Roman Temples

Die Akkulturationsprozesse, die vor und während der römischen Okkupation in den Gebieten nördlich der Alpen abliefen, sind seit längerem Gegenstand intensiver Diskussionen unter Althistorikern und Archäologen 1 . Ein wichtiger Aspekt sind dabei die Veränderungen, die im Bereich der religiösen Vorstellungswelt und der Kultpraxis stattfanden 2 . Diese Diskussionen werden einerseits auf Grundlage der schriftlichen Zeugnisse, andererseits anhand der archäologischen Befunde und Funde geführt, wobei sich eine Verknüpfung der beiden Quellengattungen oft als schwierig erweist. Unter den archäologischen Objekten wurde besonders in der deutschsprachigen Forschung 3 eine Fundgruppe bislang nur marginal in die Diskussionen einbezogen: die Tierknochen. Dies hängt hauptsächlich damit zusammen, dass auf der einen Seite oft provinzialrömische Archäologen stehen, die sich des vollen Aussagepotentials von Tierknochenfunden nicht bewusst sind, auf der anderen Seite Archäozoologen, die eher natur-als kulturwissenschaftlich interessiert sind 4 . Gerade aber zu Fragen des Kultgeschehens können Tierknochen, die als Überreste von blutigen Opfern, rituellen Mahlzeiten, Verbrennungs-oder Verwesungsopfern oder sonstigen Deponierungen überdauert haben, interessante Hinweise liefern. Ein vom Schweizerischen Nationalfonds unterstütztes Forschungsprojekt will nun durch die Verknüpfung von archäologischen und archäozoologischen Resultaten neue Erkenntnisse zum Kultgeschehen in verschiedenen Heiligtümern von Aventicum, der Hauptstadt der Helvetier, und zur Religionsgeschichte der weiteren Region gewinnen 5 .

While the Romans did not have museums, practices of collecting and display were fully developed in Rome. Romans used collections of objects to substantiate, reinforce, and broadcast particular views of the world. This chapter shows how current work in museum studies opens new avenues of research into Roman art. It draws on recent scholarship on collecting that explores debates over cultural property, questions of viewing, and the role of collections in the construction of personal and imperial identities. It is herewith the appropriation of patrimony, with the creation of art, and with ideas of a universal artistic heritage-that we find ancient analogs of modern museums.

In Kleinasien und Syrien gibt es zahlreiche Tempel, deren Architektur Hinweise auf eine Kultausübung auf dem Dach gibt. Dabei handelt es sich zum einen um Treppenhäuser, die zum Tempeldach emporführen, zum anderen um Türöffnungen in den Giebelfeldern von Tempeln. Beide Eigenschaften treten bisweilen auch an ein und demselben Tempel auf, so dass zunächst ein Zusammenhang zwischen diesen beiden Eigenschaften naheliegend erscheint. Im folgenden soll jedoch gezeigt werden, dass Treppenhäuser und Giebeltüren unterschiedlichen Kulttraditionen und Funktionen dienten. Die Treppenhäuser entstammen der religiösen Tradition Mesopotamiens und Syriens und führen auf Flachdächer oder Terrassen auf den Tempeln, auf denen Opfer und andere Rituale stattfanden. Die Herkunft der Giebeltüren liegt dagegen in Anatolien. Hier wurde die Epiphanie der jeweiligen Gottheit durch Schauspieler aufgeführt, der Tempelgiebel wurde dabei zur Bühne eines rituellen Dramas. Die Verbreitung beider Architekturformen und damit Kulttraditionen fand in hellenistischer Zeit statt und ist Ausdruck der seleukidischen Religionspolitik.

MÖ geç 2. yüzyıl ve erken 1. yüzyıla tarihlenen Roma sikkelerinde rastlanan ilk mimari betimler son derece basitti. Roma duvar resminde İkinci Stil'in ortaya çıkmasından epey sonra yaklaşık MÖ 58 yılında sikkeler üzerinde çok daha karmaşık mimari betimler görülmeye başlamıştır. İkinci Stil duvar resminden sınırlı sayıda örneğin günümüze ulaşmamış olmasına rağmen İkinci Stil duvar resim sanatı ve sikkeler üzerindeki mimari betimler arasında teknik ve strüktürel açıdan ilişki ve bağlantı kurulabilmektedir. Roma sikkeleri üzerindeki mimari betimler MÖ 80'lerden sonra yaygınlaşmaya başlamıştır. Bu tarih Roma duvar resim sanatında İkinci Stil ile aşağı yukarı aynı döneme denk gelmektedir ve genellikle sikkeler üzerindeki mimari detayların belirginleşmesine katkı sunmaktadır (Elkins, 2015, s. 324-325). Fuchs kitabının üçüncü bölümünde sikkeler üzerindeki yapı tasvirlerinde kullanılan ilkeleri detaylandırmıştır. Bu ilkelerin başında sikkenin dairesel şeklinin gerektirdiği cepheden tasvire ve simetriye bağlılık gelmektedir. Ayrıca tasvir edilen yapının boyutlarına uygun oranlar, perspektifi olduğu gibi yansıtma girişimleri de ikincil öneme sahip ilkelerdir. Bir sikke yuvarlağı üzerine yapılar cepheden tasvir edilirken, cepheden düz bakış açısı, yapıların 4/3 cepheden tasvir edilmesinde ise izometrik ve uzaysal perspektif tekniği ile karma ve yatay bakış açısı kullanılabilmektedir. Anıtsal tasvirin oymacılık sanatı üzerindeki bazı etkileri, Fuchs'e göre, tespit edilebilir ve bazı örnekleri ise özel bir nesneyi tasvir etmeyen, gravürcülerin hayali yapıları duvar ressamlarının desen kitaplarından, bir yazıt ya da heykel gibi bazı özel detaylar ekleyerek kopyaladığını açıkça göstermektedir. Bu tür detaylar, magistratların tasvir edilmesini istediği özel yapıtları tanımasına olanak sağlamaktadır (Toynbee, 1971, s. 122'de atıfta bulunduğu gibi).

Greek and Roman temples are often very similar in both appearance and function and yet at other times they can be vastly different. This essay compares Greek and Roman temples in both their architectural and functional capacities. It then focuses on two particular temples, the Metroon in the Athenian Agora and the Temple of Cybele on the Palatine Hill in Rome. While both of these temples are dedicated to the same deity and are situated in prominent civic positions, they are nevertheless very different, architecturally and functionally.

Patrich )1 ‫(איור‬ ‫ורומא‬ ‫לאוגוסטוס‬ ‫הורדוס‬ ‫מקדש‬ ‫תבנית‬ ‫ענק‬ ‫פסל‬ ‫ובקרבו‬ ‫יופי.‬ ‫וכליל‬ ‫בגדלו‬ ‫נפלא‬ ‫והוא‬ ‫גבעה,‬ ‫בראש‬ ‫הקיסר‬ ‫היכל‬ ‫מתנשא‬ ‫הנמל‬ ‫פי‬ ‫.......ולמול‬ ‫רומא,‬ ‫האלילה‬ ‫פסל‬ ‫ידו‬ ‫ועל‬ ‫במדתו.‬ ‫ממנו‬ ‫נופל‬ ‫ואינו‬ ‫באולימפיה‬ ‫אשר‬ ‫זאוס‬ ‫פסל‬ ‫כדמות‬ ‫שנעשה‬ , ‫הקיסר‬ .)]415[ ‫ז‬ ‫כא,‬ ‫א,‬ ‫(מלחמת‬ ‫בארגוס‬ ‫אשר‬ ‫הירה‬ ‫לפסל‬ ‫הדומה‬ ‫המשלחת‬ ‫חפירות‬ ‫הנמל.‬ ‫אל‬ ‫הנשקפת‬ ‫גבעה‬ ‫בראש‬ ‫עמד‬ ‫גדולים,‬ ‫פסלים‬ ‫שני‬ ‫ובו‬ ‫ולרומא,‬ ‫לאוגוסטוס‬ ‫שהוקדש‬ ‫המקדש,‬ ‫על‬ ‫נוסף‬ ‫זה,‬ ‫מכלול‬ ‫על‬ ‫רב‬ ‫מידע‬ ‫הוסיפו‬ 2 )TP ‫(שטח‬ 1989 ‫מאז‬ ‫המקדש‬ ‫בבמת‬ ‫הולום‬ ‫קנת‬ ‫בראשות‬ )CCE( ‫המשולבת‬ ‫הגנים‬ ‫רשות‬ ‫(לימים‬ ‫הארץ‬ ‫נוף‬ ‫לשיפור‬ ‫המחלקה‬ ‫מטעם‬ 1960 ‫בשנת‬ ‫נגב‬ ‫אברהם‬ ‫מחפירות‬ ‫לכן‬ ‫קודם‬ ‫ידוע‬ ‫שהיה‬ ‫מה‬ ‫מקיר‬ ‫יותר‬ ‫נרחבים‬ ‫חלקים‬ 1992 ‫שנת‬ ‫מאז‬ ‫נחשפו‬ ‫המקדש‬ ‫לבמת‬ ‫מתחת‬ .)Negev 1961, 81-83; 1963, 728( ‫הלאומיים)‬ ‫משלחת‬ ‫בידי‬ ‫שבוצעו‬ ‫אלו,‬ ‫בחפירות‬ ‫הפנימי.‬ ‫הנמל‬ ‫של‬ ‫ההרודיאני‬ ‫המזח‬ ‫לבין‬ ‫בינו‬ ‫שהשתרעה‬ ‫ומהרחבה‬ ‫המערבי‬ ‫התמך‬ ‫האנגלית,‬ ‫[האות‬ I ‫(שטח‬ ‫רבן‬ ‫אבנר‬ ‫בראשות‬ ‫חיפה‬ ‫אוניברסיטת‬ ‫ומשלחת‬ )II ‫(שטח‬ ‫פורת‬ ‫יוסף‬ ‫בראשות‬ ‫העתיקות‬ ‫רשות‬

In the Res Gestae, out of 82 temples he renovated, Augustus mentions by name only these belonging to deities with whom he wished to be associated, paving the way for his future deification: Apollo, Augustus’ guardian, was beloved by young people and venerated along with Diana. The deified Iulius Caesar was his stepfather and role model. Pan was identified with Faunus, both patrons of women’s fertility. Special mention is made of the first (Iuppiter, Mars, Quirinus) and the second (Iuppiter, Iuno, Minerva) triads of the Roman religion, whose worship he expanded from the Capitoline hill’s elite to the Aventine hill’s lower classes. He also mentions Lares et Penates, associated both with the private cult and with the state’s protection. The series is concluded with Iuventas, the protector of the youth and Magna Mater who protected foreigners. Moreover, he transformed his own house into a triple temple, of Vesta, Apollo and himself, and he became associated with abstract divinities, which highlighted his virtues. He tried to cover all categories of citizens, regardless of social rank, wealth, age, sex, residence, and origin, in order to enjoy lifetime support. His dealing with the Roman religion was manifold: he revived forgotten cults, his name was included in the Carmen Saliare, he obtained sacrosanctitas, he became member of many priesthoods ascending to the office of the Pontifex Maximus, and eventually he was deified after death.

The Final Pagan Generation shows how the generation of Romans born in the 310s adapted to their changing religious and political environments.  The included chapter introduces the religious landscape of the Roman world of the early fourth century and sets the stage for their story.

Vitruvius III.2.6: Hermogenes, Menesthes, and the Pseudodipteros Temple of Apollo (?)

Roman architect Vitruvius’ “De architectura libri decem” mirrors architectural-engineering history and
theories of the Classical Ages of the Mediterranean Basin that reached the present day and it has definitely taken
its place in the literature as the most comprehensive study. Vitruvius mentions Hermogenes in his work for the
first time in the 3rd book where that chapter subjects to temple plans and their examples (III. 2.6): “huius exemplar
Romae non est sed│Magnesiae (aedis) Dianae Hermogenis, Alabandis etiam Apollinis a Menesthe facta ”. He
quoted Hermogenes’ name when he was talking about pseudodipteros temples plans that did not exist in Rome
and counted merely two of it. One of these temples is the Temple of Artemis, mentioned in the chapter where
Hermogenes’ name is quoted. The temple is referred as his work in later chapters. Vitruvius states that the
second pseudodipteros temple is dedicated to Apollo. Chapter III.2.6 of his book is one of the most significant
chapters that carry the problematic of Hermogenes to the current literature. Outside of Rome, it is futile to discuss
the presence of two pseudodipteros temples on the text which Vitruvius knew and reported. However, he
mentioned the names of Alabanda (?) and Menesthes (?) that brings a significant discussion and some questions with
it: Where is Hermogenes from? Apart from the Temple of Artemis, where is the Temple of Apollo, the second
pseudodipteros temple? Who built it? This study brings a new perspective by evaluating all previous discussions
and interpretations until the present day.

Che cosa aspettiamo così riuniti sulla piazza? Stanno per arrivare i Barbari oggi. Perché un tale marasma al Senato? Perché i Senatori restano senza legiferare? È che i barbari arrivano oggi. Che leggi voterebbero i Senatori? Quando verranno, i Barbari faranno la legge. Perché il nostro Imperatore, levatosi sin dall'aurora, siede su un baldacchino alle porte della città, solenne e con la corona in testa? È che i Barbari arrivano oggi. L'Imperatore si appresta a ricevere il loro capo. Egli ha perfino fatto preparare una pergamena che gli concede appellazioni onorifiche e titoli. Perché i nostri due consoli e i nostri pretori sfoggiano la loro rossa toga ricamata? Perché si adornano di braccialetti d'ametista e di anelli scintillanti di brillanti? Perché portano i loro bastoni preziosi e finemente cesellati? È che i Barbari arrivano oggi e questi oggetti costosi abbagliano i Barbari. Perché i nostri abili retori non perorano con la loro consueta eloquenza? È che i Barbari arrivano oggi. Loro non apprezzano le belle frasi né i lunghi discorsi. E perché, all'improvviso, questa inquietudine e questo sconvolgimento? Come sono divenuti gravi i volti! Perché le strade e le piazze si svuotano così in fretta e perché rientrano tutti a casa con un'aria così triste? È che è scesa la notte e i Barbari non arrivano. E della gente è venuta dalle frontiere dicendo che non ci sono affatto Barbari... E ora, che sarà di noi senza Barbari? Loro erano comunque una soluzione. Konstantinos Kavafis, Aspettando i barbari, 1908 Foto aerea della valle del Colosseo e delle pendici nord-orientali del Palatino.

From: G. CIFANI, L'architettura romana arcaica. Edilizia e società tra Monarchia e Repubblica, Roma: L'Erma di Bretschneider, 2008, pages 80 -109. 80 182 Sintesi schematica sul monumento, con riferimenti alle fonti letterarie, epigrafiche e numismatiche: TAGLIAMONTE 1996 e DE ANGELI 1996 con bibl.; per una rassegna completa delle fonti letterarie: (L. Da Riva) FONTES VI.2, pp. 274-344. FONTES VI.2, pp. 274-344. FONTES 183 Sull'argomento vedi: PALOMBI 1997 b. 30. TEMPIO DI GIOVE CAPITOLINO Il tempio di Giove Capitolino è l'edificio più importante del periodo arcaico e, insieme alle mura urbane, l'opera di maggior impegno dell'età dei Tarquini; la sua memoria si è trasmessa inalterata dall'antichità all'epoca moderna 182 . Di seguito vengono riportate separatamente le fonti letterarie da quelle archeologiche su cui vengono basati i modelli ricostruttivi. -Le fonti letterarie Il voto della costruzione del tempio viene attribuito in maniera pressoché concorde dalla tradizione letteraria a Tarquinio Prisco all'epoca della guerra contro i Sabini (Cic. rep. II.20.36; Liv. I.38.7; I.55.2; Dion. Hal. III.69.1; IV.59.1; Plut. Publ. XIV.1; Tac. hist. III.72). Nell'area capitolina destinata al cantiere insistevano già: templa (Serv. Aen. 9.446), arae (Varro ling. V.74), fana sacellaque deorum (Liv. I.55.2; Fest. 160 L; Lact. inst. I.20.38) relative a culti più antichi, alcuni dei quali risalenti a Tito Tazio e a Numa (Varr. Ling. V.74; Aug. civ. 4.23). La loro exauguratio sarebbe stata effettuata dall'augure Attus Navius (Dion. Hal. III. 70.1); solo i culti di Terminus, Iuventas e Mars avrebbero rifiutato di cedere loco (Aug. civ. 4.23) e furono quindi inglobati nel tempio della triade capitolina (Dion. Hal. III.69.5; Aug. Civ. 4.23). Tarquinio Prisco avrebbe quindi dato inizio ai lavori che si sarebbero svolti negli ultimi quattro anni del suo regno (583-579) e avrebbero comportato la realizzazione di un terrapieno cinto da un grande muro di sostruzione, su cui si sarebbero impostate le fondamenta (Dion. Hal. III.69.1-2; IV.53.1; Liv. I.38.7; Tac., hist. III.72; Eutr. I, 6); lo stesso monarca avrebbe commissionato la statua di culto al coroplasta veiente Vulca (Varro in Plin. N.H. XXXV.45.157). La costruzione del tempio venne ripresa però solo da Tarquinio il Superbo che, per finanziare il cantiere, utilizzò il bottino frutto del saccheggio delle città latine di Suessa Pometia, e Apiolae, mentre la manodopera sarebbe stata reclutata in parte a Roma (Liv. I.56.1) e verosimilmente nel Lazio, come rivela una fonte tarda sull'impiego di un contingente di fabri coacti dalla città di Cora (Gloss. ps. Plac. f5) f5) f 183 , nonchè dall'Etruria, per gli artisti e gli artigiani specializzati nella decorazione coroplastica (Liv. I.56.1; Plut. Publ. XIII.1; Fest 342 L; Serv. Aen. VII. 188). Il costo dell'operazione, finanziata ex manubiis, viene quantificato dallo storico L. Calpurnio Pisone (fr. 16 P) in 40.000 talenti di argento e, più verosimilmente da Fabio Pittore (fr. 10 J ) in 400 talenti equivalenti a 40.000 libbre, secondo una stima preferita anche da Livio (I.55.88-89) e poi ripresa da Dionisio di Alicarnasso (Dion. Hal. IV.50.4-5) e da Plutarco (Plut. Publ, XV.3). L'inaugurazione del tempio sarebbe avvenuta nel 509 a.C. ad opera del primo console della repubblica: M. Horatius Pulvillus (Polyb. III.22.1; Cic. dom. XLIV. 139; Liv. II.8.6; VII.3.8; Dion. Hal. V.35.3; Plut., Publ. XIV.2 ; Cass.Dio III, fr. 13.3-4; Tac. Hist. III.72) Secondo una preziosa testimonianza di Dionsio di Alicarnasso (Dion. Hal. IV. 61. il tempio aveva un perimetro di 800 piedi, con ogni lato di quasi 200 piedi, una differenza tra lunghezza e larghezza di soli 15 piedi, un triplo ordine di colonne sulla facciata, tre celle di cui quella centrale era dedicata a Giove (Dion. Hal. IV.61.4), quella destra a Minerva (Liv. VII.3.5), quella sinistra a Giunone (C.I.L. VI, 32329.9).

Belief in the presence of malevolent spirits residing in the
ruins of abandoned cult buildings is an enduring theme in religious history. This short magazine article provides an introduction to the architectural, structural and sociological aspects of temple destruction and conversion in the late antique period.

"The period between the mid-second century BC and the start of the Augustan Principate is characterised by an apparent lack of large-scale narrative decorative programs on religious structures. The gods, heroes and monsters adorning temples in earlier periods seem to disappear, while at the same time the dimensions of some religious structures increase dramatically. This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that narrative architectural decoration must, first and foremost, be interpreted as a symbolic product. The images from the mythical or legendary world allude to the real world. If the message being conveyed is to be understood correctly, the viewer needs to have a clear idea about the references the images make. Lacking a well-defined and clear consensus about such symbolic references, the overall absence of elaborate narrative decorative programs on religious architecture during the final age of the Republic can be explained by the breakdown of political consensus in Rome itself. A new situation developed that required new and different images."

During excavations conducted on the southern half of the Forum in Ostia in the first half of the 20th century, some
architectural terracottas were found. They were only briefly described in "Architectural Terracottas from Etrusco-Italic Temples" from 1940 and in "Scavi di Ostia I, Topografia Generale" from 1953, where they were dated to the 3rd century BCE. They were analysed once again in 1980 and re-dated to the 5th century BCE. Based on this research, a discussion of a settlement in Ostia prior to the Castrum appeared. This article will analyse the same fragments, but they will be integrated and compared to material that has been made available since 1980, which will lead to a discussion whether there is a temple on the later Forum of Ostia, which is to be dated to the late 6th or 5th century BCE.

At the end of the Republic, the Romans regarded Triumph as the most magnificent ceremony and the status of the triumphant general as the highest attainable. This rite, officially awarded by the Senate, permitted the general to make a processional entry into the city of Rome and glorify his prestigious victory in front of his fellowcitizens. However, the critical analysis of sources reveals that the data related to Triumphs are unreliable. The first Triumph of Romulus was reconstructed by Augustus for ideological reasons : to emphasize the paralell between himself and the founder of the Urbs. Moreover, during the third century BC, families made up fake Triumps which were then integrated into annal and epigraphs. Such inventions mostly concern the period 322 BC -291BC  -because it was at this point in time that Triumphs became highly political as the Romans adopted the Theology of victory current in the hellenistic world. Military victory was what the nobilitas, the emerging Roman aristocraty, valued most and its celebration, the Triumph, became the occasion for asserting the hereditary dimension of victory and power. In the third century BC, the desire for Triumph intensified, which led the Senate to impose stricter rules and conditions. The resulting conflicts between the senate and the generals explains the emergence of new ceremonies such as the Ovatio and the Triumph on Mount Alban. Triumphant generals had a variety of ways of commemorating their victories and reminding the Romans of them, especially at election time. But the most efficient way was the building of temples financed by spoils of war. The adoption of new cults enabled them to celebrate divine protection, under which they fell, but also to integrate the memory of their victories in both the history and architecture of Rome. Indeed, close historical examination often reveals an interesting ‘coincidence’ between the dates of the consecration of temples and those of the Triumphs.

TARDU FLORDUN SİBER SALDIRILARA KARŞI NASIL KORUNURUZ? ANADOLU'NUN ZAMANA DİRENEN MUHTEŞEM ROMA TAPINAKLARI INITIAL CONTINUATION REFRESHER EĞİTİMLERİ Pilotlar için sosyal yetkinliklerden biri Liderlik ve Takım çalışmasıdır. Liderlik tüm pilotlar için geçerli olmakla birlikte özellikle Kaptan Pilotun sorumluluğu olarak karşımıza çıkıyor.

This study was conducted as a result of the identification of the temples of the Corinthian order built in the Anatolian geography and the examination and evaluation of these structures. The topic covered in the study is divided into two main headings.
In the first chapter; representation and identification of the individual temples while emphasizing the common properties with the other temples is tried by the means of location, planning-infrastructure, architectural ratios, dating criteria and cult basis.
In the “Comparison-Analysis” named second chapter, all temples which are included in the case are analysed with the common properties and the differring properties also considering the outer Anatolian Doric Temples. By the means of gathered data in theaforimentioned chapter, some sorts of consequences are revealed by commenting in the subchapters location, planning-infrastructure, architectural ratios, choronological order and cults. These consequences are represented as statistical data with the help of tables and graphs to achieve a deeper comprehension.

Bu çalışmada, Anadolu coğrafyasında inşa edilmiş Korinth Düzenine sahip tapınaklar tespit edilmiş olup, bu yapılar çalışma içerisinde incelenip değerlendirilerek aktarılmıştır. Çalışmanın konusu ise iki ana başlık altında toplanmıştır.
Birinci bölümde, her tapınak kendi içinde konum, plan-altyapı, oranlar, tarihleyici kriterler ve kültler bazında ele alınıp, önceden yapılmış çalınmalardan da yararlanılmış ve başka yapılarla benzeyen özellikler ön plana çıkarılıp, bu tapınaklar tanıtılıp tanımlanmaya çalışılmıştır.
Çalınmanın ikinci bölümünü oluşturan “Karşılaştırmalı Değerlendirme” kısmında ise, çalışmadaki bütün yapıların ortak özellik gösteren yönleri ve birbirlerinden ayrılan özellikleri, Anadolu dışındaki örnekler de göz önünde bulundurularak incelenmiştir. Önceki bölümde elde edilen verilerin, ikinci kısımda yayılım alanları, konum, altyapı, plan, düzen, kullanılan malzemeler, inşa tarihleri ve kültler gibi çeşitli alt başlıklar altında yorumlanması ile bir takım sonuçlara ulaşılmış, bu sonuçlar ise çalınmanın daha sağlıklı kavranılması adına, istatistiki veriler halinde tablolar ve grafikler ile birlikte sunulmuştur.