Arabic Grammatical Tradition

In the Arabic grammatical tradition several categories comprising exactly five members can be found, e.g., the types of “meaningful things”, of definite nouns, of tanwīn, of definite article, of tawābiʿ etc. Given the importance of the number ‘five’ in Islam, it is natural to ask whether these categorizations are affected by the symbolical meaning of that number. This article examines some of these categorizations in order to check the extent to which they are linguistically or theoretically justified, and whether they use ‘five’ as a typological number. In order to answer these questions, the fivefold divisions are tested for consistency and the surrounding discourse is investigated.

Ce volume rassemble des textes, les uns connus, les autres méconnus, d’auteurs médiévaux (du IIe/VIIIe siècle au VIIe/XIIIe siècle) sur l’arabe : philologues (al-Farrā’, al-Zaǧǧāǧī, Ibn Fāris, Ibn Ǧinnī), mais aussi un philosophe (al-Fārābī), un géographe (al-Muqaddasī) et un voyageur (al-‘Abdarī). Il en propose une relecture critique, montrant comment philologie, théologie et philosophie interagissent dans l’« invention » de la luġa al-fuṣḥā (« la manière de parler la plus châtiée »), expression qui n’apparaît qu’au IVe/Xe siècle siècle et désigne aujourd’hui ce que les arabisants appellent l’arabe classique. Au-delà des renseignements qu’ils nous apportent sur l’histoire et la sociolinguistique de l’arabe (états, variétés, registres et statuts ; parlers nomades et sédentaires, diglossie, contact des langues), ils nous renseignent plus encore sur les représentations que l’on s’en fait ou que l’on doit s’en faire. Ils constituent ainsi une histoire moins linguistique qu’épilinguistique de la langue.

For the Arab grammarians, as, later on, for grammarians of Arabic, the usual forms of the triliteral verb, known as "augmented" forms by Arab grammarians and "derived" forms for grammarians of Arabic, do not form an incoherent set but rather a structured system, morphologically as well as semantically and syntactically. In the first part of this article, I go over the main morphological, semantic and syntactic relations (and correlations) established by the various grammarians between the verbal forms in the system. In the second part, entitled "'new' perspectives", I show how one can develop on this to discover, or rediscover, new relations between form and meaning, and, in the third part, entitled "open questions", how one can go on to find new solutions to traditional questions.

Dieses Glossar enthält grammatische Termini, Begriffe und Konzepte der arabischen linguistischen Tradition (ALT), die in meiner Dissertation der Universität Bayreuth (2006) benutzt und kommentiert worden sind.
Die Glossen sind nicht in alphabetischer Reihenfolge aufgelistet, sondern in folgende Kategorien unterteilt: Allgemein und Methodologie; Morphologie; Syntax; Semantik. Obwohl die Grenzen zwischen diesen Bereichen bedingt sind, lässt diese Darstellungsweise einen allgemeinen Rahmen erstellen, um die wichtigsten Konzepte und Begriffe aufzuzeigen.
Im Glossar sind einige Begriffe oft durch mehrere, teilweise voneinander abweichende Deutungen wiedergegeben. Dies ergibt sich aus mehreren Tatsachen. Die Terminologie der ALT selbst ist oft „mehrdeutig“ und die Deutungen sind stark von dem Kontext abhängig, so dass es manchmal von grammatischen Termini, im heutigen Sinne, kaum gesprochen werden kann. Darüber hinaus erstehen diese Termini von den verschiedenen „Grammatikergenerationen“ aus mehreren Jahrhunderten, und sind nur in Ansichten und Theorien jedes einzelnen Grammatikers zu verstehen. Manchmal sind die Begriffe sogar nur in synonymischen Aufzählungen, oder in (binären) Gegenüberstellungen zu verstehen.
Die Dissertation ist in der Bibliothek der Universität Bayreuth zu finden.

Asas perbincangan buku ini adalah berkisar tentang bahasa purba Mesopotamia. Topik yang dikemukakan agak bersifat analitis dan kritik untuk mencari jawapan bagi persoalan yang dikemukakan. Hakikatnya, perbincangan tentang bahasa merupakan suatu tajuk yang luas meliputi pemikiran masyarakat, sosial, politik dan agama kerana tanpa gabungan semua elemen ini sarjana kini tidak mampu untuk mentafsirkan maklumat silam. Bagi membincangkan isu bahasa agama samawi dan bangsa yang menggunakan bahasa tersebut, analisis terhadap bahasa purba Mesopotamia perlu dilakukan. Kebolehan membaca dan membuat rumusan tentang penggunaan bahasa masyarakat dan pemerintahan silam, serta kedudukan para anbia pada zaman tersebut memerlukan maklumat daripada al-Quran, hadis, kitab tafsir, kitab terawal Arab dan Yahudi, Bible (Perjanjian Lama dan Perjanjian Baru), pandangan orientalis dan juga bukti saintifik. Maklumat berdasarkan sumber tersebut pastinya dapat memberikan jawapan yang berbentuk akademik dan ilmiah tetapi tidak dimanfaatkan sepenuhnya oleh sarjana dunia Islam. Oleh sebab kebanyakkan cendekiawan moden dunia Islam agak kurang meneroka maklumat sejarah pada zaman sebelum kelahiran junjungan besar Nabi Muhammad SAW, maka perbincangan tentang hal ini mendapat perhatian yang serius dalam kalangan dunia Barat. Antaranya termasuklah kajian ilmiah terhadap batu bersurat kuno yang kebanyakannya dikuasai oleh dunia Barat, meskipun dapatan kajian mereka hanya berdasarkan pemahaman semata-mata dan boleh diragui kerana tulisan yang terpahat pada batu bersurat tersebut tidak mempunyai huruf vokal (Beeston (ed.), 1983: 2). Oleh itu, penterjemahan yang baik perlu dilakukan oleh pengkaji yang mempunyai asas tentang bahasa tersebut kerana hanya dengan cara ini pemikiran sesuatu tamadun itu dapat dikupas bagi mengelak penterjemahan secara harfiah dan mendapatkan data yang tepat. Meskipun kajian dan penulisan dalam kitab tafsir banyak menceritakan kisah pada zaman sebelum kelahiran Nabi Muhammad SAW, namun maklumat tersebut perlu dikemukakan menggunakan kaedah yang saintifik untuk menyokong kandungan al-Quran. Penulis percaya gabungan semua kaedah ini akan melahirkan suatu keputusan yang hampir tepat dan jitu sehinggakan pihak yang menentang agama Islam tidak mampu menolaknya. Apatah lagi kajian terhadap kitab Injil yang dianggap sebagai the window of the ancient world menimbulkan suatu fenomena penjelajahan minda dan arkeologi, kesan penemuan maklumat dalam kitab tersebut yang kebanyakannya benar-benar berlaku dalam dunia Islam.
Pembongkaran maklumat pada batu bersurat tersebut dan perkaitannya dengan zaman para nabi memberikan ruang kepada penulis untuk meneroka dan menelusuri salasilah para nabi dari zaman Nabi Adam a.s. sehinggalah zaman Nabi Muhammad SAW sehingga terhasilnya buku ini. Penggunaan konsep lingua franca yang dikemukakan oleh orientalis perlu dilihat dari pelbagai aspek, terutamanya pada zaman sebelum kelahiran Nabi Muhammad SAW, iaitu zaman Yahudi dan Kristian. Kebanyakan maklumat yang terkandung dalam kitab Taurat dan Injil diubah suai, termasuklah bahasa asalnya. Kajian terhadap jarak masa (timeline) merupakan isu besar yang perlu dibongkar kesahihannya kerana kebanyakan datanya telah dipalsukan. Oleh sebab itu, kajian penggunaan bahasa purba Mesopotamia dan kesannya perlu dilihat semula agar dapat menemukan fakta sebenar yang cuba disembunyikan oleh penyalin kitab Taurat dan Injil, serta para orientalis.

Դեռևս միջնադարում մշակված արաբերեն լեզվի նորմավորված և հարուստ քերականական ժառանգությունը պայմանավորում է այն հանգամանքը, որ նույնիսկ այժմ էլ գրական արաբերենի տեսության որոշ դրույթների մշակումը անմիջապես պահանջում է վերադարձ դեպի միջնադարյան քերականական ուսմունքներն ու վերջիններիս քննադատական վերաիմաստավորում: Նման սկզբունքը թույլ է տալիս մի կողմից լիարժեքորեն գնահատել միջնադարյան արաբ քերականագետների ձեռքբերումները ու մյուս կողմից՝ խուսափել մի շարք դրույթների չափազանց արդիականացումից (եթե վերջինս ընդունենք որպես հնդեվրոպական լեզուների լեզվաբանական համակարգի տվյալներով ձևավորված տերմինային ապարատի մեխանիկական կիրառում գրական արաբերենի լեզվական փաստերի նկարագրման նկատմամբ)։

This is a prepub version of the volume now published in the PLAL series

There is a general introduction, summary of the book's chapters, and bibliography; then follows the whole of Merx's monograph translated from Latin to English. There are endnotes for each chapter which bring the reader somewhat up to date on research done since Merx's day. At the end Merx included critical editions of 4 key texts. These are nowhere else available. I have put them into a neat PDF format instead of having to read them in Merx's handwriting as in the original. I hope this makes them more user-friendly.

In the discussion about the authenticity of the two schools of grammarians from Basra and Kufa , the terminological differences between the two schools as they are reported by the sources play an important role. The present paper investigates the way al-Farrāʾ and Sībawayhi as early representatives of the two cities use the terminological complex of ʿamal for the notion of “case assignment”, and ilghāʾ for the notion of “neutralization.

The aim of this work is to translate and analyze some poetical fragments, written by five Arabic-Sicilian poets and included in the anthology al-Durra al-ḫaṭīra min šu‘arā’ al-Ğazīra (“The Precious Pearl about the Poets of the Island”), compiled by the grammarian, philologist and poet Ibn al-Qaṭṭā‘ al-Ṣiqillī (d. 1121 AD).
After a brief description of the most significant military incidents that characterized Arabic Sicily between the 7th and the 11th century AD, I have chosen to analyze the cultural background present under Fatimid and Kalbid dynasties and during the Norman kings’ reign.
In 1061 AD, the Norman landing in Messina caused the fleeing of the Arabic intellectuals that lived in the Island until the 11th century, including the grammarian and lexicographer Ibn al-Qaṭṭā‘, dealt with in the central part of this work.
In the end, an entire chapter has been dedicated to the analysis of al-Durra al-ḫaṭīra, the Anthology that includes at its core the poetic fragments of one hundred seventy authors, who stood out in the cultural scenario of Medieval Sicily, before the so many migrations to al-Andalus or  Egypt, that happened after the year 1061 AD. Together with the anthology entitled al-Mulaḥ al-‘aṣriyya (“Contemporary Anecdotes”), which collects the poems written by Arabic-Andalusian authors, the "Precious Pearl" has come to the knowledge of Eastern and Western scholars in a partial and fragmental form. Nevertheless, this does not represent a limit for the appreciation of its value in order to give us an idea of the great importance that this masterpiece has in the field of the Sicilian cultural studies during Arabic dominion. After a short introduction to the Anthology, the reader will find a list of those Arabic-Sicilian poets whose written works are mentioned in the essay by Umberto Rizzitano. Furthermore, an attempt of translation of five poetic fragments is also included, followed by a thematic analysis of the lines examined.

Scholars in the Arabic Grammatical Tradition have mainly been focusing their attention on the formative stage of the Arabic grammatical theory (2nd-4th/8th-10th centuries). This dissertation aims at broadening the scope and is intended to contribute to our knowledge of this discipline at the post-classical period and in the western periphery of the Islamic world.
The starting point of research is represented by a 4th/10th century grammarian of Persian origin who settled in Damascus: ʾAbū al-Qāsim al-Zaǧǧāǧī. Nowadays he is one of the best-known Arabic grammarians, but that was not the case in the beginning. Indeed his fame grew steadily thanks to one of his treatises, the Kitāb al-Ǧumal fī al-naḥw. The presentation of al-Zaǧǧāǧī and of his book sets the frame for the study, whose main focus is to trace the history of this text through time and space. This enquiry leads to al-Andalus: whereas the Ǧumal seemed to be abandoned in the Islamic East, it was adopted by Andalusian scholars as one of the main texts for grammatical studies.
The analysis of its chains of transmission and the presentation of all of its commentaries show not only that this treatise was the main grammatical text in this periphery of the Islamic world, but even that it came to be a sort of mirror of Andalusian history and identity.
The journey of this book starts at the 4th/10th century and may be followed almost uninterruptedly until today: imported to al-Andalus from the Islamic East during the formative stage of Andalusian culture, it was then brought to Maghreb thanks to Andalusian emigration flows and was eventually edited in Algiers in 1927.

In the Islamic tradition, the language of the Koran is the “language of Qurayš”, and the “language of Qurayš” is the luġa al-fuṣḥā. Until recently, it has been mainly the poetic Koinè, for most Arabists, with the exception of some “hejazisms”, and the poetic Koinè is the basis for the so-called Classical Arabic. This article proposes a return to the oldest Arab grammatical sources, more specifically the Kitāb of Sībawayhi (d. 179/795?). Sībawayhi never speaks of al-luġa al-fuṣḥā, nor does he speak of the “language of Qurayš”. On the contrary, he refers more generally to “the language of the Hejaz” (or “of the people of the Hejaz”). He often sets it against the language (of the people) of Tamīm. Nevertheless, there is a double asymmetry. Whereas Sībawayhi sometimes says “we heard people from Tamīm say [...]”, he mentions the “language of the Hejaz” only from hearsay. More importantly, while “tamimisms” are often features that can still be found in modern Arabic dialects, the “hejazisms” are illustrated by Quranic examples: we conclude that the “language of the Hejaz” is but the Islamic name for the language of the Quran. Many of these “hejazisms” (phonological, morphological, syntactic) were not kept by the Classical language, which is to be understood as the product of the grammarians’ standardization work. Thus, it is not the language of the Quran that had influenced Arabic grammar: it is rather the Arabic grammar that has led to the “classicisation” of the language of the Quran via the qirā’āt ("readings").

This thesis investigates the Arabic grammatical terms that belong to the classes of noun, verb and particle. In order to propose a harmonization of these Arabic terms in Portuguese, we have tried to find equivalent terms in both languages and for this, three different possibilities have been generated: a) direct equivalence, which occurs when the terminological definition characteristics of the Arabic and Portuguese grammatical terms were coincidental; b) very nearly equivalence, that happens when not every characteristics were coincidental, in this case, we have investigated the description of use of more than one Portuguese grammatical term as an attempt to find a most appropriate equivalent to the Arabic term; c) non-equivalence, when a Portuguese equivalent has not been verified for the Arabic grammatical term, so we propose a terminological neologism or a paraphrase. The aim of this research is to set up the theoretical and methodological basis for the elaboration of an Arabic grammatical terms bilingual dictionary (Arabic-Portuguese).

The Arabic notion of ishtiqāq is ambiguous: it is translated into English sometimes as “derivation” and sometimes as “etymology.” Derivation is a synchronic notion, but etymology is a diachronic one. If we refer to the Kitāb al-Taʿrīfāt of ʿAlī Ibn Muḥammad al-Jurjānī, nicknamed al-sayyid al-sharīf al-Jurjānī (d. 816/1413), one finds that he distinguishes between three types of ishtiqāq: “small,” “great” and “greater.” Based on the definitions and examples given by al-Jurjānī of these three types of ishtiqāq, we can say that Arabic ishtiqāq corresponds neither to derivation nor to etymology: it is an original concept, neither synchronic nor diachronic, but panchronic, at the crossroads of morphology and phonology.

This succinct but brilliant poem by Shaykh Abdullahi ibn Fuduye`, may Allah be merciful to him and provide us with his baraka; regarding the particles of inflection (huruuf’l-`iraab) was first published according to my knowledge by Shaykh Abdullahi al-Ilorin al-Qaadiri of the southern region of Nigeria; which I used as the basis of this translation. The poem comprises thirty-eight stanzas and briefly covers the basic functions of the particles related to nouns and verbs and give simple examples for each. Shaykh Abdullahi did not cite all of the particles in order to keep the text as concise as possible. I am presently working on a commentary upon this text, explaining the meanings of the technical terms, as well as providing the inflections of the examples the Shaykh offered. It must be understood that Shaykh Abdullahi ibn Fuduye` was an absolute scholar of independent judgment (mujtahid mutlaaq) in the linguistic sciences, and did not adhere to either the Kufan or Basran schools of grammar; but as Shaykh Ibn `Ajiba said of Shaykh Ibn Ajurum: “He inclined to the truth wherever he discovered it.”

Iconicity, the correspondence between form and meaning, was seldom discussed in Arabic grammatical tradition. The grammarian best known for his interest in this issue in Arabic is Ibn Jinnī. Here it will be demonstrated that iconicity is even more prominent in the thought of another grammarian, the Andalusian al-Suhaylī.
The present paper will analyse linguistic phenomena which al-Suhaylī explains as iconic. It will be shown that not only did al-Suhaylī's use of iconic explanations exceed what one generally encounters in the writings of Arab grammarians, both in extent and explicitness, but also that for him iconicity is deeply grounded in a philosophical-theological principle, linked with his view on the origin of language.
It will be argued that within the Arab grammarians' framework of linguistic "causes" (ˁilal), iconic explanations are, by definition, "ultimate", as they need no further explanation.

Explores the conceptual interactions between the fields of grammar and logic among the Syrians in late antiquity. How the two fields were confused or distinguished and how the one influenced developments in the other. Also some conclusions for the origins of the Arabic grammatical tradition are drawn.

The most common and well-known Arabic term for ‘vowel’ is ḥaraka ‘movement’ (pl. ḥarakāt), which somehow describes the phonetic transition between two consonants which are sākin ‘still’. It appears in the earliest eighth-century Arabic grammatical sources, and continues to see use in grammars of modern Arabic. However, the origins of this term are obscure, and other words that translate to ‘movement’ were used in relation to vowels and recitation in both Greek (kinesis) and Syriac (zawʿɔ/mziʿɔnɔ) prior to the earliest attestations of ḥaraka in Arabic grammar. It is difficult to draw a direct conceptual link between these early terms and the Arabic word, although some scholars have argued for such a connection. Eventually, both Syriac and Hebrew scholars adapted ḥaraka and sākin to describe their own vowels and consonants. This is Chapter 2, §2 of "Points of Contact: The Shared Intellectual History of Vocalisation in Syriac, Arabic, and Hebrew" freely available here: https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0271

Glossary of technical terminology used by medieval authors to describe Semitic vocalisation. Originally published in "Points of Contact: The Shared Intellectual History of Vocalisation in Syriac, Arabic, and Hebrew."  The full text of the book is freely available here: https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0271

In his Šarḥ al-Kāfiya, Raḍī al-dīn al-’Astarābāḏī (d. 688/1289) counts the sentence Zaydun qā’imun (« Zayd is standing ») once as two kalimāt and once as four ones. This double counting shows that the kalima is neither a word nor a morphem. In such a sentence there would be two words (Zaydun and qā’imun) and, at least, six morphemes (Zayd + u + n and qā’im + u + n). Nevertheless, by criticizing the definition of the kalima given by Ibn al-Ḥājib (d. 646/1249) as « an expression instituted for a single meaning », Raḍī al-dīn al-’Astarābaḏī reaches the concept of morphem: not only the morphemes belonging to the concatenative morphology (stem and affixes), but those belonging to the non-concatenative morphology (root and pattern), too. Finally, the only way to understand Raḍī al-dīn al-Astarābaḏī’s double counting is to see the kalima as a constituent of the utterance, which in its turn can be divided into constituents. The principle of the segmentation cannot but be distribution, what explains that in one case an implicit element (al-ḍamīr al-mustatir « the hidden pronoun ») is counted as a kalima.

Like in the Syriac grammatical tradition, the first Masoretic vowel names emerged from the comparative context of ‘open-and-closed’ comparisons, with the early relative terms pɔtaḥ and qɔmeṣ eventually stabilising as terms for specific vowels. However, also like in Syriac, this type of comparison did not become the universal principle for defining Hebrew vowels. Masoretes and grammarians referred to the Tiberian vowels /ɛ/, /e/, /i/, /o/, and /u/ by many different names between the ninth and eleventh centuries. Some scholars have suggested that the variation is the result of different ‘schools’ of linguistic thought that maintained different naming conventions, all in use at roughly the same time. Each of these conventions has its roots in the relative naming of pɔtaḥ and qɔmeṣ, but different authors supplemented them with modifications to the relative terminology; descriptions of the number, shape, and position of the vowel points; descriptions of the mouth during articulation; and the addition of Arabic grammatical terms to Masoretic vocabulary. This is Chapter 4, §3 of "Points of Contact: The Shared Intellectual History of Vocalisation in Syriac, Arabic, and Hebrew" freely available here: https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0271

Il presente elaborato ha per obiettivo la valutazione di alcune ipotesi sulle ragioni dell’assenza dell’elemento copulativo nelle frasi nominali al presente, in arabo e in russo. Si valuta dapprima una spiegazione diacronica del fenomeno, attraverso la ricostruzione del significato della radice del verbo 'essere' in semitico ed in indoeuropeo. Successivamente, mediante la traduzione da noi proposta di una passo dell'opera Al-inṣāf fī masā’il al.khilāf bayna al-baṣriyyn wa al-kufiyyn di Ibn al-Anbārī, si analizza il punto di vista dei grammatici arabi sull'argomento.

Die morphologischen Studien in der arabischen linguistischen Tradition sind im ältesten und zugleich umfangreichsten arabischen grammatischen Werk, dem al-Kitāb von Sībawayhi (gest. 180/793) bereits voll ausgeprägt und werden weiterhin bei mehreren Autoren in verschieden Aspekten, sowohl in einzelnen Problemstellungen als auch in ihrer Gesamtheit präzisiert.
Im vorliegenden Abschnitt werden die funktionalen Rahmen derjenigen sprachlichen Erscheinungen und Einheiten definiert, die das Objekt von der Morphologie in der ALT darstellen.

At the end of the 2nd/8th century, the two most important grammarians of the time were the Kufan al-Farrāʾ (d. 207/822) and the Basran Sībawayhi (d. 177/793?). In al-Farrāʾ's work the text of the Qurʾān occupied a central place, but in his comments he also touched upon numerous points of grammar. Sībawayhi was primarily interested in the structure of Arabic, but the text of the Qurʾān was one of the primary sources for his analysis. In the present paper I deal with two aspects of the work of both grammarians: their treatment of those elements in the language that do not contribute to the meaning of the text and that can be excluded from the syntactic structure of the sentence, and of those elements that are needed for the correct interpretation and analysis, but that are missing from the text. The key terms in this discussion are ʾiḍmār and ṣila.

In the seventeenth chapter (or chapter XVII) of the ’Īḍāḥ, al-Zaǧǧāǧī distinguishes between two types of Arabic: inflected and non-inflected. Non-inflected Arabic is that of the majority or “masses” (‘āmma), whereas inflected Arabic is that of the minority or “elite” (ḫāṣṣa). But al-Zaǧǧāǧī limits the use of inflected Arabic to reference texts (Quran, hadith and poetry) and to a role, namely disambiguation, only conceivable with regard to the reading of a text written in scriptio defectiva. Consequently, it is not certain that this chapter offers an image of diglossia as the coexistence of two varieties, high and low. Rather, it may convey an image of diglossia within diglossia, to be understood as the coexistence of two registers, elevated and relaxed, within the high variety. It will be remembered that al-Ǧaḥiẓ does not oppose ‘āmma to ḫāṣṣa as the illiterate masses vs the literate elite, but only as the “ordinary” literate people to the happy few, i.e. those having perfect mastery of grammar. This chapter also arouses interest for its restriction of laḥn to an error against meaning (as opposed to ḫaṭa’, an error against expression) and, in connection with chapter XIV on the origin of grammar, for its enlargement of the concept of ’i‘rāb  from the sense of “desinential inflection” (i.e. case and mood endings) to that of inflection in general.

Արաբական լեզվաբանական ավանդույթում լեզվի ստորոգական համակարգը նկարագրելու համար, ըստ էության, օգտագործվում են հիմնականում երկու՝ al-kalaam և al-jumla հասկացությունները։ Ընդ որում al-kalaam-ը սահմանվում է որպես «ամբողջական, ինքնուրույն և ավարտուն միտք պարունակող խոսք, որն ունի քերականական և իմաստային ձևավորվածություն», իսկ al-jumla-ն՝ որպես «արտասանված, հոդաբաշխ (mantuwq) լեզվական արտահայտություն, որը մատնացույց է անում միտք, նշանակություն (al-ma՚naa) և կարող է հանդիսանալ կամ չհանդիսանալ al-kalaam»։ Ընդ որում al-ma՚naa - «իմաստ, բովանդակություն» հասկացությունը իր սահմաններում ներառում է ոչ միայն բառային անվանողական, այլ նաև շարահյուսական-կապակցական իմաստը։