replace with organic nearly ground
level, sometimes leaving no roots to
fertilisers. hold the soil.
Mismanagement of irrigation causing salinization and Animals trample down the plants and their hoofs
water
logging: compact the ground.
Damage to soil structure ‫ ؞‬soil is
compacted;
Death of plant roots as waterlogged soils prevent plant Wind erosion: deforestation (due to need for space,
roots from
getting enough oxygen; excessive
grazing, increase in development of arable
Loss of nutrients as they are dissolved and washed away crops) increases the
chance of soil getting eroded by
with water; wind.
High levels of run off ‫ ؞‬soil erosion. Water erosion: heavy rainfall carries the particles away.
Soil capping: surface of the soil becomes hard. Excess run-off water that can’t be absorbed by soil
Salinization: salt content of the soil can increase. transports the
soil from that area;
Soil compaction reduces infiltration;
Irrigation water soaks into the soil to a great depth; Gully erosion (volume of water erodes local soil
Salts dissolve in the water at a great depth; further) forms
deeper and deeper crevices.
Water evaporates from the field; Impacts of soil erosion:
Water and salts are drawn up to the surface; Topsoil is removed: the most productive layer is
Salt remains at the surface and kills plant roots. absent (subsoil
lacks in nutrients ad air spaces).
Organisms living in the topsoil lose their habitat:
Prevents soil cultivation as it’s difficult to cultivate soil impact on
the entire ecosystem.
with a
high-water content. Silting up of water courses: flooding occurs as water
Overproduction and waste: bodies
can’t hold excess water (space taken up by silt).
Waste from overproduction: the unsold proportion of the Silt deposits can form lagoons: providing breeding
crop. grounds for
mosquitoes.
Waste of storage space: may take longer to sell a crop; Silt affects the quality and availability of water for
some
crops need special conditions. drinking.
Waste of transportation: to sell a crop, a farmer may need Aquatic organisms are buried under the silty layer:
to
travel longer distances. preventing
light from reaching the underwater plants
Waste of quality products: low quality means less (low oxygen levels in
ecosystem no photosynthesis).
demand. Desertification: the process by which fertile land
Waste of labour: not an efficient use of time and labour if becomes
desert.
too
much is produced. Severe droughts lead to migration of the whole
community.
Exhaustion of mineral ion content:
Risk of famine and malnutrition, leading to lesser
The farmers use the soil over and over again with little
food source.
to no
rest which leaves the soil depleted of nutrients
and minerals.
Solution: crop rotation, mixed cropping and leaving 3.7. Managing soil erosion
the land
fallow.
Soil erosion: Terracing: prevents the erosion of soil by rainwater on
Overcultivation: soils that are cultivated regularly lose steep
slopes.
soil structure and are more vulnerable to erosion as
they break
down to smaller particles.
Cash crops replacing food crops:
Most commercial farmers prefer to grow crops that
generate more
cash. This causes a decline in the
staple food available.
3.6. Causes and impacts of soil erosion
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Without windbreaks, the soil is eroded away.

In a natural slope: water runs down, increasing in speed Solid structures, like walls, force the wind into smaller
and
volume, carrying soil in the run-off. spaces,
increasing wind speed and causing eddy currents.
In a terraced slope: water is held in the flat terraced Permeable structures, like vegetation, allow some wind to
areas,
causing less risk of run-off and more chance of pass
through, decreasing its speed and thus, the amount
infiltration. of wind erosion.
Often used for cultivation of rice. Advantages: additional habitats for beneficial insects;
Contour ploughing: ploughing of land along the contour roots of the
windbreak prevent erosion due to run-off.
in a
parallel way. Maintaining vegetation cover:

Sowing legumes immediately after a crop has been

harvested prevents
soil erosion.
It also provides more nitrogen to the soil, increasing its
fertility, for the next major crop.
When cultivating, the legumes can be simply ploughed.
‘No dig’ method:
Existing vegetation is left until the new crop is grown.
Rather than cultivating the soil, herbicides are applied to
kill the
weeds.
Roots of the existing vegetation bind the soil until the
major plant
is established.
Ridges and troughs (furrows) run along the contour. Risks: herbicide residues build up. If the control of the
Each furrow holds water and prevents large torrents of cover
vegetation is ineffective, it may compete with the
water running
down the slope, preventing the formation main crop as a
weed.
of gullies and run-off of
topsoil. Addition of organic matter to improve soil structure:
Useful for all gradients of slopes. Provides additional air gaps in the soil ‫
؞‬improves soil
Bunds: artificial banks at the edges of growing spaces to structure;
hold back
water. Increases decomposers in the soil as they feed on the

matter;
Adds nutrients to the soil after decomposition.
Acts like a sponge, holding the extra water, preventing
dehydration
of the soil;
Reduces soil erosion as the organic matter acts like a
base to
smaller particles.
Planting trees:
Row of trees acts as windbreak;
Tree canopy can provide shade for smaller plants that
don’t thrive
for sunlight;
Useful for crops that require moist soils e.g. rice. Provide a natural habitat for animals, that feed on pests;
Tree leaves fall to the ground and add on to the organic
The water is retained on the terrace.
matter.
Increases the quantity and fertility of the soil.
Mixed cropping: growing more than one type plant in the
Windbreaks: a permeable barrier used to reduce the
impact of wind on
an area. same
area.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Rainwater harvesting: the collection of rainwater, for

example
from the roofs of buildings, and its storage in a
tank or reservoir
for later use.
4. Water and its management

4.1. Global water distribution
Resources in the soil, like nutrients, are used more

efficiently.
Intercropping: rows of a different crop are grown
between the
rows of the main crop. This maximises the
use of space and other
resources.
Crop rotation: (refer to section 3.4 Increasing agricultural
yields; Crop Rotation).
3.8. Sustainable agriculture Oceans cover 71% of the Earth’s surface.

Oceans and seas contain 97% of all the Earth’s water.
Aims of sustainable agriculture: Only 3% of water on Earth is fresh-water.
Meeting the needs of the population for agricultural Nearly two thirds (65%) of this 3% fresh-water is in the
products; ‘deep
freeze’ in the ice sheets.
Making efficient use of non-renewable resources;
Supporting the natural ecosystem by following natural
4.2. The Water Cycle
processes with
farming techniques;
Sustaining the economic independence of farmers.
Organic fertilisers:
Are slow acting reduces the risk of eutrophication;
Are a waste product using them saves on disposal
costs
Are already present on many farms minimal transport
costs
Do not require energy for their manufacture
Also improve soil structure.
Managed grazing:
Prevention of overgrazing;
Ensure sufficient grazing;
Maintaining appropriate soil fertility by animal waste;
Maintaining good drainage prevents compaction of
the soil.
Crop rotation: (refer to section 3.4 Increasing agricultural
Precipitation: moisture that reaches the surface in the
yields; Crop rotation).
form of
rain, sleet, snow, or hail.
Use of pest-resistant varieties of crops: reduces pesticide
Rain is the most common type.
use.
Surface run-off: precipitation that flows over the ground
Use of drought-resistant varieties of crops: reduces water
surface, eventually finding its way into streams and rivers.
usage
for irrigation.
Interception: precipitation that doesn’t reach the Earth’s
Use of herbicide-resistant varieties of crops: reduces
surface due to being obstructed by trees and plants.
herbicide
use.
Infiltration: precipitation soaks into sub-surface soils and
Trickle drip irrigation: (Refer to section 3.4 Increasing
moves into rocks through cracks and pore spaces.
agricultural yields; Irrigation).
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Through-flow: downslope movement of water through Permeable rocks outcropping on the surface receive new
the soil,
roughly parallel to the ground surface. supplies of
rainwater;
Water is stored in the limestone and sandstone (porous)
rocks below
the water table;
Mechanical pumps, or human labour are used to raise
water to the
surface.
Artesian aquifer: an aquifer in which the water is
under
pressure.
Ground water flow: slow horizontal movement of water

through
rock.
Evaporation: water from oceans, seas and other water
bodies is
changed from water droplets to water vapour
(invisible gas) in the
atmosphere due to heat.
Transpiration: evaporation or diffusion of water from Water from a well sunk into an artesian aquifer will
plant
leaves. rise to
the surface without the need for a pump.
Condensation: water vapour converted back into liquid Potable: safe to drink.
(water
droplets) or solid (particles of ice) due to a Reservoirs: an artificial lake used as a source of water
decrease in
temperature with increasing height by air supply,
usually created behind a dam or by the side of a
currents, e.g. clouds. river (bank-side
reservoir).
Service reservoir: a reservoir where potable water is
4.3. Water supply stored
e.g. Water tower and Cistern.
Wells: a hole bored or dug into rock to reach the water
Surface water: water in lakes, rivers and swamps. stored
in them.
Ground water: water in the soil, and in rocks under the Rivers: a large, natural stream of water flowing in a
surface
of the ground. channel to
the sea, a lake, or another river.
Aquifers: water stored in porous rocks under the ground. They provide surface transfers of water to low-land areas

where
farms, villages, towns and cities are concentrated.
Desalination: removal of salt from seawater by:
Distillation: water is boiled and released as vapour,
leaving
salt behind.

The vapour is then condensed as liquid water and can

be used.
10-30% efficient and uses a lot of energy.
Alternating layers of permeable and impermeable rocks Provision of energy and salt water (brine) is a source
trap the water
in permeable rock; of
pollution.
Reverse osmosis: pumping water at high pressure
Folded layers of rock so water accumulates the most in
the down
fold; through a fine
membrane.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
However, big areas do not ensure water availability e.g.

Australia,
Argentina, Sudan, due to containing substantial
areas of desert
within its borders.
Water-poor countries: countries with scarce fresh water
supplies:
Dominated by desert countries.
Except Singapore and Mauritius since they receive high
precipitation
totals, but are tiny island states that have
only small areas for
rain to fall on.
Water conflict: conflict between countries, states, or
groups
over an access to water resources.
Physical water scarcity: not enough water to meet both
human
demands and those of ecosystems to function
effectively.
Arid regions frequently suffer from physical water
scarcity.
It also occurs where water seems abundant, but
resources are
over-committed.
Economic water scarcity: caused by a lack of investment
in water
infrastructure or insufficient human capacity to
30-50% efficient and requires lesser energy than satisfy the demand
of water in areas where the
distillation. population cannot afford to use an
adequate source of
water.
4.4. Water usage Unlike Rural areas, Urban areas have higher access to
safe
drinking water because:
Domestic Cities are more wealthy places with factories and offices;
On average, people’s incomes are higher;
At home for drinking and cooking (3% of domestic water) Easier to put pressure on the politicians or leaders to
MEDCs make
improvements;
Washing and flushing the toilet (50%)‎ Wealthy people are more likely to live in cities;
Washing clothes (20%)‎ Water pipes are easier and cheaper to build when a lot of
Gardening people
live close together.
Washing cars
Lost in leaks.‎ 4.6. Multipurpose dam projects
Industrial Example: the Ramganga Dam, Uttarakhand, India.
Choice of site:
In factories for:‎ High precipitation to provide sufficient water;
Cooling;‎ Low temperature to prevent evaporation;
Mixing and making products such as dyes and paints;‎ Built on strong impermeable rock so water doesn’t drain
Bottling and canning in food and drink industries;‎ and has a
good foundation;
Power generation.‎ Built high up in order to have good potential for hydro-
electric
power;
Agricultural Narrow, steep sided valley for economic reasons;
Rivers and lakes nearby to provide water;
Mainly for irrigation (plants need water for transporting
Away from developed areas to reduce the risk of
minerals,
for photosynthesis, and for the p‎ revention of
pollution in
reservoirs;
wilting);‎
Easily accessible;
For domestic animals.‎
4.5. Water quality and availability Generation of electricity in
Relocating people;
hydro-electric power plants;
Water-rich countries: countries with plentiful fresh water Flood control; Flooding land;
supplies:
Disrupting the life cycles of
Some are large countries with plenty of land for rain to
Irrigation fish and other aquatic
fall on
e.g. Russia, Canada, China, and some with the
organisms
world’s greatest
rivers flowing through them e.g. Amazon,
Yangtze, Mississippi.
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Advantages Disadvantages Gases from industrial chimneys enter the atmosphere,

where they
dissolve in water and form acid rain.
Creates recreational land for Dam may become redundant
tourism and leisure due to sediment build up Agricultural practices: surpluses of phosphorous and
nitrogen
not absorbed by the plants are washed from the
Provision of water Very expensive to build
land or percolate
into the ground water.
Creation of habitat for On farms, animal manure, synthetic fertiliser, and
Requires maintenance
wetland species chemical
pesticides are main sources.
Access by boat to otherwise Reduces jobs for farmers if Agrochemicals: pesticides, herbicides and fertiliser.
inaccessible areas natural fisheries are affected
Renewable source of energy

Altering water supply for 4.8. Impact of water pollution
people downstream the dam
Doesn’t produce greenhouse Reducing soil enrichment Global inequalities in sewage and water treatment:
gases downstream of the dam developing
countries have difficulty treating water and
Reduces fossil fuel sewage compared to
developed countries as people
consumption aren’t educated and can’t put pressure
on the
government.
Creates more jobs
Risk of infectious bacterial diseases, typhoid and cholera:
water-borne diseases are caused by drinking
Maximises water storage capacity.
contaminated water.
Accumulation of toxic substances from industrial
processes in
lakes and rivers: reduces oxygen in lakes
and rivers, causing
reduction in photosynthesis and
death of fish and insect larvae.
Biomagnification of toxic substances in food chains:
increases
concentration of a toxic substance (e.g.
mercury and pesticides) in
the tissues of organisms at
successively higher levels in a food
chain, causing illness.
Bioaccumulation: accumulation of a toxic chemical in the
tissue
of a particular organism.
Formation of acid rain: burning fossil fuels such as coal
Sustainability of dams: and
oil produce sulfur dioxide (SO2) and oxides of
Alternative for burning of fossil fuels as no nitrogen
(NOx) that are blown long distances and react
greenhouse gases are
produced. with water
in the atmosphere.
Unsustainability of dams:
Reservoir can become silted due to material carried

into it by
rivers;
Dam structure under a lot of pressure can deteriorate
and eventually
fail;
Have negative effects on the environment and fish
population.
4.7. Water pollution and its sources

Sewage: waste matter that is rich in organic matter, thus
microbial organisms can thrive in it.
It is usually disposed in water bodies, and thus has to be
treated.
SO2 dissolves in water to form sulfuric acid, and
NOx
Domestic waste: sewage from rural and urban
dissolves to form nitric acid that fall in the form
of rain.
settlements carry
many pathogenic micro-organisms,
increasing the content of nitrates
and phosphates in
rivers.
Detergents, metals and other manufactured products
contain traces of
toxic chemicals.
Industrial processes: use of chemicals, the processing of
metal
ores, and the leaching of metals from waste heaps
and dumps cause
the presence of metals in rivers (e.g.
manganese, mercury, copper).
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
pH: measured by acidity or alkalinity. Primary treatment, first settling tank: solid organic
matter,
mainly human waste, settles at the bottom of the
tank (sludge),
which is treated in a sludge-digester.
Clean water then overflows the sides of the tank and
is taken
to the next stage.
Secondary treatment, oxidation: water is pumped into a
tank
where oxygen is bubbled through it.
This encourages the growth of bacteria and other
microbes that
break down organic matter, which
cause BOD.
Secondary treatment, second settling tank: water enters,
Ranges from very acidic, 1, to very alkaline, 14. where
bacteria settle to the bottom, forming more
7 is neutral. sludge.
The effect of acid rain on organisms in rivers and lakes: This cleaner water overflows the sides of the tank as
Lower pH makes the environment intolerable for aquatic effluent, usually discharged into a river.
life; Sludge digester: oxygen-free conditions are created that
Fish egg-laying is reduced, and young fish are malformed; encourage the growth of bacteria which can break down
Leaching of heavy metals such as aluminum, lead and the sludge,
releasing methane, that can be burnt.
mercury from the
soil into the water; Treated sludge can be dried in sludge lagoons and
Aluminum clogs fish gills and causes suffocation; used as
organic fertiliser on farmland.
Minerals essential for life, notably calcium and potassium, Tertiary treatment: further filtering out of its effluent or
are
washed out of the lake or river, reducing algae growth its
chlorination which produces even cleaner effluent that
and leaving
less food for fish and other animals. protects the
habitat in which it is released.
Nutrient enrichment leading to eutrophication: Water treatment: Water is made potable by undergoing
Increase in nutrients, such as nitrates and phosphates, in coagulation
treatment, being filtered and disinfected.
a water
body causes algae bloom (rapid growth of algae).
Death of algae causes an increase in organic matter that

acts as
food for bacteria as they decompose the dead
algae.
Bacteria use up oxygen, reducing oxygen content in the
water and
causing the death of organisms.
4.9. Managing pollution of fresh water

Improve sanitation: separates human excreta from
contact with
humans, achieved by toilets and latrines.
Waste can be removed
by:
Connection to a system of sewer pipes or sewerage, that Coagulation: Particles in the water are stuck together and
collects
human faeces, urine and waste water. settle to the bottom of the container.
Connection to a septic system, which consists of an Water is then filtered through sand.
underground,
sealed settling tank. Chlorination: to kill remaining pathogens, chlorine is
Flush toilet: uses a holding tank for flushing water, and a added as
a disinfectant.
water seal that prevents smells. Pollution control and legislation: puts pressure on
Pour toilet: has a water seal but uses water poured by polluters to
find ways to reduce pollutants.
hand for
flushing. Industries are required to monitor the pollution they
Pit latrine: type of toilet that collects human faeces in a cause and keep
it within set level.
hole
in the ground that is sometimes ventilated to take Bi-national Great lakes water quality agreement (GLWQA):
away smells. a
loading limit of phosphorus was set at 11000 metric
Composting toilet: dry toilet in which vegetable waste,
tonnes
year-1</supin response to eutrophication issues in the
straw,
grass, sawdust, and ash are added to the human
Great
Lakes of USA and Canada.
waste to produce
compost.
Fines for exceeding set limits.
Treatment of sewage: aims to reduce the Biological
Companies may be prosecuted and in extreme cases,
Oxygen Demand
(BOD) of the sewage.
forced to shut
down.
Sewage outfall: waste water from homes
and industries is
Companies may need government agreement on
taken
to a sewage treatment plant in sewers.
strategic plans to reduce
pollution levels.
Screening tank: large objects are removed from the waste
Incentives may be used to encourage companies to take
using a
coarse grid.
part, such as
grants or tax relief, for those that do achieve
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
a reduction in
pollution. Hands should be washed after contact with any faecal
material;
4.10. Managing water-related disease Boiling water and chlorination
Water-borne disease: spread by consuming contaminated

water due
to poor sanitation and untreated sewage, or by
5. Oceans and fisheries
washing food, pots
and pans, or hands and face in dirty
water. 5.1. Oceans as a resource
Examples: cholera and typhoid.
Cholera: intestinal infection that causes severe diarrhoea Food: fish that includes true fish, finfish, shellfish and
that
may lead to dehydration and eventually death. other
sea animals that can be eaten.
Causes: poor sanitation, contamination of water and Chemicals and building materials: many materials in the
food,
disruption of piped water supplies after a natural oceans
have been eroded from the land, where rain and
disaster
occurrence. wind break down
rocks, and are carried into the oceans
Water-bred disease: the carrier breeds in water and via rivers.
spreads the
disease by biting its victims. Some substances can be extracted directly e.g. salt,
Example: malaria. magnesium, tin,
gold, titanium, diamonds.
Malaria: a life-threatening disease which is transmitted Salt: seawater that is left behind over many weeks in the
through
the bite of an infected Anopheles mosquito hot
sun.
(vector) that carries the
Plasmodium parasite. Once Diamonds: found in greater numbers in ocean floor than
bitten, the parasite reaches your
bloodstream. on land.
Symptoms: high temperature and fever, diarrhoea, Much harder to mine ocean floor as it must be
dehydration and
feeling weak. dredged, then the
sediment silted.
Life cycle of the malaria parasite: Sand, gravel and crushed rock: mined for the
construction
industry.
Physical damage can be caused to seabed and
associated habitats
if care is not taken.
Fine particle clouds that are produced resettle and
interfere
with photosynthesis; they also act as a
source of heavy metals
that can enter food chains.
Oil: chemical that is extracted by offshore drilling rigs.
Wave energy: an enormous amount of energy in the
waves is
estimated to produce twice the present world
energy production if
harnessed.
Tidal energy: due to varying gravitational pull of the sun
and
moon, water in the sea moves up and down on a
twice-daily basis.
This causes it to come onto land and later recede, which
can be
harnessed to generate electricity.
Strategies to control malaria: Tourism: seaside is a major tourist attraction. People of
Sleeping under mosquito nets and using antimalarial MEDCs
are attracted to marine sites of great natural
drugs in and
around homes; beauty, especially
coral reefs.
Draining marshes and stagnant pools to eliminate Diving, snorkelling, windsurfing, jet skiing and deep-sea
breeding grounds; fishing or
simply sunbathing on the beach are some
Put kerosene over the tops of pools to choke the adventurous activities.
larvae; There’s business in boat trips to view sea creatures,
Spray antimalarial drugs on stagnant areas of water especially
whales and dolphins.
to kill the
larvae; Transport: ships are important to transport people and
Use vaccinations; goods;
however, shipping is less common to transport
Educate people on the risks of malaria by setting up people now due to the
advent of aviation.
campaigns and
programmes. Pleasure cruises are still an important economic sector
Strategies to control cholera: and bulk
freight is best transported from country to
Ensure that sewage and drinking water are kept country on ships.
separate; Types of merchant (goods carrying) ships:
Sewage removed directly into a treatment works;
Ship type Load or purpose
Water being treated before it’s delivered into homes;
Do not use contaminated water to wash food;
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Ship type Load or purpose Distribution of major marine fish populations:

Transport of food such as rice Main fisheries are located on continental shelves where
Bulk carriers water is
shallow (<150m below sea level), allowing light to
and wheat.
penetrate with
plentiful oxygen than further below.
Entire load is carried in lorry-
Container ships sized containers, known as
containerisation.
Transport of fluids, especially
liquified petroleum gas and
Tankers liquified natural gas.
Transport of vegetable oils and
wine.
Transport of perishable items
Refrigerated ships such as vegetables, fruits, fish
and dairy products. Herbivorous fish rely on primary producers, mainly green
Transport of vehicles, together algae
called phytoplankton. Carnivorous fish eat the
Roll-on/roll-off ships with their loads, that can be herbivorous ones or
other carnivores.
driven on and off the ship. They’re part of the food web, starting with the
Used for trade between places phytoplankton.
Thus, fish are found where there are
Coastal trading vessels that are close together, especially plentiful phytoplankton.
in island groups. Phytoplankton produce their own food by
photosynthesis which
requires light, water and carbon
Used for mainly for the
movement of foot passengers, dioxide (CO2).
Water is abundant in the oceans and CO2 dissolves in
Ferries sometimes with their cars, mainly
between islands or between the water
from the atmosphere, therefore light is
likely to be the
limiting factor for photosynthesis.
mainland and islands.
Limiting factor: of all the factors that might affect a
Used for pleasure voyages where
process, that one is in shortest supply.
Cruise ships the facilities on the ship are a
crucial part of the trip.
Used to transport people from
Ocean liner
one port to another.
5.2. World fisheries

Distribution of major ocean currents:
Surface currents: movement of the surface water of the
sea in a
constant direction. Most ocean water has absorbed all the sunlight by a
Prevailing wind: the direction from which the wind nearly depth of
only 200m. This 200m deep zone is called the
always
blows in a particular area. euphotic zone,
below which photosynthesis will not
Currents in the southern hemisphere are generally take place.
anticlockwise as
the winds blow from the south-east and Not all areas with continental shelves have significant
force the western Australian,
Benguela, and Peruvian fisheries
because:
current northwards. Phytoplankton need not just light, CO2 and water, which
Cold currents: come from the poles. allow it to make carbohydrates such as sugars, but they
Warm currents: come from the tropics or either side of also require mineral nutrients to make proteins.
the
equator.
Making proteins requires a source of nitrogen and

sulphur.
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Nucleic acids, which form the genes of living things,

also
require phosphorus.
The green pigment chlorophyll, which is essential for
photosynthesis, requires magnesium.
The most important fisheries of the world are where the
current
system stirs up decaying material from the
seabed, which is rich in
nutrients.
Upwelling: areas where minerals at the ocean floor are
brought
up to the surface by currents.
An example is the Peruvian anchovy off the west coast of
South
America.
5.3. Impact of exploitation of the oceans

Causes of overfishing of marine fish species:
Demand for fish as food due to increasing world
population;
Much bigger boats, which can work a long way from a
port for many
weeks;
Finding fish easily by using SONAR and detailed weather
data;
Creation of huge nets that scoop up everything in an
Overfishing: when the number of fish that is caught is
area, often
half of which is discarded as bycatch (animals
greater
than the rate at which the fish reproduce, leading
caught by fishers
that are not the intended target of their
to a fall in fish
numbers in an area.
fishing effort).
El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO): the change in the
Impact of overfishing of marine fish species:
prevailing winds that leads to change in the pattern of
Lack of growth in fish caught globally since 1990s, leading
currents in
the oceans of the South Pacific.
to loss
of job and reduction in food supply;
Warm nutrient-poor water comes into the region from
Size of fish gets progressively smaller, increasing demand
the equator.
for food;
Results in no upwelling of the cold, nutrient rich water
Harvest of untargeted/protected/endangered marine
that
supports the anchovy fishery.
species that are
discarded at the sea or shore;
No nutrients mean the phytoplankton do not grow well,
Reduction in marine biodiversity, causing a disruption in
so there’s
less food for the fish.
food
chain.
Much of the production of the anchovy fishery was used
for fishmeal
which is used to feed farmed fish, thus
Catch all types of unwanted species and
countries where this is
important, are affected by a crash
damage the seabed during their use
in the anchovy fishery.
Trawl
net(including
bottom trawl
nets)
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Catch all types of unwanted species and ponds and raceways

filled with seawater.
damage the seabed during their use It reduces the pressure on wild population, allowing
Trawl their
population to increase;
net(including Production is constant;
bottom trawl No bycatch, as non-interest species are unlikely to be
nets) present
in the farm;
No erosion of seabed, that is usually caused by trawl
nets.
Drift with the current and are not

anchored.Often used in coastal waters 5.4. Management of the harvesting of
Drift net marine species
Net types and mesh size:
Hang like a curtain in the water \n
A variant called the surrounding net is often

Seine net used \n
(including
purse seine)
If mesh size is too small, juvenile fish will be caught.

Reduces the number of fish that grow to maturity and
reproduce.
A diamond-shaped mesh catches fish more easily, thus a
square mesh
panel is often included in an otherwise
diamond net.
Other species-specific methods:
Dragged along the seabed, mainly to catch Many fishers use fish aggregation devices (FADs) for tuna
shellfish and other types of fish living in the fisheries.
mud.Thus, they dig into the seabed with teeth
or water jets \n
Dredge net
Farming marine species (Mariculture) reduces the

exploitation of
fisheries:
Due to the increasing human population, the increase in Includes the usage of a log suspended below the
demand for
fish as food is above the production capacity surface of the
sea from a buoy.
of oceans and seas; This attracts the tuna together with other species,
Overexploitation of the fisheries leads to a decline in wild including
tuna predators.
fish
populations; Once a good aggregation of fish is collected, they are
So, fish are farmed in controlled environments. gathered in a giant net.
Aquaculture: farming fresh water fish. This will take all other species and younger tuna fish
Mariculture: aquaculture practised in marine with
it, leading to a large bycatch.
environments
e.g. closed section of an ocean, tanks,
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Solution: Use pole and line method for catching the tuna. declaring the size of
their catch and not being
Done
right, this method is highly selective with very little checked;
or no
bycatch. Usage of net with an illegally small mesh size, and in
Quotas: areas
where patrols are inadequate;
Legislators e.g. government set limits on how many Fishers frequently trespass in areas where they are
and what type of
fish can be caught; not
supposed to fish.
The limits are set according to the information
gathered from
networks across the world about fish
populations; 6. Managing natural hazards
These limits ensure enough fish are left to reproduce
and replenish
the fishery for the following season. 6.1. Earthquakes and volcanoes
Closed seasons:
Governments and other legislation bodies can pass The structure of the Earth:
laws that can
close fisheries down for part of the year,
most commonly in the
breeding season.
Protected areas and reserves: some fisheries are
protected by
preventing fishing in certain areas, often
where the target species
is known to breed.
International agreements (implementing and
monitoring):
Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and
Management Act:
Main law governing marine fisheries in the USA;
It aims to control the country’s terrestrial waters,
conserve
fishery resources, enforce international
fishing agreements,
develop underused fisheries
and protect fish habitats.
Economic exclusion zone:
Every country with a coastline has a zone of 200
nautical
miles around it inside which the country
responsible must
attempt to manage its fisheries so
that they’re sustainable.
International agreements: needed to regulate fisheries in
international waters, leading to the UN Convention on the
Temp
Law of the
Sea (UNCLOS). Layer State Material
(⁰C)
Such an agreement is needed in the Mediterranean
Solid (intense
where a 200
nautical mile exclusion zone has no INNER 5000 –
meaning. pressure from Iron and nickel.
CORE 6000
Monitoring: a model system is operated by the African
overlying rocks).
country of
Namibia. OUTER 4000 –
Liquid. Iron and nickel.
Larger vessels in its waters have onboard observers CORE 5000
and air
patrols detect and deter unlicensed vessels; Liquid (flows slowly
1000 – Mainly silicate
All landings are monitored at the country’s two fishing MANTLE due to conventional
1200 minerals.
ports; currents from core).
In addition, all vessels in the exclusion zone must
keep daily
logs of their catches. Tectonic plate: a piece of lithosphere that moves slowly. It
Effectiveness of these strategies: is
made of crust and upper mantle.
Because of the vastness of the oceans, it is difficult to Where the convention currents rise to the surface, the
monitor fishery laws and agreements; plates move away from each other (and vice-versa).
Monitoring organisations based in ports have more Plate boundaries: where two or more plates meet.
success;
Due to fishing being important for both income and
food for
many people, there is a huge incentive for
illegal activities;
Quotas can easily be avoided by simply not declaring
how many
fish are being caught;
Overstretched authorities may not be able to check
every boat,
and fishers may be willing to risk under-
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Constructive (divergent) plate boundary: form fold mountains.
Two plates move away from each other.

When two oceanic plates move away, magma rises to
the
surface (convention current) and solidifies when it
comes in
contact with cold ocean water.
The magma turns to lava and forms new basaltic Earthquakes occur, but no volcanic activity as there’s
ocean crust. no
subduction of oceanic plate.
They can also form shield or basic volcanoes Conservative plate boundary:
(submarine) and
have non-explosive eruptions. Two plates slide past each other.
This is known as sea-floor spreading or ridge push. They move in different speeds.
Small Earthquakes are triggered. The plates get locked together and pressure builds up
If two continental plates move away from each other, until it
is released as an Earthquake.
a
rift valley may form.
Destructive (converging) plate boundary:
Two plates move towards each other.

When an oceanic plate and continental plate move The magnitude (strength) of an Earthquake is measured
towards
each other, the denser (oceanic) plate is using a
seismometer on the Richter scale.
forced down
(subducted) under the lighter
(continental) plate.
This happens in the subduction zone and an ocean
trench is
formed.
The friction between the plates triggers Earthquakes.
The heat produced due to friction turns the
descending plate
into magma.
The magma starts to rise and erupt (due to pressure)
through a
weakness in the crust as an explosive
composite volcano.
Fold mountains are also formed.
The magma that erupts at the surface forms a chain
of volcanic
islands called an island arc.
If two continental plates move towards each other,
the
sediments between the two plates are
compressed (collision
zone) and pushed upwards to
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Ocean surface temperature of at least 27°C.

Warm water provides the energy to evaporate more
water, that
rises, condenses, releasing huge amounts
of energy.
Ocean depth of at least 60m deep.
These conditions occurring between 5° and 20° north and

south to
have sufficient Coriolis effect, making the air
spin.
Distribution and causes of volcanoes: Very little wind shear (change in wind speed or direction).
Allows the vertical development of the storm.
Distribution of tropical cyclones:
Caused due to the tectonic activity (refer to 6.1; Plate

boundaries).
Found on constructive and destructive plate boundaries
and hotspots.
Between 5° and 20° north and south.
Distribution and causes of Earthquakes:
They do not form on the equator because the Coriolis
Caused due to the tectonic activity (refer to 6.1; Plate
effect there is
0.
boundaries).
The air at the equator tends to flow straight from high
Occur mostly on the destructive and conservative plate
pressure to low pressure, without any rotation.
boundaries
(and sometimes on the constructive plate
boundaries).
Earthquakes: 6.3. Flooding
Focus: where the Earthquake begins underground.
Epicentre: point on the surface above the focus. Physical cause impact
Seismometer: an instrument used to measure the Reduces the infiltration capacity
heavy rainfall
magnitude of an
Earthquake (on the Richter scale). of the soil;
Factors that affect the impact of an Earthquake: Increase in overland flow.
Location of the epicentre;
prolonged rainfall Saturates the soil;
Time of the Earthquake;
Geology of the area;
Causes the water table to rise,
Relief of the area; reducing infiltration capacity.
Severity of aftershocks; Overland flow occurs due to
snowmelt
Level of development of human settlement; rapid snowmelt.
Population density; Steeper gradients lead to faster
Building density and strength. land relief overland flow spanwater has/<‫؞‬
.little time to infiltrate
6.2. Tropical cyclones
Causes of tropical cyclones:
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Physical cause impact (refer to Section 5.2 World Fisheries; El Niño Southern
The more saturated the soil is Oscillation (ENSO))
(before the rainfall), lesser Effect of climate change:
saturated soil Warmer worldwide temperatures cause the rainfall to
infiltration and more overland
decrease
in some parts of the world, leading to
flow.
drought.
Flooding of low-lying coastal
storm surges, tsunamis
areas.
6.5. The impacts of natural hazards
Human cause IMPACT
Impacts of tectonic events:
Deforestation Reduces interception and infiltration. Damage to buildings and infrastructure;
Ploughing down rather than across Fires from ruptures of gas pipes;
Cultivation
slopes increases the water flow. Tsunamis hit coastlines;
Concrete and tarmac are impermeable Landslides cover buildings and roads;
Urbanisation surfaces (no infiltration spanhigh/<‫؞‬ Destruction of farmland, leading to starvation;
.)overland flow Loss of wildlife habitats;
Global warming may lead to rise in sea Water-related diseases because victims are in temporary
Climate change accommodation with no sanitation or clean water;
levels and more rainfall in some areas.
Water is also contaminated by broken sewage pipes
or untreated
sewage.
6.4. Drought Loss of life;
Trauma, poor mental health;
Causes of drought: Financial losses when repairing the damage.
Lack of rain caused by prolonged high pressure: Impacts of tropical cyclones:
Air in a high-pressure system sinks and doesn’t form Flooding from storm surges and heavy rainfall;
rain
clouds. Loss of life;
Effect of El Niño Southern Oscillation and La Niña: Damage to buildings and infrastructure;
El Niño causes the surface water in the Pacific Ocean Disruption of electricity, transport and water supply;
along
South America to be warmer. Water-borne diseases;

Economic loss as production is halted;

Damage to crops, food shortages and loss of export
earnings;
Loss of wildlife habitats.
Impacts of flooding:
Loss of life;
Damage to buildings and infrastructure;
Contamination of water supplies leading to disease;
Loss of crops and livestock leading to food shortages;
Deposition of silt from the flood waters;
These warmer waters alter storm patterns and can Recharge of groundwater stores;
cause
droughts in Australia. Rivers may change course;
Whereas, La Niña causes the temperature of the Financial losses when repairing the damage.
water along
South America to Impacts of droughts:
decrease. Water sources dry up, forcing people to travel long

distances to
fetch water;
Decline in crop yields;
Loss of crops, livestock, plants and wildlife;
Decrease in land prices as production declines and
farmers lose
money;
Migration from rural to urban areas;
Unemployment;
Increase in food prices;
Health problems due to malnutrition;
Soil erosion, leading to desertification;
The cooler conditions cause drought in parts of North Increased risk of wildfires and poor air quality;
and
South America. Conflicts over water usage and food.
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
6.6. Managing the impacts of natural

hazards
Volcanoes:
Prediction:
Seismometers can be used to monitor tremors
caused by rising
magma;
Satellites using heat-seeking cameras can be used to
monitor
increasing ground temperatures;
Smart meters to switch off gas supplies, preventing

fires;
Land-use planning: important services (schools,
hospitals)
must be built in low-risk areas.
Tropical cyclones:
Prediction:
Tracked using satellites.
Preparation and protection:
Cyclone shelters;
Tiltmeters (measure very subtle changes in the
Embankments along the coast;
surface of the
Earth as magma accumulates) and GPS
Preserve mangrove swamps to absorb the energy of
can be used to monitor
changes in volcano shape;
Emissions of steam and gas (sulfur dioxide) can be storm surges.
monitored. Flooding:
Volcano hazard map (study past eruptions);
Lava diversion channels and lava barriers ;
Spraying lava with water;
Halting lava advance by dropping concrete slabs into
the flow;
Building reinforcements (sloping roofs to protect
against
ashfall).
Earthquakes:
Prediction:
Monitor tremors (using seismometers), groundwater
levels and
radon gas; Prediction:
Epicentres and frequencies of past events can be Monitoring the amount of rainfall and river discharge
mapped to
check if a pattern is developing; using an
ADV;
Measurement of local magnetic fields; Using the features of the drainage basin and type of
Hazard zone map can be drawn (geological info and
storm to
determine the severity of the flood.
ground
stability);
Unusual animal behaviour.
Earthquake-proof or aseismic buildings. Older
buildings can be
modernised;
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Preparation and protection: After a volcanic eruption, fertile soils are created that
produce
high crop yields.
The scenery can be spectacular;
Geothermal energy can be obtained easily;
Possibility of mining minerals such as sulfur, diamonds
and gold.
Living near rivers may provide a source of food, water for
drinking
and irrigation.
Communications may be easier;
Flat land on either side is available for building on.
Hard engineering projects (levees, flood barriers and 7. The atmosphere and
dams);
Soft engineering projects (afforestation and storage human activities
basins);
Increasing the river channel (clearing vegetation);
7.1. The Atmosphere
Land-use planning to restrict development on
floodplains;
The composition of the atmosphere:
Use of sandbags and pumps;
Adapt houses to position power sockets 1.5 m above
ground
level to prevent electrocution.
Droughts:
Prediction:
Monitoring precipitation and temperature.
Increase water supplies (dams, reservoirs, wells,
percolation
ponds, aquifers, pumps, water transfer by
pipeline and
desalination);
% in importance to life on
component
atmosphere Earth
nitrogen (N2) 78.09 Growth of plants.
Water conservation (storage tanks, spray irrigation,
drought-tolerant crops, recycling water and reducing Produced by
oxygen (O2) 20.95
deforestation); photosynthesis;
Agricultural improvements (shelterbelts to decrease Used in respiration.
wind and
evaporation, bunds to increase infiltration Source for
and fencing to
control overgrazing); water vapour (H2O) 0.2-4
precipitation;
Government stockpiling supplies of water, food and Provides most of the
medicine.
natural greenhouse
gases;
6.7. Opportunities presented by natural Vital for existence of
hazards life.
Used by plants in
carbon dioxide (co2) 0.03
Individuals may want to be near family and friends. photosynthesis;
Confidence in prediction, preparation and protection. Greenhouse gas.
Employment opportunities e.g. tourism.
No choice in moving if there is pressure on land or if it is
too
expensive to move.
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
% in importance to life on Temperature inversion: a weather condition when the air

component
atmosphere Earth temperature increases with altitude, rather than
Can create an inert decreasing.

argon (Ar) atmosphere that

0.93
Helium (He), Neon protects materials
Trace
(Ne), Krypton (Kr) from reacting with
oxygen or other gases.
Number of years gas stays in the atmosphere
Carbon dioxide 200 years

Methane 12-17 years
CFCs 1000 years
Nitrous Oxides 114 years
During the day, the surfaces is heated due to

7.2. Atmospheric pollution and its longwave
radiation.
causes On calm and clear nights, the Earth surface cools very
quickly, emitting radiation, cooling the air above it.
Acid rain: precipitation with a pH value of less than 7. At higher altitude, the air doesn’t cool as quickly, so

this
air becomes warmer than the air below it.
This layer of warm air is the inversion layer, that
disrupts
the regular convection currents.
The concentration of smog (pollutants) increases,
often in
valleys surrounded by steep-sided hills.
Enhanced greenhouse effect: created by addition of
greenhouse
gases to the atmosphere through human
activities.
More heat retained in the atmosphere.
Increased temperature of the Earth’s surface, leading to
global
warming and climate change.
Human activities that increase their

Greenhouse gas
Burning of fossil fuels in factories and power stations abundance
release
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. carbon dioxide Burning of fossil fuels; Deforestation.
Vehicle emissions add further nitrogen oxides.
Cattle and rice production; Coal mine
When these gases mix and react with the water vapour in
methane ventilation; Deforestation; Decomposition
the
atmosphere, they form weak solutions of nitric and
of waste (landfill sites).
sulfuric acid.
They are carried by prevailing winds. Aerosol sprays; Fire extinguishers;
CFCs
They eventually fall to Earth as acid rain.
Refrigeration; Air conditioning.
Smog: Nitrogen Oxides Vehicle exhausts; Chemical fertilisers.
Burning of fossil fuels in industry, homes and vehicles Tropospheric Chemical reactions involving nitrogen
provides
particles like smoke and dust for fog to form ozone oxides and unburnt fuel vapours.
around.
Photochemical smog: Ozone layer depletion:
Involves chemical reactions induced by sunlight on Ozone layer protects the Earth from the Sun’s harmful
certain
pollutants. radiation.
These reactions convert them into harmful It is formed when oxygen (O2) filters from the top of the
substances, like
ground-level or tropospheric ozone troposphere and reacts under the influence of ultraviolet
(‘bad’ ozone). radiation
to form ozone (O3).
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): It is continually formed, destroyed and replaced naturally,
Chemicals that easily enter the atmosphere as gases, creating
a dynamic balance, that is disturbed by human
mainly
from evaporation.
Examples: hydrocarbons (like methane), ammonium
nitrate,
carbon monoxide (incomplete combustion),
etc.
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
activities. Pollutant impact

Melting of ice sheets, glaciers and
Climate change
permafrost cause a rise in sea-levels;
Damage to low-lying countries from
flooding;
Forced migration as people lose their
homes and farmland from rising sea-
levels;
Loss of biodiversity, habitat or
extinction if animals and plants can’t
adapt;
Increased droughts could lead to
When CFCs reach the stratosphere, the ultraviolet desertification and famine;
radiation
breaks them down, releasing chlorine. Sea-level rise leads to the loss of
Chlorine reacts with oxygen in a destructive process, coastal land and increased erosion.
breaking
down the ozone molecules to chlorine
monoxide and oxygen,
depleting the layer and
forming a hole. 7.4. Managing atmospheric pollution
This hole allows harmful radiation to enter the Earth’s
atmosphere. Reduction of carbon footprint:
Carbon footprint: a measure of the impact of our
activities on
the environment.
7.3. Impact of atmospheric pollution
Reduced use of fossil fuels:
Low sulfur coal can be used;
Pollutant impact
Increased use of renewable energy.
Smog Irritation of eyes and throat; Energy efficiency:
Respiratory diseases, like asthma; Using energy efficient appliances.
Fine particles carried into lungs, Carbon capture and storage:
leading to lung cancer, strokes and Waste carbon dioxide from power stations can be
heart attacks; transported via
pipelines to storage sites.
Breathing difficulties. Transport policies:
Creation of cycle lanes, bus lanes, metro systems and
Acidification of ground water, making
Acid rain trams;
the water undrinkable;
Electric or hybrid cars can be encouraged;
Can cause diarrhoea and stomach Biofuels can be used;
upset if the water is consumed; Vehicles can be banned from certain parts of city by
Aluminium leached from the soil to pedestrianisation;
groundwater; Public transport and residential parking can be made
Acidification of groundwater damages free.
tree roots International agreement and policies:
Policies such as Montreal Protocol, Kyoto Protocol and
Crop yields decline;
Paris Climate
Conference can be passed on worldwide;
Nutrients like calcium are leached out An international cooperation is required.
of the soil; CFC replacement:
Fish die as acidity levels increase; Reduction in the use of CFCs;
Limestone buildings are chemically Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) can be used as an
weathered. alternative;
Higher levels of ultraviolet radiation Safe disposal of items containing CFCs.
Ozone Depletion cause sun burn, skin cancers, retina Taxation:
Higher road tax to decrease car ownership.
damage and cataracts;
Catalytic converters:
Extra ultraviolet radiation limits the
Catalytic converters in vehicles reduce sulfur dioxide
reproduction of phytoplankton,
emissions;
affecting the entire food webs;
They also convert nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide
Changes in biochemical composition to carbon
dioxide and nitrogen;
of some plant leaves make them less Low-sulfur vehicle fuels can also be used.
attractive as food. Flue-gas desulfurisation:
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Scrubbers can be used to remove 95% of sulfur dioxide superabundance.

emissions; Stationary phase: when the growth rate of a population
Lining chimneys with lime also reduce the emissions. has
slowed down to zero as the carrying capacity is
Reforestation and afforestation: reached.
Reforestation: replanting an area with trees; Carrying capacity: the maximum size of a population that
Afforestation: planting trees in a barren land. an
environment can support in terms of food, water and
other resources.
History of human population: about 10000 years ago,
8. Human population there were
about 5 million people living as hunter-
gatherers. Significant
points in the growth of the human
8.1. Human population distribution and population since then are:
About 6000 years ago, humans started growing crops and
density rearing
animals, which provided more food and allowed
the population to
begin to grow;
Population density: population per area (figures providing By the time the modern system of counting years started,
an
average value). the
population was about 250 million;
Population distribution: how the population is spread It then took another 1800 years to reach 1 billion;
over an
area. After this, the growth become very rapid;
Example: very few or no people live in deserts and By 1930, it was 2 billion;
mountains,
whereas populations are very high in coastal By 1975, it was 4 billion;
areas due to
availability of fresh water. By 2016, it was over 7 billion, a rise of 3 billion in just 37
years.
UN predictions for the human population in 2100 based
on evidence:
8.2. Changes in population size
Birth rate: the number of live births per thousand of

population
per year.
Death rate: the number of deaths per thousand of
population per
year.
Natural increase: the difference between birth rate and
death
rate.
Factors effecting birth rate:
In countries with a high death rate for the very young
(high infant
mortality), birth rates are also high.
In farming economies of many LEDCs, more people are
needed for manual labour hence families tend to be
Population: all the organisms of one species living in a larger.
defined
area at the same time. In MEDCs, it is expensive to have children and pensions
Lag phase: the period of time in population growth when are provided
by the state.
an
organism is adapting to its new environment and the As pensions are provided, they do not need children to
growth is slow. take care of
them in their old age.
Log/exponential phase: when the growth rate of a Many social and political factors result in low use of birth
population
increases overtime as all requirements are in control
in LEDCs, whereas in MEDCs birth control is
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
widely used, so both

birth and death rates are lower. people due to high
birth rate.
Migration: the movement of people into (immigration) or
out of
(emigration) a region, country or an area.
Most common worldwide movement is from rural to
urban areas in
LEDCs.
Sometimes urban to rural migrations also occur, mostly
in MEDCs.
Population growth: (birth rate + immigration) – (death
rate +
emigration)
Push factors: factors that Pull factors: factors that

encourage people to move encourage people to move
away from an area. into an area.
Good supplies of food
Drought/famine;
whatever the weather;
Stationary populations (USA 2016): population that is
Poverty; Well-paid jobs;
almost
stationary, with a rectangular shape, except at the
Poor links with outside world; Good roads; top when old
people die.
Hospitals, schools, water,
Poor services;
electricity;
Work on the land only, Factory, shops, office work
subsistence; for a wage.
Desertification; No comparable pull factors
Sea-level rise;
Seasonal weather events.
8.3. Population structure

Population/age pyramid: a diagram that shows the
proportion of
the population that is male and female in
different age groups
(usually 5-year interval).
Contracting (old) populations (Japan 2016): population is
declining because of low birth rates, and its pyramid is
top-heavy
because of low death rates.
Dependant: those people in the population who are not
economically active (working) i.e. the young (<16) and old
(65+)
and thus rely on those who are working for their
needs.
Independent: those people in the population who are
economically
active (working) i.e. the middle-aged
(between 17 and 65).
Taxes from the independent population is used for:
Education for the youngsters and provision of school
places for the
children yet to reach school age.‎
Creating care-home places and hospitals for the ageing
Expanding (young) populations (Afghanistan 2015): a population.‎
typical
pyramid for LEDCs with high proportion of young
8.4. Managing human population size
Family planning: methods used by couples to decide the
number of
children to have and when, which is mostly
encouraged by governments
Contraception: used to prevent pregnancy.
Improved health and education: makes people more
aware of methods
to limit family size.
Educated women may plan a career as well as having
children, the
former frequently limiting how many
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
children are born. consumers.

Education can also lead to a tendency for later marriages
and thus
later child bearing.
High infant mortality causes couples to have more
children. When it
is reduced by better healthcare and
sanitation, the trend is
reversed.
National population policies:
Pronatalist policy: a national or regional policy that aims
to
encourage couples to have children.
In countries like France, couples were encouraged to
have more
than 2 children.
Parents are paid the equivalent of the minimum wage
for a year
after they have a third child.
They enjoy subsidised train fares, pay less tax the
more
children they have, and subsidised day care.
Antinatalist policy: a national or regional policy that aims
to
discourage couples to have children.
In LEDCs, population increases too fast, and these
Food web: a diagram showing the relationship between
policies
can form in weak measures such as the
all (or
most) of the producers, primary, secondary and
provision of family
planning, contraceptives and
tertiary consumers in
an ecosystem.
education, to laws encouraging
couples to have only
one child.
Some countries have no population policies at all and
usually
have high birth rates.
9. Natural ecosystems and

human activities
9.1. Ecosystems
Ecosystem: all the living things (biotic components)
together
with all the non-living things (abiotic
components) in an area.
Population: all the organisms of one species living in a
defined
area at the same time.
Community: a group of populations of different species
that live
together in an area and interact with each other.
Habitat: the place within an ecosystem where an
organism lives.
Niche: the role of a species within the ecosystem.
Food chain: a diagram showing the relationship between Trophic level: a feeding level within a food chain or food
a single
producer and primary, secondary and tertiary web.
Pyramid of numbers: a diagram that represents the
number of
organisms at each trophic level in an
ecosystem by a horizontal bar
whose length is
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
proportional to the numbers at that level. Salinity: how salty something is, measured as ppm or
parts per
thousand (ppt) or concentration e.g.
milligrams/litre)
Brackish water: water that is salty (>0ppt) but not
as
salty as seawater (<35ppt).
Light: essential for photosynthesis; expressed as
lumens.
pH: (refer to section 4.8 Impact of water pollution;
pH).
Photosynthesis:
Plants trap light energy with the help of chlorophyll.

This green pigment splits water into hydrogen and
The pyramid shape reflects the loss of energy at each oxygen.
trophic level. The hydrogen is added to CO2</subto make glucose.
Energy is: The oxygen not used in respiration is given off to the
Lost during transfer as heat to the environment; atmosphere.
Used for cellular respiration; Plants obtain CO2</subfrom the atmosphere through their
Used for growth;
stomata in the leaves and water from the soil through their roots.
Lost as faeces; Glucose is used by plants in respiration to release energy
Lost by incomplete digestion by higher trophic level. and is
converted to substances the plant needs eg starch,
Food chains cannot have more than 4 or 5 trophic cellulose,
proteins etc.
levels as there’s not enough energy to pass on. Nitrogen is needed to form some substances such as
Biotic factors: proteins, but in
every case, chemical energy remains
Producers: organisms within an ecosystem that can stored in the substance.
carry out
photosynthesis. Respiration: the process by which living things release
Primary consumers: organisms within an ecosystem energy
from food to carry out the process of life, such as
that derive
their food from producers. movement.
Secondary consumers: organisms within an
ecosystem that derive
their food from primary
consumers.
Tertiary consumers: organisms within an ecosystem
that derive
their food from secondary consumers.
Decomposers: organisms within an ecosystem that
derive their
food from the bodies of dead organisms. Biotic interactions:
Abiotic factors: Competition: living things need a range of resources from
Temperature: usually expressed in °C. Living things the
environment.
have a range
of temperatures within which they can Many younger are produced than will survive, so
survive. there is often
competition of resources.
Humidity: a measure of how damp the air is; how Individuals least adapted to the current conditions will
much water
vapour it holds. either die or fail to reproduce.
Usually expressed as relative humidity (RH) – RH Predation: when one animal eats another.
expresses the
humidity as a % of the amount of Pollination: the transfer of pollen grains (male gametes)
water vapour the air could
hold if fully saturated. from
the anther to the stigma for it to fuse with the ovule
Water: essential for all life as it’s a raw material for (female
gamete).
photosynthesis and a medium for chemical reactions. In plants, male sex cells are found in pollen grain,
Plants obtain water from the soil and water made in
the anther.
content of soil is
an important factor in Pollen grains are either blown by wind or carried by
determining where exactly a plant
species lives. insects.
Oxygen: nearly 21% in the air; decreases with The anther is in the flower, attracting the animals with
increasing
altitude. bright colours, scent and the production of nectar.
Usually expressed as parts per million (ppm) in The pollen grain lands on the stigma of another flower
water. and
sends out a tube that grows down to where the
Not very soluble in water so all aquatic organisms ovule is.
have
adaptations to get enough e.g. gills in fish.
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
The ovule is then fertilised to form an embryo in a Impacts of habitat loss:

seed that
grows into a plant. Extinction: the process by which a species or other
The carbon cycle: named
group ceases to exist on Earth or other named
area.
Loss of biodiversity: various species die or relocate when
their habitat is destroyed.
Genetic depletion: the loss of species containing
potentially
useful genes.
Species and genetic diversity that exist in the wild may
have
many currently unknown uses e.g. medicinal,
drought-resistant,
etc.
These characteristics of modern crop plants may
prove useful in
the future e.g. due to climate change,
drought-resistant strains
are needed.
These useful, ancient strains (genes) of important
crop plants
should be retained.
However, due to habitat destruction, genetic diversity
is
reducing, leading to species becoming extinct,
making the
genetic loss irretrievable.
Modern strain of crop plants may not be able to adapt
to future
changes.
9.3. Deforestation
Causes of deforestation:
9.2. Ecosystems under threat
Timber is needed in MEDCs for products ranging from
luxury furniture
to paper, or as a source of energy.
Importance of wetlands:
Lumber (planks and boards).
Shoreline protection;
Clear land for:
Maintenance of water quality;
Farming;
Flood control;
Roads and settlements (logging tends to be selective
Recharging of aquifers;
as only a
few species create timber, however building
Biological productivity;
roads for
transporting logs is the most damaging
Provide habitats;
process.)
Source of variety of products eg fish, fuel and fibres.
Rock and mineral extraction.
Causes of habitat loss:
Impacts of deforestation:
The drainage of wetlands:
Habitat loss: biodiversity is lost when habitats are lost.
Drainage for agriculture, forestry and mosquito
Tropical rainforests are centers of great biodiversity,
control;
so
loss of habitat here is serious.
Dredging for flood protection;
Huge volume of trees acts as massive carbon stores
Use for disposal of waste created by road
that’s also
home for rare species which may be useful
construction;
to us.
Discharge of pollutants;
Soil erosion and desertification:
Peat removal;
Forests reduce the impact of heavy rainfall on the
Removal of groundwater.
ground,
reducing soil erosion.
Intensive agricultural practices: wetlands are drained and
Tree roots bind the soil in place and the layer of fallen
other
land is occupied to provide for intensive agricultural
leaves and branches protect the soil.
practices,
resulting in habitat loss.
Overtime, after deforestation, the area that once
Overcultivation of soil leads to soil erosion, causing
supported
luxuriant growth may become a desert,
habitat
loss for decomposers living in the soil.
because of
desertification.
Deforestation: Clearance of climax communities that
(refer to section 3.6 Causes and impacts of soil
would
otherwise provide habitat for a wide range of tree
erosion).
and ground
dwelling species.
Climate change:
Climax community: An ecological community in which
Changes caused in the levels of various greenhouse
populations of plants or animals remain stable and
gases in
the atmosphere.
exist in
balance with each other and their
CO2</suband methane are rising and so are atmospheric
environment.
temperatures.
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Greenhouse gas: gas that stops energy in the form of Ecotourism is both a reason to manage forests
heat
from being lost from the atmosphere. sustainably and a
method by which this can be achieved.
Rise in CO2: due to the burning of fossil
fuels, It may be mainly economic in focus, with success
deforestation, industries. measured by income,
or focused on sustainability, with
If the rate of trees photosynthesising and respiring success measured by a limit on
numbers of visitors.
were
equal, removal of trees would have no effect.
However, permanent removal of trees leads to large 9.5. Measuring and managing
quantities
of CO2</subwhen burnt or decomposed.
Moreover, the machinery of burning fossil fuels biodiversity
releases more
CO2.
Measuring biodiversity:
Loss of biodiversity and genetic depletion: (refer to
Types of sampling:
Section
9.2 Ecosystems under threat; Loss of biodiversity
Random sampling: a sampling method in which the
and genetic
depletion)
sampling
device is placed using random tables or the
roll of dice.
9.4. Managing forests Used when two areas are to be compared e.g.
number of insects
in wet and dry areas.
Carbon sinks: a vegetated area where the intake of
CO2 Systematic sampling: a sampling method in which the
from the atmosphere in photosynthesis exceeds its sampling
device is placed along a line or a pre-
output from respiration, so the net flow of carbon is from determined pattern,
usually a transect.
the
atmosphere into plants. Used to check how the species change along a
Carbon store: a mature vegetated area where the intake gradient in the
environment e.g. from the shade of a
of
CO2 from the atmosphere by photosynthesis equals its woodland to an open
field.
output from respiration, so the mature plants store Quadrat: a frame of known area placed on a part of the
carbon. site to
be sampled.
Role in water cycle: forests add water to the atmosphere
during
transpiration, leading to formation of clouds,
eventually releasing
it by precipitation.
During deforestation, this process is reduced and local
droughts are
caused in the area.
Forests generate moisture in the atmosphere that can
affect rainfall
around the world.
**Prevention of soil erosion:
**
Used to sample sedentary organisms e.g. plants.

The number of organisms of the species is then
By intercepting rain, forests reduce heavy rainfall on the counted.
forest
floor. Sometimes, the percentage cover of the organism in
Debris such as tree leaves on the floor of the forest slows the quadrat
is calculated.
run-off. Transect: a sampling method in which sampling devices
Roots of trees hold soil in place. are laid
out along a line already placed across an area.
Forests on the coast reduce erosion by absorbing energy Used to sample sedentary organisms.
from storms. An example of systematic sampling.
(refer to section 3.7 Managing soil erosion).
Ecotourism: responsible travel to a natural area that
promotes
conservation of the environment.
Visitors travel with the main aim of appreciating its
natural
beauty.
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
Pitfall traps: Sustainable harvesting of wild plant and animal species

(refer
to section 5.4 Management of the harvesting of
marine species):
Many plants have medicinal properties because of the
secondary
metabolites they produce.
Secondary metabolites: organic compounds produced by
bacteria,
fungi, or plants which are not directly involved in
the normal
growth, development, or reproduction of the
organism.
Wild plants are preferred source as cultivated varieties
only
produce small or none of the chemicals to be used.
Management plan to control harvesting of wild-grown
Used to sample non-sedentary organisms (insects).
Consists of a jar sunk up to its rim in the soil. medicinal
plants:
Assessing the abundance of the plant (refer to section 9.5
The jar may or may not be covered (depending on the
Measuring
and managing biodiversity).
predicted
likelihood of rainfall).
Investigate species’ growth rate, reproductive biology and
Traps should be inspected and emptied regularly.
Can be used randomly or systematically. impact of
harvesting.
Assess the yield that can be sustained by the wild
Drawback: measures the activity and number of the
population.
species.
Details of how the harvesting should be monitored.
Pooter:

Sustainable forestry:
Selective logging: removal of only mature trees of species
that
are valuable. Other species and immature trees of
value species are
left, allowing the forest to repair
overtime.
Non-valued trees still provide habitat for many
species and
immature valued trees can be used years
later.
Agroforestry: land management system in which crops
are grown
around trees.

Used to sample non-sedentary organisms e.g. insects.

Insects in short vegetation or on trees are usually
trapped in
a net.
A pooter is used to transport the organisms, from the
nets or
traps to a laboratory, for example.
Trees enrich the soil when the leaves fall, provide
Method Advantages Disadvantages
food for
animals, firewood for people, and sometimes
Not always very medicine.
accurate; Unless many Tree roots bind soil together, and in some cases, fix
Quick; Inexpensive;
quadrats quadrats are placed, the nitrogen, further enriching the soil.
Portable.
sample can be Farmers obtain food and milk from the farm, and
unintentionally biased. their animals
enrich the soil with manure.
Quick; Inexpensive; Often used in Alley cropping: planting rows of trees at wide spacings
transects
Portable. inappropriate situations. with a companion crop grown in the alleyways
Often kill the organisms between the
rows.
pitfall Inexpensive; Easy to set captured; May Trees are pruned and the prunings are used to
traps up and use. oversample or improve the soil
and provide minerals to the crop. (if
undersample.
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
the tree is a legume,

these minerals would include
nitrates)
Mineral recycling and the suppression of weeds by
the trees
are combined with cropping on the same
land, these thereby
allow the long-term survival of
farmland.
National parks: an area of land protected by the
government to
preserve entire ecosystems e.g. flora,
fauna and landscape.
Laws that ban/limit activities such as hunting, logging and
collection of wildflowers are implemented.
Enforcement requires regular inspection and threat of
hefty fines or
imprisonment for breaking the law.
Extensive facilities for tourists are provided, that includes
a
system of roadways, carparks and natural trails.
An entry fee charged is used for conservation work.
A guidebook/leaflet is provided that includes information
on the dos
and don’ts, and the importance of the The plan is to promote management, research and
conservation of wild nature. education in
ecosystem conservation.
The largest national park in the world is the Northeast Advantages:
Greenland
National park, covering 972001km^2. Recognised internationally via UNESCO.
Wildlife and ecological reserves: the practice of protecting Attracts funding and support of experts in the
wild plant and animal species and their habitat that plays conservation
community, improving the success of
an
important role in balancing the ecosystems and the reserve.
different natural
processes eg rainfall, fertility of the soil,
etc., thus also
meeting the needs of people. Core area Buffer zone Transition zone
Extractive reserves: an area of land, generally state- Local communities
owned
where access and use rights, including natural and conservation
resource extraction,
are allocated to local groups or organisations work
communities. More research,
Ecosystems that together to
Wildlife corridor: a link of wildlife habitat, generally native along with tourism
need protection. manage the area
vegetation, which joins two or more larger areas of and education.
for the benefit of
similar wildlife habitat. the people living

there.
May contain field
stations with
Monitoring and
laboratories and
some research.
recreational
facilities.
Seed banks: stores seeds to preserve genetic diversity

when it’s
not possible to protect the area where the
Corridors are critical for the maintenance of ecological

processes
including allowing for the movement of
animals and the continuation
of viable populations.
World biosphere reserves: an ecosystem with plants and
animals
of unusual scientific and natural interest.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
endangered plant lives. Involved in scientific research on the control of diseases,

animal
behavior and techniques to improve breeding
success;
Captive-breeding programmes increase species numbers,
thus reducing
the risk of extinction;
Aim to release captive-bred animals into the wild when
habitats have
been restored;
Such programmes try maintaining genetic biodiversity of
a species,
as interbreeding leads to a reduction in
diversity and therefore
reduces adaptability when the
species is placed back in the wild.
Ways to reduce inbreeding:
Organisms aren’t allowed to breed repeatedly with the
same partner;
A variety of partners for an organism can be achieved
through
in-vitro fertilisation and inter-zoo swapping of
individuals;
Use a database (studbook) to record breeding history of
Wild plants carry genes that could be used in crop plants
individuals
in captivity.
to confer
resistance to pests and diseases;
Sustainable tourism and ecotourism: management of
Seeds occupy lesser space than plants, thus more species
tourism in a
sustainable way to prevent damage to
can be
held;
habitat and provide what people
want.
Collecting small samples of seeds is unlikely to damage
Key to successful sustainable ecotourism is realising that
the wild
population as most plants produce large number
the
growth of the tourist industry depends on
of seeds;
maintaining the
environment.
Seeds are dormant and need minimal care, thus easier to
Measures are taken to safeguard wildlife and the
store than
living plants.
resources are used
sustainably.
Role of zoos and captive breeding:
Provide education about the illegal trade in animals and
products,
and the need to maintain biodiversity;
WWW.ZNOTES.ORG

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CAIE IGCSE EVM (0680)

1. Rocks and minerals and

Exploring for minerals:

1.2. Extraction of rocks and minerals

The rocks are broken up and loosened with

It is mainly used to mine coal.

The profit from a working mine depends on changes

1.3. Impact of rock and mineral

The need to recycle rocks and minerals:

Nuclear fuels last for centuries and are a good

Uses photovoltaic cells that produce a small electric

Cold water is pumped under pressure into a layer of

Advantages Disadvantages Decrease in the price of oil (energy source).

‘Scrappage’ schemes: remove inefficient machines backup when weather

The current solution is to use a renewable resource as

Water, sand and chemicals are pumped down into the

Access to more oil and gas;

Organism or habitat Impact of oil

Coating of oil will affect their skin.

Size of the mineral particles.

Type Size Texture

3.2. Soils for plant growth

environment Phosphorus Phosphate ions (PO43-)

Sand Clay Type Advantages Disadvantages

Subsistence Commercial Irrigation: supplying water to the crops.

Clay Pot Irrigation System

3.6. Causes and impacts of soil erosion

Without windbreaks, the soil is eroded away.

Sowing legumes immediately after a crop has been

Rainwater harvesting: the collection of rainwater, for

4. Water and its management

Resources in the soil, like nutrients, are used more

3.8. Sustainable agriculture Oceans cover 71% of the Earth’s surface.

Ground water flow: slow horizontal movement of water

The vapour is then condensed as liquid water and can

However, big areas do not ensure water availability e.g.

Advantages Disadvantages Gases from industrial chimneys enter the atmosphere,

Renewable source of energy

Reservoir can become silted due to material carried

4.7. Water pollution and its sources

Death of algae causes an increase in organic matter that

4.9. Managing pollution of fresh water

Water-borne disease: spread by consuming contaminated

Ship type Load or purpose Distribution of major marine fish populations:

5.2. World fisheries

Making proteins requires a source of nitrogen and

Nucleic acids, which form the genes of living things,

5.3. Impact of exploitation of the oceans

Catch all types of unwanted species and ponds and raceways

Drift with the current and are not

Hang like a curtain in the water \n

A variant called the surrounding net is often

If mesh size is too small, juvenile fish will be caught.

Farming marine species (Mariculture) reduces the

Constructive (divergent) plate boundary: form fold mountains.

Two plates move away from each other.

Two plates move towards each other.

Ocean surface temperature of at least 27°C.

These conditions occurring between 5° and 20° north and