English legal language

With the purpose of making the process of legal translation accessible to investigation, the author resorts to the parametrization of translational reality as an inalienable component of her translational theory being proposed here for consideration. The aim is to propose a more precise theory of legilinguistic translation which compels the author to clearly distinguish primitive terms and postulates. These latter specify the image (model) of the reality in question in terms of relevant dimensions used to characterize a set of translational objects and relations. The dimensions secure a systematic examination of the translation reality and process. In order to illustrate the practical application of the parametrization in legal translation, the discussion concerning this translation approach is limited to certain selected types of legal communicative communities which is amply exemplified. The research is based on data and information gathered during an in-depth case study of translations and parallel text corpora mainly in the field of civil law including insolvency and bankruptcy law.

Prefácio

Todo mundo já deve ter passado por uma situação em que foi mal entendido. Nessas horas, é comum nos lembrarmos de nossos pais, irmãos, amigos, enfim, de gente próxima que certamente nos entenderia. E essa lembrança é perfeitamente justificável. Deve-se ao poder comunicativo
que uma relação fraternal nos concede. Roland Barthes, em seus Fragmentos de um Discurso Amoroso, descreveu essa relação como portadora de uma linguagem semelhante a uma pele. Uma pessoa esfregaria sua pele na outra. Ela teria palavras no lugar dos dedos, ou dedos na ponta
das palavras.
Entretanto, a maioria das relações interpessoais não é regida pelo
espírito fraternal, no qual, além das palavras, todo o contexto é identificável por ser, em grande extensão, compartilhado e envolvido por uma mesma pele. Para sermos capazes de nos comunicar além das relações fraternais e de modo a assegurar as demais relações interpessoais criam-se convenções sociais que, uma vez eleitas, compõem um sistema legitimado – e compartilhado – por uma comunidade maior.
O sistema jurídico é reflexo dessa convencionalização, pois por
meio dele são organizadas e interpretadas determinadas convenções próprias com o intuito de garantir e atribuir, aos que estão inseridos em um certo grupo, direitos e deveres. Cria-se, dessa maneira, além das obrigações jurídicas, todo um subuniverso linguístico especializado, que existe paralelamente ao da comunidade. Um subuniverso com particularidades
próprias, cujo aspecto fraternal é mínimo e afasta – ou até mesmo repele – aqueles que não possuem o domínio de sua linguagem e convenções.
Ainda assim, em um mesmo universo linguístico (e.g. o qual adota o português do Brasil), ao menos todos que nele estão inseridos falam a mesma língua e entendem em maior ou menor grau a complexidade das relações sociais. Consequentemente, nesse contexto, os agentes do poder judiciário são capazes de articular sem grandes conflitos – porém não livre deles – a relação entre o leigo e a linguagem específica.
Agora, reflita sobre quando diferentes sistemas se cruzam ou se sobrepõem colocando os especialistas de ambos os lados em contato. Obviamente é necessária a adequada tradução de termos específicos que não encontram correspondentes diretos em cada um dos universos envolvidos.
Essa, por si só, já seria uma tarefa dotada de significativa complexidade, já
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que nela residem, não só as dificuldades de comunicação resultantes das particularidades dos sistemas jurídicos envolvidos, mas também a possibilidade de ruídos decorrentes das diferenças culturais entre os dois sistemas.
Nesse caso, além dos desafios linguísticos e das diferenças entre códigos éticos, é possível que as culturas se choquem, ou melhor, que se perceba a falta de compartilhamento de dois ou mais universos culturais.
No contexto jurídico bilíngue, um choque cultural acontece toda vez que
uma manifestação humana com intenção comunicativa de um sistema
de partida é tida como estrangeira ao sistema de chegada e nele se vê
emaranhada produzindo efeito outro que não o desejado pelo emitente
do sistema de origem. Fica então evidente, e se prova necessária, a atuação de um agente que domine tanto a linguagem dos sistemas em questão quanto os hábitos linguísticos das culturas estrangeiras que se encontram.
Um profissional capaz de fazer tanto a correspondência terminológica específica dos sistemas jurídicos entre os dois universos linguísticos como a orientação cultural dos interlocutores envolvidos.
Um exemplo de competência transcultural diretamente ligada à
terminologia e à tradução linguística seria o tradutor ou intérprete conhecer as nuanças de um termo, aparentemente simples, como law
no inglês e ter capacidade para decidir quais dos possíveis correspondentes em português empregar.
Outra situação permeada por transculturalidade ligada à pragmática seria aquela envolvendo um intérprete e um cliente estrangeiro, um
attorney por exemplo, na qual o primeiro informa ao segundo que tipo de
construção frasal funcionaria melhor para se obter uma resposta da maneira mais direta possível de uma testemunha brasileira, a qual o attorney em tela estaria inquirindo em um processo de arbitragem conduzido em inglês.
Imaginemos a cena: a testemunha brasileira é indagada por um juiz
norte-americano sobre sua a profissão. “Are you a journalist?”, pergunta
o juiz. “Você é jornalista?”, diz o intérprete. “Veja bem”, diz o brasileiro,
“ultimamente eu estava trabalhando de...”. “Lately, I have been working
as...”, continua o intérprete.
O juiz norte-americano assume um olhar intrigado com a resposta,
pois ele espera – e deseja – uma resposta objetiva. A testemunha brasileira acha importante explicar todos os detalhes de sua carreira profissional informando sobre o que ela própria acha mais relevante sobre o que significa ser ou não ser jornalista. 

Essa simples situação pode causar efeitos adversos ao processo judicial em questão. Explico: na cultura anglo-americana, existem as chamadas yes or no questions. De trato mais pragmático, os anglo-americanos ficam frustrados – e mesmo contrariados – quando a suas perguntas, quebrando  expectativas legítimas da cultura de chegada, não são dadas respostas objetivas, iniciadas por sim/não nesse caso. E você conhece algum brasileiro
acima de 2 anos de idade que empregue sim/não em suas respostas?
Americanos, principalmente, estão acostumados a uma resposta do
tipo ‘answer first’, ou seja, primeiro responda (“Sim, sou jornalista”. “Não,
não sou”.) e só depois explique – e somente se lhe for perguntado. Qualquer comportamento que se esquive dessa visão de normalidade poderia fazer brotar resistência por parte do destinatário e truncar a comunicação entre duas partes perfeitamente competentes dentro de sua própria cultura de origem. Isto é, cada uma delas é conhecedora exímia de seu próprio universo cultural, mas não de muitos aspectos do universo cultural de seu interlocutor.
Foi, portanto, com o espírito de trazer à superfície a importância
da competência terminológica jurídica bilíngue atrelada à conscientização da necessidade de uma competência transcultural, como pano de fundo e também como pano de boca, que este livro foi concebido, pois por meio
de ambas é possível recuperar um entendimento mais fino da pele habitada pelos indivíduos em seus respectivos universos culturais jurídicos de modo a dotar a comunicação de fluidez e segurança, bem como reduzir o tempo e os recursos despendidos.

Luciana Carvalho Fonseca

ISBN 978-85-67695-00-6

Arbitration has been a means of resolving disputes since the beginning of time, changing as the world changed and surviving unscathed the collapse of civilizations and empires, deep transformations in social systems, different ways of seeing the world around us. Far from declining, it seems today to be more alive than ever, globalization having given it even stronger impetus. The complexity of business transactions, transcultural issues, the birth of trade organizations, gathering countries and legal systems that might seem incompatible, have not discouraged recourse to arbitration, quite the opposite. It has proved a flexible, effective and reliable resource. Of course, not all problems are over. One of the most fascinating issues in my eyes concerns language. It could not be otherwise, when the parties increasingly often come from different Countries: they may choose to negotiate in either of their languages, in both, or in neither, selecting a third language – usually English – that is not the mother tongue of either of them, and yet will become the language in which they conduct business, deal with vital questions, raise their claims, and try to avoid litigation. And the technical terminology of arbitration itself is full of interesting discoveries. This paper intends to explore the history, development and problems of language in this specific field. Definitions and Historical overview When the parties come from different Countries, bridging language differences is a prerequisite for the success of arbitration: failing to do so can bring about unforeseen and costly consequences. As we will see, history has played a primary role in introducing words and expressions that have become peculiar to this process.

RESUMEN Género y lenguaje son dos universos que se alimentan mutuamente: uno es el vehículo a través del que se expresa el otro, pero también uno influye sobre el otro. Y dentro del lenguaje, la traducción ejerce un efecto configurador, esto es, sirve de correa de transmisión entre culturas, de forma que lo que pensamos y nuestra forma de actuar pueden venir configurados por las decisiones que se toman a la hora de incorporar ideas de una cultura a otra. En este sentido, la actitud del lenguaje jurídico, como parte del lenguaje institucional, hacia cuestiones de género, tiene un gran impacto sobre la posibilidad de que se perpetúen determinadas ideas o, por el contrario, la sociedad se mueva hacia situaciones de igualdad. Nuestra Red ha realizado una exploración inicial de las cuestiones de género en lo que respecta al inglés jurídico y su traducción, de modo descriptivo, que nos ha permitido observar que existen todavía áreas de mejora que nos permitirían caminar hacia una sociedad mejor al tiempo que atendemos a las necesidades futuras de nuestro alumnado en dicha sociedad. Palabras clave: inglés jurídico, traducción jurídica, género, integración de contenidos, enseñanza universitaria 836

This work points toward a need for a plainer legal language: a legal language that is not a wall between those seeking justice and justice itself. We, as Law professionals, have become increasingly comfortable with a type of technical language that excludes those who have not entered the classrooms of Law Schools. And we often fail to find a problem with the fact that non-professionals need a “translator” –a
lawyer– to explain the contents of the rules and laws to them.

This paper is a modest attempt to study how common law, legal English, and legal education interact. The birth and evolution of legal English and legal education are bound up with that of the common law and the history of Great Britain. Therefore, to understand the unique nature of legalese, it becomes necessary to revisit the evolution of Common Law. This paper is divided into five parts. The first part deals with the changing dimensions of Common Law from a historical perspective; in the second, the development of legalese in British history has been discussed. Part third talks about how literature plays a vital role in the enrichment of legal language while locating the areas of possible synergy between law and literature; and the fourth part centers around the idea that law is expressed in a language and, therefore, the importance of hermeneutics in the interpretation of law also needs to be comprehended. The need to revise legal pedagogy in the existing legal education system has also been highlighted in the fifth part of this paper before drawing the inferences. The paper concludes by stressing the importance of legal language and the need to reform existing pedagogy to equip law students with good communication skills necessary for legal practice in modern times.
KEY WORDS : Anglo-Saxon, Norman Conquest, Common Law, Legalese, hermeneutics.

Since the publication of the first edition of English for Law in 2018 the world that we live in has undergone a great many transformations. From the Trump presidency in the United States of America to the pandemic that still holds its deathly grip on much of the world at the time of writing, we have been living through strange and challenging times. One the most important of these changes, however, that has particularly affected Italy, the European Union and the entire world, has been the withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union. When the first edition was published the final outcomes of the Brexit process were still unknown. Over the course of the last three years agreements were reached that will have far-reaching effects for many years to come. While the UK no longer falls under the jurisdiction of the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg, it remains a contracting State under the European Convention on Human Rights and the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg. Despite rumors and fears of the contrary, English still remains one of the official languages of the EU sharing the position of “procedural language” together with French and German. While the future of English within the EU and its institutions is unknown, it is safe to say the language will remain a lingua franca within EU institutions and in its Member States for many years to come. Moreover, the UK’s almost fifty-year presence in the EU has left its mark on the language of the EU and the institutions themselves. The same could be said of the UK considering that most EU legislations was converted into UK law before the official withdrawal.

In this new edition I have attempted to correct the mistakes that remained in the first version. I would like to thank the attentive readers who pointed out many of these to me hoping that I have managed to rectify all of these shortcomings in the new edition. Secondly, I have updated some sections in the theoretical part of the book to address the changed role of the UK in the European Union. Thirdly, an entirely new section about the main differences between the common law and (European) civil law has been added. Finally, I have expanded the section on contracts. It is hoped that these additions will be useful to Italian learners who would like to learn more about the Anglo-American legal system but through the lens of their own legal system and that in the European Union. The methodology of the book remains unaltered: the theoretical sections are complemented by the practical chapters in the second part of the book. During the preparation of this second edition I continued to draw inspiration from all of my students and colleagues in Italy and in Europe.

This book presents a series of texts and exercises on legal matters which will prepare the student gradually to reach, respectively, the C1 and C2 level of English, according to the European Common Framework of Reference for Languages.
The book is written in English and is divided into three parts.
The first part focuses on European Case Law, whereas the second part focuses on the UK and the US litigation systems. Part I and II are particularly suitable for advanced students (C1 level) and can also complement the preparation of the TOLES (Test of Legal English Skills)  (Higher level).
The third part focuses on the UK Case Law, whereas the fourth deals with Contract Law in common law systems. Part III and IV are indicated for proficiency students (C2 level) and can also complement the preparation of the Advanced level of the TOLES.
There are exercises, glossaries and case study to focus on. All exercises come with keys.

Translators, law students or legal professionals who begin to deal with legal language face a bewildering variety of legal writings. Even though legal language has been examined from a multitude of perspectives, there are virtually no studies explicitly addressing variation in legal English in terms of recurrent linguistic patterns. This book is a first step towards filling this gap. It provides a corpus-based linguistic description of variation among several selected legal genres, including vocabulary distribution and use (keywords), extended lexical expressions (lexical bundles), and lexico-syntactic co-occurrence patterns (multidimensional analysis). The findings are interpreted in functional terms in an attempt to provide an overall characterization of the most commonly encountered types of legal language.

I n t r o d u z i o n e-Common Law e d Equity pag. 9 Scopri i titoli in programma Consulta il catalogo dettagliato dei corsi in aula nella tua città www.giuffrefrancislefebvre.it Vai su gfl.formazione.it o contattaci al 0238089419 CORSI, PERCORSI e MASTER per Professionisti e Aziende Scopri i titoli in programma Consulta il catalogo dettagliato dei corsi in aula nella tua città www.giuffrefrancislefebvre.it Vai su gfl.formazione.it o contattaci al 0238089419

The corpus-based analysis of legal discursive features is key for research on legal translation, as well as other related fields, such as comparative legal linguistics, legal lexicography and legal linguistics. This chapter addresses methodological considerations relevant to the selection of tools to analyse legal discourses for legal translation research purposes. The results of a comparative analysis of currently available fourth-generation concordancers – CPQweb, Sketch Engine, and ParaVoz – are presented with a view to verifying their suitability for a specific research project, according to the project's context of use. These tools are tested in accordance with the relevant guidelines and norms designed for software evaluation.

Cambridge English ha anunció en su sitio web que suspendía los exámenes Cambridge English: Legal (ILEC) y Cambridge English: Finance (ICFE) en diciembre de 2016. Para muchos abogados, los cursos y exámenes ILEC han sido una manera útil de construir su vocabulario de inglés jurídico y desarrollar sus habilidades de escuchar, leer, escribir y hablar en un contexto legal.

This book describes the historical development of the Polish and English lingua legis. The intention is to point out the major differences between the legal realities, which significantly affect the process of translation. Secondly, the following characteristic features of lingua legis, concerning the level of words and syntagmas, are touched upon: vocabulary used in lingua legis including technical and semi-technical terms, conservatism of legal texts (Latin and Latinisms; synonymous strings, archaic adverbs etc.), borrowings, terms with non-precise meanings (the problem of indeterminacy), neologisms, euphemisms, vulgarisms, performative verbs, metaphors and religious elements, prepositional phrases, time expressions, compound nouns and the problems connected with nominalization, false cognates which cause major misunderstandings, and finally methods of providing translation equivalents. The problem of ambivalence is analysed as well. The problems connected with the Polish-English and English-Polish translation of the texts belonging to the following legal genres are examined: university diplomas and certificates, statutes, judgments, law reports, powers of attorney, petitions, contracts and deeds, testaments, birth, death and marriage certificates, and popular fiction.

The European Union institutions are expanding their legal
and authoritative powers in many sectors and fields. Therefore,
their legislative and judgement activities have increased. This
paper focuses on European legal English in order to explore
whether it is hallmarked by the technicalities and verbosity that
characterise the legal jargon, also known as legalese. Legalese
encompasses lexical terms, phraseology and syntactic structures
that make it incomprehensible to the layperson. Literature reports
that the European legal language is also hallmarked by abstruse
and archaic words. This paper will analyse European legal English
and explore whether, and to what extent, the Euro-language can
be a source of legalese or of plain legal terms. In order to do so, a
corpus analysis of legalese will be carried out. The terms will be
sourced from some European corpora, namely the European
Constitution corpus; the Treaty of Lisbon; the European
Parliament Proceedings corpus and the Bononia Legal corpus
(only in the European Directives and Judgements sub-corpora).
The paper findings will highlight that, to some extent, European
legal English is free from the most pedantic forms of archaism,
although some verbosity can still be found. What one may hope
for the future is that European legal drafters and judges will
continue to implement plain English in order to obtain a
boundary-free legal language that could be used across Europe.

This chapter explores the potential of legal documents for the study of the sociology of Old English. It first gives the rationale of using legal genres and text types and then presents several case studies that analyse them in detail in relation to such notions as communities of practice and discourse communities and to such variables as gender and social class. The chapter also introduces research databases and tools that can be used in combination to elucidate the interconnections between users of legal Old English, their

Due to this international character of English, texts in this language −as proffered by several major institutions in the area of public and private law− are deployed as necessary tools of communication in the course of the establishment of transnational commercial and juridical relationships. However, English as the language of the law has been branded as a complex, opaque, kind of discourse. The aim of the present paper is to address the question of the undeniable complexity of legal texts in English as instruments to wield power, their unveiled communicative aim being to separate the ruler from the citizen and the legal message from its user. To demonstrate the validity of such thesis, genre analysis has been applied to three paradigmatic texts, consequential to develop international deals in the transnational contexts: the insurance policies of the London Institute of Underwriters at Lloyd's, the Rules issued by the London Court of international Arbitration and the Geneva Convention on the Contract for the International Carriage of Goods by Road (CMR). The goal of our study will be carried out through different levels to discern whether there exists any possible equation between power and textual complexity: the formal and discursive level, which will scrutinize lexicon, syntax and textual elements (macrostructure of texts and metadiscourse markers) and the pragmatic level, which will study the texts as peculiar generic types of legal agreements where power and commitment between the parties as a set of directives, i.e. obligations exerted by a powerful party over another, the recipient of the text.

This paper discusses the history of Latin maxims and expressions in English, Estonian and Polish legal languages and the influence of Latin on contemporary legal language and its translation. A number of maxims and expressions were examined by comparing their present meanings in those three legal systems. A selection of fifteen of them is presented in the article, namely: ab intestato, corpus iuris civilis, error iuris, fraus est celerem fraudem, ignorantia iuris neminem excusat, impossibilium nulla est obligatio, inter arma silent leges, ipso iure, lex non scripta, pacta sunt servanda, qui tacet -consentire videtur, restitutio in integrum,m sub iudice, and summum ius summa iniuria. The term Actio Pauliana which is used in the bankruptcy law is used here to show how translators may use Latin terms in order to find proper translation equivalents. Finally, the authors point out the differences in pronunciation and spelling of Latin maxims and expressions in English, Estonian and Polish.

Trans activists in the UK might get confused by the phrasing in the 2004 Gender Recognition Act, section 9 (1), particularly by the phrase ‘for all purposes’:

‘Where a full gender recognition certificate is issued to a person, the person’s gender becomes for all purposes the acquired gender (so that, if the acquired gender is the male gender, the person’s sex becomes that of a man and, if it is the female gender, the person’s sex becomes that of a woman).’

This phrase has a specific legal meaning and history. It is short for ‘to/for all intents and purposes’, going back to English law in the 16th century. It means: ‘in every practical sense’ or ‘virtually’.
https://miroslavimbrisevic.wordpress.com/2020/03/06/the-language-of-law-to-all-intents-and-purposes/

El presente estudio pretende debatir la relación entre la complejidad lingüística y las intenciones comunicativas de dos textos preceptivos diferentes: un conjunto de leyes reguladoras, por un lado, y las condiciones generales de un contrato de seguros, por otro. Nos disponemos a revelar los mati- ces ocultos del poder e imposición que yace bajo la estructura de dichos documentos. La premisa en la que se basa nuestra doctrina es que las prescripciones, como actos de habla regulativos, no son uniformes. Searle (1976; en Blom et al, 1992: Austin, 1962; y Trosborg, 1995: 35) señala dos categorías importantes de actos regulativos: los directivos –como en la legislación, en la que el emisor trata de influir en el com- portamiento del receptor por medio de la imposición de poder— y los comisivos, como en los contratos, donde, según Austin (1962; en Trosborg, 1995: 34), el objetivo es que el hablante se comprometa a un cierto tipo de acción. Este estudio pretende discernir si las relaciones de poder atribuidas normalmente a la legislación se aplican al Reglamento de la Corte de Arbitraje Internacional de Londres (LCIA, de aquí en adelante), y si, por el contrario, el compromiso bilateral que debería estar presente en los contratos, también se halla en las Cláusulas del Instituto de Mercancías (ICC, de aquí en adelante). Esto debería desvelarfinalmente si existe una posible relación entre el poder y la complejidad textual tal y como nosotros defendemos.

This paper investigates the interplay between judicial argumentation and evaluative or emotive language identified in two US Supreme Court landmark cases on the right of same-sex couples to marry. The analysis of both majority and dissenting opinions leads to two main observations. First, marriage and liberty are indeed emotive words and they represent two major sites of contention between the concurring and dissenting judges. Second, there are important differences within the argumentative strategies employed by the judges. While (re)defining the concepts remains the major argumentative goal for both types of opinion, the majority opinions tacitly integrate the redefined concept of marriage into their argumentation. It is the dissenting opinions that explicitly raise the issue of (re)definition in order to defend and retain the original sense of marriage.

Due to expansion of English language and the fact that it is one of the most commonly used language in both the private and business life there is the necessity of teaching future lawyers the legal basis of the English language. This work aims to show the most significant elements of the legal English language trought presenting the importance of learning legal terms, analyzing and recognizing them in the legal texts. The author explains the necessity of introducing legal English as a compulsory subject in law faculties and comparative learning of legal terms in the native and in English language. Learning legal terms in English along with learning the same in mother tongue is of great importance to every lawyer for many reasons. One of the most important arguments is the process of globalization. Many people learn and acquire knowledge in one country, and then they work and apply the acquired knowledge in another country, in order to be able to communicate with each other, their knowledge must be supported by terminology in a particular field, only in this way dialogue can be dynamic and successful. The objectives that must be set in the process of mastering the legal English language are the development of the ability to listen and analyze the language used in the interaction of a lawyer-client, study strategies and techniques in negotiations, encounter various legal documents, such as letters, legal opinions, different types Contracts, clauses, minutes, statutes, practice of writing letters, memoranda and legal opinions, improving the ability to participate in situations typical of legal practice, playing different roles and participating in simulations. English is important at this point in business, politics and education for lawyers, in that it is the main language of communication around the world, and almost 50% of technical and scientific editions are in English. The decisions of European institutions affect the daily life of the citizens of the Union and for their legitimacy it is necessary for lawyers to participate actively in decision-making processes without any language barrier. All EU texts and judgments, all international acts are in English, while the translations of the texts themselves must guarantee a uniform interpretation and application of EU law, for which precise and unambiguous use of terminology for terms from certain acts is necessary. English is the lingua franca for transnational business world in Europe. The exchange of technologies, discoveries and information is carried out using the language itself. Each language has certain characteristics and specificities, also each language has certain variations depending on the territory in which it is spoken. English is spoken around the world, so in this sense we have differences between, for example, the American and British English language, because there is a certain terminology that is characteristic of each speaker area. Legal English, however, is standardized and does not limit its territorial boundaries, so the legal terminology serves lawyers all over the world. Apstrakt: U ovom radu autor nastoji da kroz prikaz najznačajnijh elemenata pravnog engleskog jezika predstavi značaj učenja pravnih termina, analize i prepoznavanja istih u pravnim tekstovima. Naime, činjenica je da je engleski jezik jedan je od najrasprostranjenih i najčešće korišćenih jezika, kako u privatnom, tako i u poslovnom životu. Engleski jezik, kao maternji, koristi više od 330 miliona ljudi, dok su procene da se ovim jezikom služi preko 1.500.000.000 ljudi na svim kontinentima, što što samo po sebi ukazuje na potrebu podučavanja budućih pravnika osnovama pravnog engleskog jezika. U radu autor obrazlaže neminovnost uvođenja pravnog engleskog jezika kao obaveznog predmeta na studijama prava i uporednog učenja pravnih termina na maternjem i na engleskom jeziku. Učenje pravnih termina na engleskom jeziku uporedo sa učenjem istih na maternjem jeziku je od velikog značaja za svakog pravnika iz više razloga. Jedan od najvažnijih argumenata jeste proces globalizacije. Mnogi ljudi uče i stiču znanja u jednoj zemlji, a onda rade i primenjuju stečena znanja u drugoj zemlji, da bi bili sposobni da komuniciraju međusobno njihovo znanje mora biti potkrepljeno terminologijom iz određene oblasti, jedino na taj način dijalog može biti fukncionalan i uspešan. Engleski jezik je važan u ovom trenutku poslovno, politički i obrazovno za pravnike, samim tim što je on glavni jezik današnje komunikacije u celom svetu, a gotovo 50% tehničkih i naučnih izdanja je na engleskom jeziku. Odluke evropskih institucija utiču na svakodnevni život građana Unije, a za njihov

Resumen. El presente estudio propone una reflexión acerca de una categoría específica de recursos para la traducción jurídica, o sea, los blogs gestionados por profesionales de la traducción jurídica, bajo una doble perspectiva. Un primer foco de estudio, de corte teórico-traductológico, recae en la nueva conceptualización de las nociones centrales de traducción (unidad, problema, error, método, estrategia, técnica y equivalencia de traducción) que tiene lugar en estas plataformas virtuales. El segundo explora las dinámicas de co-construcción y compartición del conocimiento especializado en acción en las entradas redactadas por y para la comunidad de profesionales. El artículo presenta ejemplos paradigmáticos extraídos de algunos de los blogs más 'seguidos' por los traductores jurídicos (especialmente en la combinación español-inglés) y se centra, en particular, en un estudio de caso: el blog de Rebecca Jowers. El análisis se lleva a cabo según un enfoque metodológico ecléctico que compagina nociones procedentes de una pluralidad de ejes (documentación en traducción jurídica, lexicografía especializada, divulgación y mediación del derecho, marketing y sociología de la profesión). Palabras clave: blogs de traductores jurídicos, recursos y herramientas para la traducción jurídica, redes de traductores, traductología, Rebecca Jowers.

The dismantling of international boundaries in the pursuit of international markets and global agreements has meant the matching of different legal frameworks in the global context, as well as the implementation of legislative procedures and juridical processes across countries. Hence, it could be said that globalized business activities and dispute resolution through arbitration between individuals and institutions has been accompanied by a process of legal internationalization. However, such a process requires a common language for legal officials and scholars to understand one another, and such language is, undeniably, Eng-lish. Hence, the advent of the so-internationaliz the last two decades which is unlikely to change in the near future. In fields such as the legal profession, linguistic phenomena coming from different cultural systems and structures are peculiar to each language and country, thus challenging the ability and skills of the translator, linguist and/or specialist in the area. This talk will provide explanation of the historical, epistemological, functional, anthropological and her-meneutical differences between the Common law system of Anglo-American countries and the Continental system of most of Europe (including Finland and Spain), in order to provide a conceptual framework that may account for the complexity of Legal English, and what problems may the translator and LSP practitioner be faced with when trying to account for some of its peculiarities.

This paper investigates the role of (DIS)RESPECT as a value premise in two landmark civil rights cases given by the United States Supreme Court. It adopts a corpus-assisted approach whereby a keyword analysis and the analysis of key semantic domains are used to identify potential values relied upon by judges in their justifications. The two categories of NO RESPECT and RESPECTED have been selected and examined as one domain of (DIS)RESPECT. (DIS)RESPECT turns out to be the only value marked by strong evaluative polarity and it is found in the majority, as well as in dissenting opinions. The analysis shows how the notion of (DIS)RESPECT has been integrated into the arguments of judges and it highlights the central importance of values and the related evaluative language for legal argumentation.

This paper adopts a comparative, corpus-based perspective to examine the language of judicial justification. Based on substantial corpus data, the study explores one of the linguistics resources, i.e. head nouns (e.g. assumption, belief, notion, etc.) followed by a nominal complement in the form of that-clause in two comparable legal settings: the opinions given in the United States Supreme Court and the judgements handed down by Poland's Constitutional Tribunal. The findings corroborate the results of previous research which shows that nouns found in this pattern are used to perform various discourse functions but evaluation plays a central role in judicial writing and these nouns are used to signal sites of contentions. The Stanisław GOŹDŹ-ROSZKOWSKI: Signalling Sites… 92 study reveals the general similarity between the two sets of data suggesting that American and Polish judicial writing is underpinned by essentially the same epistemological assumptions. Yet, there are some differences in the way the nouns behave phraseologically. Polish nouns tend to show less collocational variation and they are found performing fewer discourse functions. Streszczenie: Niniejszy artykuł ukazuje próbę wykorzystania metodologii korpusowej w celu badania języka uzasadnien decyzji stosowania prawa. Przedmiotem analizy jest użycie grupy rzeczowników takich jak przypuszczenie, pogląd czy sugestia w konstrukcji przed spójnikiem that, a więc kontrolujących zdania podrzędne dopełnieniowe. Celem badania jest zbadanie funkcji jakie rzeczowniki w tej konstrukcji pełnią w dyskursie uzasadnień sądowych. Przyjęta hipoteza zakładała, że jedną z funkcji może być wartościowanie. Przedstawione w artykule wyniki potwierdzają, że sędziowie, zarówno amerykańscy jak i polscy, posługują się chętnie tego typu wyrażeniami w celu dokonania oceny argumentów zgłoszonych przez sędziów rozpatrujących sprawę w niższej instancji, strony procesowe, jak również innych sędziów spośród składu orzekającego. Bliższa analiza ukazuje również, iż rzeczowniki użyte w uzasadnieniach Trybunału Konstytucyjnego charakteryzują się mniejszym zróżnicowaniem kolokacyjnym oraz pełnią mniej funkcji w dyskursie niż ich angielskie odpowiedniki.

The paper belongs to the domain of legal translation from English into
Ukrainian. It deals with the specific features of the EU – Ukraine Association Agreement as the text illustrating English of the European Union. The difference between British English and EU English is accounted for by the differences in legal systems and long-term influence of different European languages on the English language as lingua franca of the Union. The paper studies specific lexical and grammatical traits of the text in terms of their being a challenge of translation. Here belong lexical units to denote European notions, nonequivalent lexical units, some grammatical features,
not found in Ukrainian, which require the application of compensatory
techniques. Some errors and inconsistencies of translation were detected and analysed. The conclusion was made concerning the importance of translation in legal context, and the necessity to apply an in-depth study approach while translating texts of state importance.

Пособие охватывает большой объем лексического материала. Повторяемость лексических единиц обеспечивает непроизвольное запоминание специфических лексических оборотов и активного словаря юридической терминологии. Материал представлен в виде активных заданий, имеющих речевую направленность, и включает упражнения, отрывки связанных текстов юридической тематики.
Пособие предназначено студентам и учащимся средних учебных заведений, а также всем, кто изучал ранее английский язык и намерен углубить свои знания, продолжив занятия самостоятельно.

Dass Kenntnisse über die englische Rechtssprache zu den mittlerweile unabdingbaren Voraussetzungen eines Juristen im aktuellen Tagesgeschehen gehören, dürfte grundsätzlich kaum noch in Abrede gestellt werden. Ob es das Praktizieren in einer internationalen Wirtschaftskanzlei oder die Forschung im universitären Bereich ist, solide Kenntnisse des Englischen in der Fachsprache des Rechts werden als Selbstverständlichkeit erwartet. Um sich die englische Rechtssprache anzueignen gibt es etliche Optionen wie etwa die Buchung kostenpflichtiger Kurse, das Besuchen von Vorlesungen oder das Durcharbeiten umfangreicher Lehrbücher. Um sich auf autodidaktische Art und Weise die Fachsprache anzueignen erweist sich das Werk von Linhart/Fabry als ideale Option für den Einstieg in die Materie. Das Besondere an dem Werk ist der interaktive Charakter des 236 Seite langen Werkes: Jedes Kapitel beinhaltet die zentralen Vokabeln, die im Anschluss im Rahmen von Lückentexten oder einer Lernkontrolle abgefragt werden. Am Endes des Lehrbuchs gibt es sogar die Möglichkeit einer Abschlussklausur.

Abstract
The purpose of this research is to analyse the process of popularization of a special language after a change in the communicative context.
In particular, the analysis is conducted on the legal English used in the TV series ‘The Good Wife’.
The starting point for this study is in the analysis of the genre known as ‘legal drama’. According to what Bhatia claims (1997, 2004) it can be considered an example of an “embedded genre”:
[The] definition of embedded genre is that when imported into a new context, a given genre will be altered (Bhatia 1997, in Lähdesmäki 2009).
In genre embedding, for example, one often finds a particular generic form, it may be poem, a story or an article used as a template to give expression to another conventionally distinct generic form (Bhatia 1997).
In the analysis of legal drama by its text-internal features, indeed, it can be noticed that the fictional legal English employed is similar to those of the discourse community of lawyers and of court proceedings, and it is embedded in the template of conversations which are written, instead, for an audiovisual product with entertainment purposes.
However, the analysis of the genre is not only conducted from a purely linguistic point of view, but also taking into account text-external factors, among which the identities of the participants to the conversation (Bhatia 2004). The difference between a conversation involving two expert speakers (specialized discourse) and a conversation between an expert speaker and a layman (popularized discourse) will be analyzed and the focus will be on the variation or the re-construction of the identity of the expert speaker according to the context variation.
In particular, attention is paid to the comparison of scenes in which lawyers communicate one single specialist content; but in the first case they do it to an expert person (e.g. other lawyers/judge) and in a second moment they convey it to a non-expert interlocutor (e.g. customers).
In this way the change in the language and how the ‘exclusion’ of the interlocutor from the discourse community affects the language are highlighted.
In addition to the definition of the genre ‘legal drama’, the final aim of the research is to answer the following questions:
1) Why and how can Special Languages be modified in mixed/embedded genres?
2) Which are the popularization strategies in legal drama?

, The Grammatical Structure of Legal English. Warszawa: Translegis, pp. 248,. The Grammatical Structure of Legal English is an attempt at describing the grammar of legal English in a systematic way. Its structure, style and terminology mirror typical pre-corpus era descriptive grammars, such as Quirk et al. (1985), on a much more modest scale. As such, it is an ambitious project since, as the authors stress, there is no similar book that presents the grammar of legal English in one place and is readily available to a broad audience. Although legal English is relatively well-researched both as regards its grammatical and conceptual structure, this research is scattered across many sources. Secondly, the authors observe that most publications on legal English deal with its terminological rather than grammatical features (2010: 21). Therefore, the book focuses on structural aspects of legal English. It is clear that the authors have an impressive knowledge of legal English; however, the book disappoints with small errorsnamely, careless Polish adaptation of the book, an incomplete bibliography, lack of rigour and the perfunctory treatment of some key generic aspects of legal English, as well as methodological issues in research design. As already mentioned, the structure in general follows the format of a descriptive grammar, starting with lexis, moving to word classes, clause elements and ending with sentence types. Chapter 2, entitled Lexical features of legal English vocabulary, discusses word formation processes, such as derivation, clipping, blending, as well as other features, e.g. loanwords, collocations and abbreviations. The next section, which covers nearly half of the book, is Chapter 5, entitled Word classes.

Inglês Jurídico representa uma importante contribuição neste contexto. O livro, escrito em linguagem elegante e objetiva, é resultado da organização de uma série de textos originalmente publicados por Luciana Carvalho Fonseca em meio eletrônico, na página da Tradjuris – law, language & culture (empresa dirigida por Fonseca) e na coluna Migalaw do portal jurídico Migalhas. A obra reflete a longa experiência teórica e prática da autora, que é advogada e tradutora, além de professora de tradução jurídica, cultura e interpretação consecutiva e simultânea da PUC-SP.

Although English began to be used as language ofdocuments, records continued being the realm of Latín. Latín legal formulae andphrasing were adopted in English or translated literally leadíng to a Latinized English. Material taken directly from documents* has been selected to illustrate relevant grammatical points and idioms.

The ability to read legal cases is one of the most essential skills for law students aiming for success in their discipline. It is particularly fundamental since case law is one of the main sources of law. Christensen (2006) in her research entitled "Legal Reading and Success in Law School: An Empirical Study" shows that students who are able to read judicial opinions effectively and efficiently are more successful in their studies. However, the most common assumption is that students already possess this skill when they enrol in a law school. This attitudinal fallacy is referred to as "skills deployment assumption" (Stratman, 1990). Thus, this paper describes a research study which investigates the quintessential elements in the reading of legal cases among law students in a Malaysian public university. Its specific aims were to develop some understanding about the reading of this rhetorical genre and simultaneously to uncover the problems related to the learning process. In this research, a case study design was adopted and data was obtained through interview sessions with twelve law students. The major findings of this research show that despite the training given to the students, they still face a lot of problems in acquiring this crucial skill. These challenges emanated from three main aspects, i.e. language, time management and the nature of legal cases.

The Polish legal system differs from the English one and likewise the Scottish legal system differs from the English one. Agreeing on one good-for-all translation for any one legal term is a road to perdition: in terms of loss of meaning, legal force and its legal distinctiveness. It is a matter of course, one may say, we all agree on that fact, don't we? Or do we? For this article I have put together 3 examples of translation where repetition of synonymous words in the language of the law serves varied purposes and where a translator translating into their native tongue must make a decision whether to mirror the original doublet or ignore it. Likewise, when translating into English, a translator may sometimes be expected to create a doublet that will carry the meaning from one jurisdiction to another. Example 1: The Law Express series "Employment Law" 6th edition have been unique in terms of respecting local differences in legal terminology. For instance, when discussing English law, synonymous Scots law terms are used next to the English ones. In the law of tort and delict (Scotland) pg.24 (Delikt) Tortious or delictual (Scotland) doctrine of vicarious liability pg.40 (Deliktowy) Seek an injunction or interdict pg. 47 (Postanowienie o zabezpieczeniu) Obviously, when translating into my native tongue (Polish) I will use only one Polish word 'delikt' as the use of synonymous words in this text has merely the aim of clarifying the terminology for the English speaking user of the terms. There is no difference as to the meaning of the words: TORT and DELICT, however different the legal provisions in these two countries (Scotland and England) may be. Example 2: A phrase I was to translate for my client recently was "expert prawa upadłościowego" into English. Having carried out major research into this term, it became obvious that choosing just one term from the synonyms: insolvency/bankruptcy/sequestration, will not carry the full meaning behind the Polish expression. Whereas in the USA the term 'bankruptcy' is universally applied to individuals and businesses alike, in England and in the