Section 3

Objectives

Compare point-source pollution

Water Pollution
and nonpoint-source pollution.
You might think that you can tell if a body of water is polluted by the way that the
Classify water pollutants by water looks or smells, but sometimes you can’t. There are many different forms
five types. of water pollution. Water pollution is the introduction of chemical, physical, or
biological agents into water that degrade water quality and harm the organisms
Explain why groundwater that depend on the water. Almost all of the ways that we use water contribute
pollution is difficult to clean up. to water pollution. However, the two underlying causes of water pollution are
industrialization and rapid human population growth.
Describe the major sources of In the last 30 years, developed countries have made great strides in cleaning up
ocean pollution, and explain many polluted water supplies. Despite this progress, some water is still dangerously
the effects of pollution on polluted in the United States and in other countries. In developing parts of the
ecosystems. world, water pollution is a big problem. Industry is usually not the major cause of
water pollution in developing countries. Often, the only water available for drinking
Describe six major laws in these countries is polluted with sewage and agricultural runoff, which can spread
designed to improve water waterborne diseases. To prevent water pollution, people must understand where
quality in the United States. pollutants come from and have access to adequate sanitation facilities. Water
pollution comes from two types of sources: point and nonpoint sources.

Key Terms Point-Source Pollution

water pollution
When you think of water pollution, you probably think of a single source,
point-source pollution
such as a factory, a wastewater treatment plant, or a leaking oil tanker.
nonpoint-source pollution These are all examples of point-source pollution, which is pollution
wastewater discharged from a single source. Figure 3.1 lists some additional examples
artificial eutrophication of point-source pollution. Point-source pollution can often be identified
thermal pollution and traced to a source. But even when the source of the pollution is
biomagnification known, enforcing cleanup may be difficult.

Figure 3.1
point-source Pollution
leaking septic-tank systems

leaking storage lagoons for polluted

waste

unlined landfills

leaking underground storage tanks

that contain chemicals or fuels such as
gasoline
©Thomas Del Brase/Photodisc/Getty Images

polluted water from abandoned and active

mines

water discharged by industries

Point-Source Pollution Point-source pollution comes from a single, easily identifiable
public and industrial waste­water source. In this photo, the waste from an iron mine is being stored in a pond.
treatment plants

284 Unit 4: Water, Air, and Land

 Nonpoint-Source Pollution Figure 3.2
Nonpoint-source pollution , also known as runoff pollution, comes Nonpoint Sources of
from many different sources that are often difficult to identify. Pollution
Figure 3.2 shows common sources of nonpoint pollutants. Other
chemicals added to road surfaces (salt and
sources might include road salt in northern climates, soil eroded
other de-icing agents)
from cleared land, or acid drainage from mine tailings. If any land
surface in a watershed is polluted, runoff from a rainstorm can water runoff from city and suburban streets
carry the pollution into a nearby river, stream, or lake. Figure 3.3 that may contain oil, gasoline, animal feces,
illustrates some sources of nonpoint pollution. and litter
Because nonpoint pollutants can enter bodies of water in many pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizer from
different ways, they are extremely difficult to regulate and control. residential lawns, golf courses, and farmland
The accumulation of small amounts of water pollution from many
feces and agricultural chemicals from
sources is a major issue—according to the EPA, nonpoint sources
livestock feedlots
remain the largest source of water quality problems in the United
States. Controlling nonpoint sources of pollution depends to a precipitation containing air pollutants
great extent on public awareness of the effects of activities such as soil runoff from farms and construction sites
spraying lawn chemicals and using storm drains to dispose of used
motor oil. oil and gasoline from personal watercraft

Figure 3.3

Nonpoint-Source Pollution
Examples of nonpoint-source pollution include livestock polluting water holes that can flow
into streams and reservoirs, oil on a street, which can wash into storm sewers and then drain
into waterways, and thousands of watercraft, which can leak gasoline and oil.
(l) ©David Hosking/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (tr) ©Gary Braasch/Corbis; (br) ©Corbis

Chapter 11: Water 285

 figure 3.4
Pollutant Types and Sources
Type of pollutant Agent Major sources

Pathogens disease-causing organisms, such as bacteria, mostly nonpoint sources: sewage or animal feces,
viruses, protozoa, and parasitic worms livestock feedlots, and poultry farms; sewage from
overburdened wastewater treatment plants
Organic matter animal and plant matter remains, feces, food mostly nonpoint sources
waste, and debris from food-processing plants
Organic chemicals pesticides, fertilizers, plastics, detergents, mostly nonpoint sources: farms, lawns, golf courses,
gasoline and oil, and other materials made from roads, wastewater, unlined landfills, and leaking
Connect petroleum
to HISTORY underground storage tanks
Inorganic chemicals acids, bases, salts, and industrial chemicals point sources and nonpoint sources: industrial waste,
road surfaces, wastewater, and polluted precipitation
Heavy metals lead, mercury, cadmium, and arsenic point sources and nonpoint sources: industrial
discharge, unlined landfills, some household chemicals,
and mining processes; heavy metals also occur
naturally in some groundwater
Physical agents heat and suspended solids point sources and nonpoint sources: heat from
industrial processes and suspended solids from
soil erosion

Connect to HISTORY Principal Water Pollutants

Cryptosporidium Outbreak There are many different kinds of water pollutants, both natural and
In 1993, a pathogen called man-made. Figure 3.4 lists some common pollutants and some of the
Cryptosporidium parvum contaminated sources of each. Agriculture, forestry, grazing, septic systems, recreational
the municipal water supply of boating, industry, urban runoff, construction, physical changes to stream
Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The waterborne channels, and habitat degradation can all be sources of pollution.
parasite caused more than 100 deaths,
and 400,000 people experienced
a flulike illness. Cryptosporidium is Wastewater
found in animal feces, but the parasite Do you know where water goes after it flows down the drain in a sink?
usually occurs in low levels in water In urban areas, the water usually flows through a series of sewage pipes
supplies. The outbreak in Milwaukee
that carry it—and all the other wastewater in your community—to a
was probably caused by an unusual
wastewater treatment plant. Wastewater is water that contains waste from
combination of heavy rainfall and
homes or industry. There, water is filtered and treated to make the water
agricultural runoff that overburdened
clean enough to return to a river, lake, or the oceans. In many rural areas,
the city’s water treatment plants.
homes may have individual septic systems, or in some countries, no
treatment at all.

FieldStudy
Go to Appendix B to find the field study Treating Wastewater
Sources of Water Pollution Figure 3.5 illustrates a typical municipal wastewater treatment process.
Most wastewater from homes contains biodegradable material, like pa-
per, soap, or body wastes that can be broken down by living organisms.

286 Unit 4: Water, Air, and Land

 But wastewater treatment plants may not remove all of the harmful sub-
stances in water. Some household and industrial wastewater and some
storm-water runoff contain toxic substances that cannot be removed by
standard methods of treatment.

Sewage Sludge
The solid material that remains after wastewater treatment is sewage
sludge. When sludge contains dangerous concentrations of toxic chemi- Check for Understanding
cals, it must be disposed of as hazardous waste. The sludge is often incin- Explain Why is it so expensive to
erated, and then the ash is buried in a secure landfill. dispose of sewage sludge?
If the toxicity of sludge can be reduced to safe levels, sludge can be
used as a fertilizer or combined with clay to make bricks for buildings.

Figure 3.5

Wastewater Treatment Process

PRIMARY TREATMENT
Filtration Wastewater is passed through
a large screen to remove solid objects.
First Settling Tank Wastewater is sent into a
large tank, where smaller particles sink to the
bottom and form sewer sludge. The sludge is
removed from the water.

SECONDARY TREATMENT
Aeration Tank Wastewater is mixed with oxygen and bacteria.
The bacteria use the oxygen and feed on the wastes.
Second Settling Tank Bacteria grown in the aeration tank, as
well as other solid wastes, are removed in the form of sludge.

    hlorination Chlorine is added to disinfect the water

C
before it is released into a stream, lake, or ocean.

Chapter 11: Water 287

QUICKLAB Artificial Eutrophication
Measuring Dissolved Oxygen Most natural nutrients in water come from organic matter, such as leaves
Procedure and animal waste. They are broken down into mineral nutrients by de-
1. Start with three water samples. composers such as bacteria and fungi. These nutrients flow downstream
QUICKLAB
One water sample should be tap or settle to the bottom in a process called sedimentation. Nutrients are an
water from a faucet without an essential part of any aquatic ecosystem; too many nutrients can disrupt
aerator. Leave some air space at an ecosystem. When lakes and slow-moving streams contain an abun-
the top of the bottle. One sample
dance of nutrients, they are eutrophic (yoo TROH fik).
should be collected by submersing
the container completely Eutrophication can be a natural process. When organic matter builds
underwater in a larger container, up in a body of water, it will begin to decay and decompose. The process
allowing all air to escape from the of decomposition uses up oxygen. As oxygen levels decrease, the types of
bottle. Put the lid on the container organisms that live in the water change over time. For example, as a body
while it is still underwater. The third of water becomes eutrophic, plants take root in the nutrient-rich sediment
sample should be water that has at the bottom. As more plants grow, the shallow waters begin to fill in.
been boiled and allowed to cool. Eventually, the body of water becomes a swamp or marsh.
2. Using a dissolved-oxygen (DO) test Eutrophication is accelerated when inorganic plant nutrients, such
kit or electronic DO probe, test the as phosphorus and nitrogen, enter the water from sewage and fertilizer
second and third water samples.
runoff. This is referred to as artificial eutrophication. Fertilizer from farms,
Record your measurements.
lawns, and gardens is the largest source of nutrients that cause artificial
3. Tighten the lid on the first sample.
eutrophication. Phosphates in some laundry and dishwashing detergents
Vigorously shake the sample for one
are another major cause of eutrophication. Phosphorus is a nutrient that
minute. Remove and then replace
can cause the excessive growth of algae. In bodies of water polluted by
the lid. Repeat. Uncap the jar quickly
and test the sample. Record.
phosphorus, algae can form large floating mats, called algal blooms,
as shown in Figure 3.6. As the algae die and decompose, most of the
Analysis dissolved oxygen is used and fish and other organisms suffocate in the
1. Which sample had the highest oxygen-depleted water.
dissolved oxygen level? Which had
the lowest level?
2. What effect do rapids and waterfalls Figure 3.6
have on the levels of dissolved Artificial Eutrophication In an effort to limit artificial eutrophication, some states
oxygen in a stream? What effect have either banned phosphate detergents or limited the amount of phosphates in
would thermal pollution have? detergents.

(inset) ©Getty Images; (br) ©Nick Hawkes/Ecoscene/Corbis

288 Unit 4: Water, Air, and Land

 Figure 3.7

Thermal Pollution Fish kills, such

as this one in Brazil, can result from
thermal pollution.

Thermal Pollution Connect to CHEMISTRY

If you look at Figure 3.7, you might assume that a toxic chemical caused
the massive fish kill in the photo. But the fish were not killed by a
chemical spill—they died because of thermal pollution. When the tem-
perature of a body of water, such as a lake or stream, increases, thermal
pollution can result. Thermal pollution can occur when power plants and
other industries use water in their cooling systems and then discharge the
warm water into a lake or river.
Connect to CHEMISTRY
Thermal pollution can cause large fish kills if the discharged water
is too warm for the fish to survive. But most thermal pollution is more Dissolved Oxygen
subtle. If the temperature of a body of water rises even a few degrees, the Sufficient levels of dissolved oxygen
amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) in the water decreases significantly. As are critical to the health of aquatic
communities. Gaseous oxygen
oxygen levels drop, aquatic organisms may suffocate and die. If the flow
enters water by diffusion from the
of warm water into a lake or stream is constant, it may cause the total
surrounding air, as a byproduct of
disruption of an aquatic ecosystem.
photosynthesis, and as a result of the
rapid movement (aeration) of water.
Groundwater Pollution The amount of oxygen that water can
hold is determined by the water’s
Pollutants usually enter groundwater when polluted surface water temperature, pressure, and salinity.
percolates down from the Earth’s surface. Any pollution of the surface Slow-moving water tends to have
water in an area can affect the groundwater. Pesticides, herbicides, low levels of dissolved oxygen, while
chemical fertilizers, and petroleum products are common groundwater rapidly flowing streams have higher
pollutants. Leaking underground storage tanks are another major levels. Artificial eutrophication and
©Antonio Scorza/AFP/Getty Images

source of groundwater pollution. It is estimated that there are millions thermal pollution also reduce levels
of underground storage tanks in the United States. Most of the storage of dissolved oxygen. When dissolved
tanks—located beneath gas stations, farms, and homes—hold petro- oxygen levels remain below 2 mg/L
leum products, such as gasoline and heating fuel. As these underground for several hours, many fish and other
storage tanks age, they may develop leaks, which allow pollutants to organisms suffocate, and massive
seep into the soil and groundwater. fish kills can result.

Chapter 11: Water 289

Connect to MATH The location of aging underground storage tanks is not always known,
so the tanks often cannot be repaired or replaced until after they have
Parts per Million leaked enough pollutants to be located. Modern underground storage
Water contamination is often measured
tanks are contained in concrete and have many features to prevent leaks.
in parts per million (ppm). If the
Other sources of groundwater pollution include septic tanks, unlined
concentration of a pollutant is 5 ppm,
landfills, and industrial wastewater lagoons, as shown in Figure 3.8.
there are 5 parts of the pollutant
in 1 million parts of water. If the
concentration of gasoline is 3 ppm in Cleaning Up Groundwater Pollution
650,000 L of water, how many liters of
Groundwater pollution is one of the most challenging environmental
gasoline are in the water?
problems that the world faces. As you have learned, groundwater re-
charges very slowly. The process for some aquifers to recycle water and
purge contaminants can take hundreds or thousands of years. Ground-
water is also difficult to decontaminate because the water is dispersed
throughout large areas of rock and sand. Pollution can cling to the rock
and soil, so, even if all of the water in an aquifer were pumped out and
replaced with clean water, it would become recontaminated. In 2011, the
U.S. government stopped construction of a major oil pipeline because of
concerns about polluting the giant Ogallala aquifer.

Figure 3.8

Sources of Groundwater Pollution This diagram shows some of the major sources
of groundwater pollution. Runoff and percolation transport contaminants to the groundwater.

290 Unit 4: Water, Air, and Land

 Figure 3.9

Major North American Oil Spills Major North American Oil Spills

1 Nantucket, 6 Prince William

1
Massachusetts, Sound, Alaska,
2
ECOFACT
1976 1989

6
3 2 Puerto Rico, 7 Caribbean Sea,
Location of Spill

1978 1975
4

1 3 3 Atlantic Ocean, 8 Bay of

5
1988 Campeche,
6
1979
5
9 4 Tu xpan, Mexico,
7 4 7 1996
8
2 9 9 Gulf of Mexico,
2010
8 5 Galveston Bay,
Texas, 1979
9

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 5 million

Barrels of Oil Spilled (in thousands)

Ocean Pollution ECOFACT

Pollutants are often dumped directly into the oceans. For example, Cruise Ship Discharges
ships can legally dump wastewater and garbage overboard in some In one year, ships dump almost 7 billion
parts of the ocean. But at least 85 percent of ocean pollution—including kilograms of trash into the oceans.
pollutants such as oil, toxic wastes, and medical wastes—comes from About 75 percent of all ship waste
activ­ities on land. If polluted runoff enters rivers, the rivers may carry it comes from cruise ships. According to
most international law, cruise ships are
to the ocean. Most activities that pollute oceans occur near the coasts,
allowed to dump non-plastic waste—
where much of the world’s human population lives. Sensitive coastal
including untreated sewage—into the
ecosystems, such as coral reefs, estuaries, and coastal marshes, are the
oceans. Increasing public pressure
most affected by pollution. In many coastal areas, dead zones exist,
has begun to cause the cruise-ship
where excess nutrients from runoff have caused low oxygen levels.
industry to change this practice,
however.
Oil Spills
Oil spills can occur on land or in water, but are most infamous in oceans.
Disasters such as the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska and the 2010
Deepwater Horizon spill, illustrated in Figure 3.9 make front-page news
around the world. Each year, approximately 37 million gallons of oil from
tanker accidents are spilled into the oceans. The Deepwater Horizon
disaster was notable because of the amount of oil spilled, the great depth
at which the spill occurred, and the use of dispersants to keep oil from
reaching the coasts.
Oil spills can have dramatic ecological effects, but are not the only
source of oil pollution in the oceans. Most of the oil that pollutes the
oceans comes from nonpoint sources on land. Every year, almost 10 Check for Understanding
times the amount of oil spilled by tankers enters the ocean from land. Explain How can limiting nonpoint
Avoiding and responding to all sources of oil pollution are important for sources of oil pollution help to keep the
protecting ocean ecosystems. oceans clean?

Chapter 11: Water 291

Figure 3.10 Water Pollution and Ecosystems
Biomagnification The accumulation of Water pollution can cause immediate damage to an ecosystem. For
pollutants at successive levels of the food example, toxic chemicals spilled directly into a river can kill nearly
chain is called biomagnification. all living things for kilometers downstream. But the effects of water
pollution can be even more far reaching. Many pollutants accumu-
late in the environment because they do not decompose quickly and
can threaten entire ecosystems.
Consider a river ecosystem. Soil tainted with pesticides washes
into the river and settles to the bottom. Some of the pesticides enter
and are stored in the tissues of bottom-dwelling organisms, such as
insect larvae and crustaceans. A small fish eats a hundred of these
organisms and in turn, is eaten by a bigger fish. A predatory bird,
such as an eagle, eats 10 big fish. Each organism stores the pesticide
in its tissues and the concentration of the pesticide that is passed
on to the next organism in the food chain increases. This buildup is
called biomagnification. Figure 3.10 shows the biomagnification for the
pesticide DDT, with alarming consequences for organisms at the top
of the food chain. Many U.S. states limit how much fish people can
eat from certain bodies of water because of biomagnification. Scien-
tific evidence also indicates that some chemicals that we might not
think of as pollutants, like caffeine and human medications, can enter
ecosystems and cause health issues for aquatic animals.

Cleaning Up Water Pollution

In 1969, the Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, Ohio, was so polluted
that the river caught on fire as shown in Figure 3.11. This event was
a major factor in the passage of the Clean Water Act of 1972. The
stated purpose of the act was to “restore and maintain the chemi-
cal, physical, and biological integrity of the nation’s waters.” The
goal of the act was to make all surface water clean
Figure 3.11
enough for fishing and swimming by 1983. This goal
Burning River The Cuyahoga River was so polluted with was not achieved, however, much progress has been
petroleum and petroleum byproducts that it caught on fire and made since the act was passed. The percentage of
burned in 1969. lakes and rivers that are fit for swimming and fishing
has increased by about 30 percent, and many states
have passed stricter water-quality standards. Many
toxic metals are now removed from wastewater before
the water is discharged.
The Clean Water Act opened the door for other
water-quality legislation, some of which is described in
Figure 3.12.

The Federal Water Pollution Act of 1972, which was

amended in 2002, was aimed at restoring and maintain-
ing the quality of all U.S. waters. Legislation has improved
©Bettmann/Corbis

water quality in the United States, but the cooperation of

individuals, businesses, and the government will be es-
sential to maintaining a clean water supply in the future.

292 Unit 4: Water, Air, and Land

 Figure 3.12
Federal Laws Designed to Improve Water Quality
in the United States

1972 Clean Water Act (CWA) The CWA set a national goal of making all natural
surface water fit for fishing and swimming by 1983 and banned pollutant discharge
into surface water after 1985. The act also required that metals be removed from
wastewater.

1972 Federal Water Pollution Control Act, amended 2002 The objective of this
act was to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of
U.S. waters.

1975 Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), amended 1996 This act introduced
programs to protect groundwater and surface water from pollution. The act
emphasized sound science and risk-based standards for water quality. The act also
empowered communities in the protection of source water, strengthened public
right-to-know laws, and provided water system infrastructure assistance.

1980 Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability

Act (CERCLA) This act is also known as the Superfund Act. The act made owners,
operators, and customers of hazardous waste sites responsible for the cleanup of
the sites. The act has reduced the pollution of groundwater by toxic substances
leached from hazardous waste dumps.

1987 Water Quality Act This act was written to support state and local efforts
to clean polluted runoff. It also established loan funds to pay for new wastewater
treatment plants and created programs to protect major estuaries.

2000 Oceans Act This act created the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy to
develop recommendations for a new coordinated and comprehensive national
ocean policy.

Section 3 Formative Assessment

Reviewing Main Ideas Critical Thinking
1. Explain why point-source pollution is easier 5. Interpreting Graphics Read the description
to control than nonpoint-source pollution. of biomagnification. Draw a diagram that
shows the biomagnification of a pollutant in
2. Identify the major types of water pollutants.
an ecosystem.
Suggest ways to reduce the levels of each type
of pollutant in a water supply. 6. Applying Ideas What can individuals do to
decrease ocean pollution? Write and illustrate
3. Describe the unique problems of cleaning up
a guide that gives at least three examples.
groundwater pollution.
4. Describe the source of most ocean pollution. Is
it point-source or nonpoint-source pollution?

Chapter 11: Water 293